2009
Luidolf Bosch
THE INEVITABLE ROLE OF SPIRITUALITY IN THE
WORKPLACE
Luidolf Bosch (D. sc. agr.)
Abstract
It is a telling fact that in the literature on the issue of leadership in management has become a central
focus of concern in the nexus of contemporary management studies. “Leaders are beginning to understand
more fully the full impact that their behavior has on others, on organizations and the sustainability of the
planet”. The purpose of this study is to use qualitative rather than quantitative methods and procedures
to explore this subject. Whilst quantitative measure have been used in the literature and research, yet a
qualitative approach allows the more subjective and introspective aspects to be communicated in research
and analysis.
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Introduction
Contemporary management theory and
practice has in recent years taken cognizance
of a new trajectory in management and
workplace theoretical perspectives. This
refers to the perceived increasing importance
of research into the various aspects and
dimensions of spirituality in the business
world and the workplace. Issues such as
learning and leadership in the workplace
has been enhanced and expanded upon by
numerous research studies, which have been
particularly focused on the interrelationships
between aspects of spirituality and the
meaning of work. (Howard, 2002) As
Howard (2002) states:” Recently, the term
spirituality has gained greater currency in
organization and management development
circles” (p.230). Therefore, the study of
spirituality in the workplace is no longer
seen as a peripheral concern in management
praxis but rather as a subject that can
throw considerable light and understanding
on managerial issues and the process of
leadership, as well as on learning processes
in the workplace and organization.
Furthermore, the study of spirituality has
begun to be seen as an indispensable part
of managerial and organizational success.
Howard (2002) goes on to the state that there
is an “…explosion of interest in spirituality
as a new dimension of management
“(Howard, 2002, p. 230). On the other hand,
that problematic of this area of research
must also be borne in mind. The study of
workplace spirituality is a provocative and
sensitive issue that needs to be studied indepth and understood in terms of its impact,
relevance and practical significance in the
working environment.
This paper will provide an overview of
the various aspects and components of this
study and will deal briefly with the theoretical
as well as practical issues surrounding the
topic of spirituality in the workplace.
Background
In essence, workers are an integral
part to the part of a management system.
Thus, a leader’s decisions or actions in the
workplace might positively or negatively
impact a worker’s living conditions, health,
culture, and personality. Theorists in the
field have realized that in order to maximize
a leaders’ decision-making effectiveness in
organizations, leaders need to evaluate and
be aware of the perceptions of workers as
well as their own perceptions of their inner
spirit, moral values, and desires. Essential to
the background on any study on spirituality
in the workplace is that, in the context
of spiritual leadership, positive attitudes
and behaviors might contribute to healthy
organizations.
A central aspect that underlies this
topic is the meaning of spirituality and its
significance in terms of business. The terms
business and spirituality have generally in
the past been seen to refer to very different
and even opposed worldviews. However,
as this thesis will illustrate, there have been
an increasing number of studies and reports
dealing with the intersection between
business and spirituality, which is the focus
of the present thesis.
In terms of a rather simplistic definition
of the term spirituality, this concept can be
seen as a non-rational aspect of existential
life which includes emotions, feelings
and intellectual components that provide
“meaning” to the life – world of the
individual. While it is strictly outside the
ambit of this thesis to discuss the immense
theological and philosophical dimensions of
the meaning of spirituality, yet it is important
to understand this need for meaning and
signification that spirituality often provides
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Luidolf Bosch
in the life of an individual, and by implication
the worker, as being a central aspect to the
background to this study. Explanations of
spirituality as a human need necessary for
aspects of advancement and learning can
also refer to the expression of the hierarchy
of human needs, as discussed by Maslow
(1970).
The study of spirituality in the
workplace is also an indicator of the
movement in Western thought since the
middle of the Twentieth Century away from
the dominance of pure materialism and
towards a realization in managerial theory
and other discourses which emphasize the
importance of an “…unseen order of things
behind the veil of materialism” (Howard,
2002, p. 321) . The distinction is also made
between spirituality per se and religion. It is
from this basis that managerial leadership and
workplace spirituality can be approached.
