Chapter 27
Asian Transitions in an Age of Global Change
OUTLINE
I.
Introduction
Vasco da Gama’s voyages into the Indian Ocean opened up trade routes to Asia but had only a
small immediate impact on Asian history. Except in the islands of Southeast Asia, Asian
civilization developed along lines set by its own internal dynamics, not because of European
expansion.
II.
The Asian Trading World and the Coming of the Europeans
A.
Introduction
Vasco da Gama’s initial trip to India revealed that Asian merchants were interested in little
from Europe other than bullion. The Portuguese also discovered that Muslim rivals had
already established themselves within the Asian markets. Another weakness was also
discovered: The Asian and Muslim traders were politically divided.
B.
Bonds of Commerce: The Asian Sea Trading Network, c. 1500
The Asian trading network was composed of three main zones: an Arab zone in the west based
on carpets, tapestry and glass; an Indian zone in the center based on cotton textiles; and a
Chinese zone to the east based on silks, paper, and porcelain. On the fringes of the system lay
Japan, the Southeast Asian islands, and East Africa. The most valued of the raw materials
within the system were spices, which were traded over great distances. Less valuable products
were normally exchanged within each of the subordinate zones. Because much of the trade
was carried along the coasts, it tended to concentrate in certain well-defined ocean straits. The
Portuguese rapidly discovered key geographical features of the trading system, including the
mouth of the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Straits of Malacca. No single power
controlled the Asian trading network, and military force was virtually absent.
C.
Trading Empire: The Portuguese Response to the Encounter at Calicut
The Portuguese rapidly decided that the exportation of bullion to Asian markets was not
desirable and that force could obtain what peaceful trade could not. No Asian fleets were
prepared to defend the trading network against European power. The Portuguese defeated a
combined Egyptian and Indian naval force at Diu in 1509. It was the last Asian attempt to halt
European naval depredations. After 1507, the Portuguese began a program of capturing towns
and building fortifications at strategic points along the commercial network. Such fortified
trading centers included Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, Goa on the western coast of
India, and Malacca on the Malaysian peninsula. The Portuguese sought to establish a
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monopoly over key trade items within the Asian system, particularly spices. In addition to a
trade monopoly over critical commodities, the Portuguese attempted with less success to
license all ships trading in the Indian Ocean.
D.
Portuguese Vulnerability and the Rise of the Dutch and English Trading Empires
The Portuguese were never able to enforce their monopoly schemes. Corruption, lack of
numbers, and resistance among Asian peoples weakened the system. In the 17th century, the
Dutch and English penetrated the Asian trade system. Initially, the Dutch were more
successful. The Dutch captured the Portuguese fort at Malacca and built a new trade post at
Batavia on the island of Java in 1620. The English lost the struggle to dominate the spice
trade and were forced to retreat to India. Like the Portuguese, the Dutch trade empire
consisted of fortified trading centers, warships, and control of the spice trade. More successful
than the Portuguese, the Dutch still abandoned forcible monopolization in favor of peaceful
incorporation into the Asian trade system. The British adopted the Dutch approach to Asian
trade.
E.
Going Ashore: European Tribute Systems in Asia
Once away from the sea, the European military advantage rapidly dissipated. Large Asian
populations minimized the European technological edge. On the Asian islands, however,
Europeans attempted to extend their control inland from the coastal fortifications. On Ceylon
and Java, the Dutch were able to reduce local rulers to subservience. In the 1560s, the Spanish
invaded the northern islands of the Philippines but failed to conquer the more unified southern
island of Mindanao. In cases where Europeans penetrated inland, they permitted indigenous
governments to remain in return for payment of tribute. Tribute was normally calculated in
agricultural products, often produced under conditions of coerced labor.
F.
Spreading the Faith: The Missionary Enterprise in South and Southeast Asia
The spread of Roman Catholicism was part of the Portuguese and Spanish approach to
colonization. Because Islamic missionaries had already appeared in much of Southeast Asia
prior to the European arrival, the Iberian powers enjoyed limited success in converting local
populations. The only region where wholesale conversion occurred was on the northern
islands of the Philippines. Friars sent to convert the indigenous population of the northern
Philippines often served as governing officials. While many Filipinos were technically
converted to Catholicism, they often retained traditional beliefs.
III.
Ming China: A Global Mission Refused
A.
Introduction
The reestablishment of ethnic Chinese rule under the Ming initiated a period of wealth and
power for China, during which it felt little threat from Europe. Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant, led
the armies that overthrew the last of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. In 1368, he declared himself
the first emperor of the Ming dynasty. As the Hongwu emperor, he attempted to remove all
cultural traces of the Mongol period in Chinese history.
B.
Another Scholar-Gentry Revival
The Hongwu emperor restored the social and political dominance of the scholar-gentry. He
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ordered the civil examination system restored. The examinations became more important than
ever before in determining entry into the imperial administration. A tiered system of
examinations determined entry into the various levels of the bureaucracy from prefectural to
imperial. Those who passed the most difficult imperial exams were the most highly respected
of all Chinese.
C.
Reform: Hongwu’s Efforts to Root Out Abuses in Court Politics
Hongwu abolished the post of chief minister and transferred the formidable powers of this
official to the emperor. He instituted public beatings for ministers or bureaucrats found guilty
of corruption. To end court factionalism, the emperor declared that wives could only come
from humble families and sought to limit the influence and numbers of eunuchs. Certain
authors, such as Mencius, were stricken from the imperial exams.
D.
A Return to Scholar-Gentry Social Dominance
Hongwu attempted to support public works to make more lands available to the peasantry and
to reduce labor demands. Imperial reforms were offset by the growing power of regional
landlords, particularly those who belonged to the scholar-gentry. As the gentry began to
control much of the land, the gap between them and the peasantry widened. The Confucian
social hierarchy was reinforced under the influence of the Ming scholars. Women continued
to have subordinate positions in Chinese society. At the court, women continued to exercise
some influence behind the scenes, but most women had little status or respect accorded them.
Avenues for escape from labor in the fields were limited to becoming courtesans or
entertainers.
E.
An Age of Growth: Agriculture, Population, Commerce, and the Arts
During the early period of the Ming dynasty, the commercial prosperity and population
increase that had typified the Tang and Song periods continued. New food crops from the
Americas supported rapid population growth. Both the internal market of China and overseas
connections increased during the early Ming period. As a producer of luxury products,
China’s trade balance with Europe and the rest of Asia was positive. Trade with foreigners
was limited to the ports of Macao and Canton. Despite the growth of trade, most commercial
profits went to the state in taxes or were invested in land. Ming prosperity was reflected in
patronage of the fine arts, which flourished during the dynasty. During this epoch, Chinese
authors introduced the novel to literary genres.
F.
An Age of Expansion: The Zhenghe Expeditions
During the reign of the third Ming emperor, an imperial eunuch, Zhenghe, led seven major
commercial and diplomatic expeditions overseas. The expeditions reached as far away as
Persia, Arabia, and Africa. Despite the adventuresome nature of the voyages, they produced
little of significance. The scholar-gentry argued that the minimal profits did not justify the
expense. The voyages were abandoned in the 1430s.
G.
Chinese Retreat and the Arrival of the Europeans
By 1390, the Chinese had begun to embark on an official policy of isolation from the rest of
the world. As the Chinese withdrew, the Europeans sought greater access to the Middle
Kingdom. Christian missionaries attempted to move from the coastal regions to the imperial
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court. In particular, the Jesuits hoped to convert China by making inroads within the imperial
family. The Jesuits who sought to penetrate the imperial court were aware that scientific and
technological knowledge were more highly prized than religious theology. In the 16th century,
Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall maintained themselves at the court through scientific
contributions. Most members of the imperial bureaucracy remained hostile to external cultural
influences, including the missionaries. When the Ming were overthrown, a few Jesuits were
able to keep their precarious position at the imperial court.
H.