Furthermore as Moxley (2000) and
others have noted, the concept of spirituality
is seen to interpenetrate all areas and aspects
of life and is also an aspect that has been
ascertained as having a profound effect on
human interaction and communication. This
in turn implies that this social, psychological
and metaphysical reality will have an affect
in the workplace and needs to be taken into
account in research on management aspects,
such as learning and staff interaction.
In terms of the above points, spirituality
has obvious implications for a number of
central managerial and leadership criteria
that will be explored in this study; this refers
to aspects of leadership and management
such as morality, stress, and unawareness
of human welfare. An example of this
aspect is that the literature on organizational
and management learning has begun to
take greater cognizance of the impact and
significance of spirituality in varies aspects
relating to management in the workplace.
(Howard, 2002, p. 234)
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Problem Statement
The problem that forms the foundational
trajectory of the research on spirituality in
the workplace is reflected in statistics, report
and studies which indicate that there is a loss
of meaning and a high rate of dissatisfaction
among workers in America. For example,
Fairholm, (1996) finds that one-fourth of
workers in America are highly dissatisfied
with their work. Central to this sense of
ennui and dissatisfaction is the general loss
of faith and direction in some determining
and meaningful stratum of reality in the
post-capitalist society as a whole. Many
contemporary theorists have realized that
despite the postmodern references to a
deconstruction of hegemonies and a suspicion
of master narratives (Howard 2002) there is
strong evidence from surveys and research
that most individuals in society are in search
of spiritual certainties. (Howard 2002)
If one translates these larger societal issue
and concerns to the level of the individual
in the workplace and the problems of
management and business, then one finds
these issues represented in aspects such
as ethical scandals, pressure, and lack of
compassion and love from leaders.
This lack of spiritual cohesion and a
concomitant sense of shared and unified
morality can be seen fraud and corruption in
business. For example, Grant (2003) stated
that fraud in big corporations such as Enron,
WorldCom, Global Crossing, and Adelphia
caused the stock market crash in October
2002 and led to an elimination of employee
retirement accounts. Conner and Douglas
(2005) showed that stress can negatively
affect the effectiveness of organizations by
increasing the number of absentees, turnover,
and unpredictable behaviors.
This qualitative research study will
explore managers’ perspectives in three
problem areas; namely, morality, stress,
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and lack of compassion and love; and
discover if spiritual practices help them to
lessen these problems. While this study is
aimed at contributing towards the general
assessment and understanding and relating
to the general managerial population and
spirituality, the present study is aimed at a
specific section of that population within
a restricted geographical area. However,
it is hoped that the study of this selected
population will provide results and data that
may be tested against other samples and
population groups.
Purpose of this study
It is a telling fact that in the literature
on the issue of leadership in management
has become a central focus of concern in
the nexus of contemporary management
studies. As Howard (2002) states: “Leaders
are beginning to understand more fully the
full impact that their behavior has on others,
on organizations and the sustainability of
the planet” ( Howard, 2002, p, 236). The
purpose of this study is to use qualitative
rather then quantitative methods and
procedures to explore this subject. While
quantitative measure have been used in the
literature and research ( Heaton et al 2004)
, yet a qualitative approach allows the more
subjective and introspective aspects to be
communicated in research and analysis.
However, the central reason for using
the qualitative approach is that is it more
intrinsically suited to the exploration
of spirituality as a provides insight into
perceptions and feelings that are nonmaterialistic and non-rational. The use of
more rational, objectivist and qualitative
measure was not deemed suitable to the
specific areas of concern of this research:
namely
to explore the perspective
of managers on morality, stress, and
unawareness of human welfare, and to
discover the impact of spiritual practices
such as mindful meditation, detachment
from expectations, and compassion and love
on those three areas.
In more practical terms the scope of
this study will be comprised of face-toface interviews with twenty managerial
professionals in commercial aviation services
within the western region of Washington
State. The purpose of the interview is to
establish these participants’ perspectives on
moral values. The interview also focuses
on determining the extent to which their
spirituality drives their decision-making
values and helps them to efficiently connect
with people in organizations. The elements or
central variables that will be used include the
concepts of mindful meditation, detachment
from expectations, or compassion and love.