Ming Decline and the Chinese Predicament
By the late 1500s, the Ming were in obvious dynastic decline. Under mediocre rulers, the
more centralized government structure of the Ming foundered. The deterioration of necessary
public works led to widespread famine in China. Despite the problems, the gentry’s
stranglehold on land was tightened. The Ming bureaucracy was unable to halt internal
disorder or Japanese piracy along the coast. Rebel forces overthrew the last Ming emperor in
1644.
IV.
Fending Off the West: Japan’s Reunification and the First Challenge
A.
Introduction
The centralization of Japan in the 16th century resulted in the isolation of Japan from outside
contacts. Centralization began when Nobunaga, one of the regional daimyo lords, successfully
unified central Honshu prior to his assassination in 1582. Nobunaga deposed the last of the
Ashikaga shoguns in 1573. Nobunaga’s most successful general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi
continued to break the power of other daimyos. By 1590, he became the military overlord of
a united Japan. Campaigns launched against Korea were less successful. Following
Hideyoshi’s death in 1598, the position of military overlord was taken by Tokugawa Ieyasu.
In 1603, the emperor granted Ieyasu the title of shogun. The new shogun curtailed daimyo
independence and imposed political unity.
B.
Dealing With the European Challenge
After 1543, Europeans attempted to enlarge their presence in Japan. European traders and
missionaries brought cultural change and firearms to the island. The importation of modern
weapons revolutionized the civil struggles among the daimyos. Increased commercial contact
also drew the Japanese into wider experience in the Asian trade system. Particularly during
the period of Nobunaga’s dominance, Christianity spread in Japan. Christian acceptance
began to diminish following Nobunaga’s assassination. Alarmed by the potential threat to the
Japanese social hierarchy, Hideyoshi proved less amenable to the spread of Christianity.
C.
Japan’s Self-Imposed Isolation
Official measures to halt foreign activities in Japan commenced in the 1580s. By the 1590s,
Hideyoshi began active persecution of Christians. Persecution continued during the
Tokugawa shogunate, and the religion was banned totally in 1614. Christianity was
successfully reduced to the status of a minor underground faith. Ieyasu sought even greater
isolation from European cultural influences. By the 1640s, foreign contact was limited to a
few Dutch and Chinese ships permitted to dock at the port of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay.
Western books were banned. By the 18th century, even Confucianism began to be replaced by
the school of National Learning. The school placed greatest emphasis on indigenous Japanese
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culture. Members of the Japanese elite, however, continued to keep track of Western
innovations through the Dutch community at Deshima.
V.
Global Connections: An Age of Eurasian Closure
The Europeans developed several new routes for the Asian trade network, built trading posts
and fortifications, and introduced the principles of sea warfare, which was later abandoned in
favor of more peaceful approaches to controlling trade. There were relatively few cultural
exchanges. Europeans did introduce New World crops into Asia after 1600, but little else of
value was disseminated from one culture to the other. In China and Japan, the West’s
introduction in the early modern period was brief and largely inconsequential. But China’s
retreat from expansion and Japan’s isolation caused both to fail to keep pace with European
development, despite their continued strengths.
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TIMELINE
Insert the following events into the timeline. This should help you to compare important historical
events chronologically.
Tokugawa shogunate established
Hideyoshi unifies Japan
Zhu Yuanzhang proclaims Ming dynasty
end of Ming dynasty
Portuguese conquest of Goa
Dutch East India Company establishes Batavia
┌─── 1368
│
├─── 1510
│
├─── 1590
│
├─── 1603
│
├─── 1620
│
└─── 1644
TERMS, PEOPLE, EVENTS
The following terms, people, and events are important to your understanding of the chapter. Define
each one.
Asian sea-trading network
Ormuz
Dutch trading empire
Mindanao
Hongwu
Zhenghe expeditions
Chongzhen
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Deshima
caravels
Malacca
Treaty of Gijanti
Francis Xavier
Macao
Matteo Ricci
Manchus
Tokugawa Ieyasu
school of National Learning
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Goa
Batavia
Luzon
Robert Di Nobili
Canton
Adam Schall
Nobunaga
Edo
MAP EXERCISE
The following exercise is intended to clarify the geophysical environment and the spatial relationships
among the important objects and places mentioned in the chapter. Locate the following places on the
map.
Ming China
Batavia
Goa
Malacca
Ceylon
Macao
Japan
Ormuz
Canton
The text divides the Asian trade network into three parts. Is it possible to divide the network
into northern and southern sectors? In which were the Europeans most successful? How does
this relate to the major civilized empires?
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MAKING CONNECTIONS
The following questions are intended to emphasize important ideas within the chapter.
1.
What was the nature of the Asian sea-trading network prior to the arrival of the Portuguese?
2.
What did the Portuguese discover at Calicut? How did they respond?
3.
How were the Dutch able to displace the Portuguese? How did their participation in the Asian
trading network differ from their Portuguese predecessors?
4.
Where did the Europeans establish tribute systems?
5.
How successful were European missionary efforts by the early 1600s?
6.
How did the Ming restore the traditional Chinese forms of government?
7.
Why did the Chinese withdraw from commercial expansion?
8.
What steps led to the restoration of the Japanese shogunate?
9.
Why did the Japanese resort to isolation in the face of European expansion?
PUTTING LARGER CONCEPTS TOGETHER
The following questions test your ability to summarize the major conclusions of the chapter.
1.
Compare and contrast the European intrusion into the African commercial system with the
European entry into the Asian trade network.
2.
In what sense can it be said that Europe had an impact on Asian civilization during the period of
early modern Western expansion? In what ways did Asia remain immune to European influence?
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SELF-TEST OF FACTUAL INFORMATION
1.
Europeans used their sea power to control commerce in all the following products EXCEPT
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
At what market did the Europeans first discover that they possessed little of value in the markets
of the Eastern sea-trading network?
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
The entire network was dominated by Arab merchants, who worked to establish a monopoly.
The Chinese, as a result of their naval superiority, were able to secure military dominance.
There was no central control, and force was generally absent.
The system functioned only so long as it was administered by the Ottoman Empire.
Despite having captured Malacca, why did the Dutch move their trading headquarters to Batavia?
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
Trade within the network was limited to regional exchange.
The islands on the periphery of the major empires supplied raw materials to the empires.
The island regions of Southeast Asia were never incorporated into the commercial system.
Manufactured items were not part of the trade network.
Which of the following statements about the organization of the Asian sea-trading network is
most accurate?
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
Constantinople
Canton
Calicut
Deshima
Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the nature of the Asian sea-trading
network?
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
pepper.
cinnamon.
oregano.
nutmeg.
Malacca was captured by the Mughal Empire.
Malacca was destroyed during the monsoon season of 1665.
Batavia was closer to the sources of spice production.
Batavia was the capital of the kingdom of Siam.
What Jesuit missionary was responsible for creating the strategy of converting Hindu elites as a
means of achieving mass conversions?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Francis Xavier
Robert Di Nobili
Matteo Ricci
Adam Schall
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7.
Which of the following reforms was introduced by the first Ming emperor?
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
Why did the Chinese abandon the commercial voyages of the Zhenghe expeditions?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
Family influence in the selection of men to the Chinese bureaucracy was eliminated.
The status of women was enhanced.
The position of the scholar-gentry within the bureaucracy was restored.
The civil service examination system was abolished.
Many of the ships were lost as a result of poor ship design and inadequate sailing technique.
The size of the fleets were limited, so they could not compete with the Europeans.
There was little of value for the Chinese to import, and the voyages were expensive.
The trade with foreign regions produced a negative balance of trade that drained China of its
scarce supply of bullion.
Which of the following was NOT a policy imposed as a result of Japanese isolationism in the 17th
century?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Christianity was banned and Christians were persecuted.
Foreign traders were confined to the island of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay.
Neo-Confucian philosophy gave way to the influence of the school of National Learning.
The Japanese elite abandoned all contact with Western learning and technological advance.
10. Which of the following was responsible for the reestablishment of the shogunate in Japan?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
Nobunaga
Tokugawa Ieyasu
Hiaru Ashikaga
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