In scientific methodological terms, there
are some cogent reasons for this approach
to the subject of spirituality. There are
two central approaches that are most
commonly employed in management and
business research. “Two terms often used
to describe the major research approaches
to management or organizational research
is quantitative and qualitative. Other terms
used include functionalist, objectivist or
positivist for the former and interpretivist
or subjectivist to describe the latter…”
(RESEARCH AND PARADIGMS) It is
usually the case that more emphasis is placed
on the quantitative approach and the focus
on “objective” techniques of data collection
and synthesis. A qualitative research model
on the other hand places focus on subjective
experiences, perceptions and knowledge
in order to shed light on managerial and
leadership roles and actions. This approach is
therefore more inclined towards sources and
data and knowledge that are “… conditioned
by personal mental characteristics or states,
and preferring language and description.”
(RESEARCH AND PARADIGMS)
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The study of perceptions and
preconceptions of management and
management research play an important
role in the choice of method and research.
In the case of the present study, the focus
in on the perceptions of managers in terms
of experiential feeling states and inner
perceptions as they relate to external actions,
decisions and affects in the workplace. An
approach that will develop around personal
and intimate interviews with the participants
will therefore necessitate methodological
criteria that are suitable to qualitative rather
than quantitative processes.
A cardinal element that has been taken
into account is the fact that in quantitative
models of research, “…interdependencies
among variables are far more difficult to
model and to measure than dependencies.”
(Mugler) This has led many researchers to
realize that quantitative research methods
have “… brought about more insight into
what was measurable instead of what
was important.” (Mugler) This point has
been taken into account in the choice of
methodology and this study will emphasize
the “interdependencies” in terms of the focus
on moral and social perceptions rather than”
facts”; making the qualitative approach a
more appropriate point of departure.
This methodological stance also applies
to the variables that need to be identified and
established in this study. These variables
include the following general aspects.
Firstly, the degree to which the interviewees
understand and are familiar with the three
central concepts that are being “measured”.
This refers to the three main experiential
and theoretical areas of mindful meditation,
detachment and compassion and love. The
central variable of detachment, for example,
has a large number of subcategories and
conceptual element that also become variables
in the interview situation and in subsequent
analysis and response data. These elements
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are in turn related to the perceptions of the
manager’s interviews towards the aspects
of stress, morality and compassion in the
workplace and in leadership situations.
Furthermore, an element that is also
borne in mind in the research design is the
fact that a concept such as detachment is
strictly foreign to the Western manager in
its spiritual sense and therefore the research
design will need to accommodate the issue
of the correct perception and understanding
of the three main spiritual variables.1 These
variables will in turn be related to the sites
of moral and ethical perception expressed by
the interviewees and particularly to the way
that they perceive these main variables in
terms of the affect they have on managerial
decision, actions and approach. This will
also lead to many interrogatives forms of
questioning that will attempt to elicit the
responses of the participants that can be
formalized and logically interpreted.
Significance of the study
In the first instance, the significance
of this study builds on the results and the
potential for further study that have been
revealed in contemporary research. For
examples, Fairholm‘s study (1996) indicated
that nearly 85% of participants replied yes
in response to the question of whether or
not leaders’ spirituality influenced their
organizations. Furthermore Novak (1996)
suggested that spirituality is needed for
business life. In this regard Cavanagh
(1999) elaborated, “[Spirituality] helps the
business person to become more centered on
the important things in life: God, family, and
a physical world that can be passed on to our
children” (p. 193). Garcia-Zamor (2003)
has observed the awakening of realizing
1
The term ‘ detachment” will be extensively analyzed and discussed in terms of its Buddhist and Eastern derivations and also
in terms of its Western applicability.
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the needs of spirituality in the workplace.
In terms of the link between morality with
spirituality, Thompson (2004) has stated,
“Spiritually engaged leadership can build
moral solidarity by enabling the integration
of intellectual, affective, material, and social
elements of collective morality” (p. 32).
There have also been instances of larger
companies and corporations realizing the
significance of these studies. For instance
Boeing, AT & T, and Ford have developed
spiritual training for their executives.
The present study intends to contribute
to the growing research into this subject
area. It intends to do so by focusing in
three central areas that have been identified
as having significance and ramifications
for managerial leadership as well as other
business practices. These refer to the spiritual
practice of mindful mediation, which has
been found to be helpful in terms of making
managers aware of the use of “present
time” and immediate reality. Secondly,
the concept of detachment is a cardinal
and central principle element in the link
between spirituality and positive learning
and action. In essence detachment is an
experiential spiritual mode of understanding
which removes the barriers that separate
“self” or ego from reality and the world.
This is usually accomplished through
forms of mediation leading to insight or, in
Buddhist terms, “enlightenment” or Satori.
In this process the perceiver in the spiritual
experience of detachment become more
aware of others and less distracted by “habit
energy” or habitual modes of experience.
(Verluis, 1986) The concept and ideology
of detachment also provides managers and
workers with a possible spiritual solution
in the distancing of the self from desire
and greed; in other words detachment as
a spiritual philosophy purports to free the
sensibility and senses of the individual
from illusion and false perceptions. Finally,
compassion and love will assist the manager
in focusing on positive behaviors. Together,
practicing spirituality in the workplace is
seen as one of the central aspects in building
effective organizations.
Therefore, the significance of this
study in terms of the leadership dimension
of management lies in the ability of the
managers to better ascertain and understand
the motivating forces and moral proclivities
of their workforce. In a more general sense
the significance of a study of this nature lies
in lies in the burgeoning field of concern and
research into non-materialist implications
and considerations that shape the workforce
and working environment and which
extends the understanding of leadership and
management.
In essence the significance of this study
is to add to the research on the meaning
of leadership in a spiritual context. In
this sense it is intended to deal with the
question of leadership responsibility and
the understanding that spirituality affects
the practical dimensions of leadership in
monument. Numerous studies have been
undertaken issues (Howard et all, 2004)
aimed at exploring the spiritual aspects and
responsibilities in leadership. This study
intends to add to this body of knowledge by
investigating aspects of leadership morality
and sensitivity in the workplace. It has
also been noted in the literature that issues
relating to compassion and care are still
relatively unexplored areas of research and
this study intends to make some headway in
remedying this situation.
There are various aspects that will be
explored in this context: including the issue
of spirituality and the Zen Buddhist concept
of “letting be” or detachment. These are
relatively new areas of discourse especially
in the context of management and business
leadership research. This also refers to the
exploration of the non-dualistic viewpoint
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that emphasizes holism and unity as opposed
to the fragmented nature of reality. (Howard
236)
A further reason for the importance
of this study is that it approaches many
essential issues that relate to the entire
discipline of leadership and management
in a compressive and holistic context. This
refers to the idea that a study of this nature
increases the possibility of moving towards
some comprehensive answers to questions
such as; is the way we work and manage
our businesses and organizations providing
a sense of primary and essential meaning
in our lives? Another question that will be
addressed within the context of this study
reflects on the structure of society and
particularly on late capitalistic society in
which here has been a “loss of meaning”
This refers to questions such as ; what is
the meaning and purpose of work and how
can this be better managed to make it more
meaningful?
Nature of the Study
The nature of this study is intimately
connected to its purpose and significance. It
is also concerned with the realization that the
manager and leader in contemporary society
and in the workplace have a responsibility
that extends beyond the routine task of
running a business. Taking into account the
importance of the manager and business
leader in modern industrialized society
it stands to reason that their leadership
decisions and managerial approach can
have a profound effect on the larger society.
Therefore the nature of this study and the
methods that have been adopted are intended
to add to the growing body of knowledge
and research on the ways that this process of
managerial perception and spirituality in the
workplace can be advanced.
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It is also important to state at this juncture
that to ascertain and take into account the full
dimensionality of the emotional and ‘feeling’
aspects of the spiritual in this research study,
it is necessary to use a broader and more
flexible qualitative rather than quantitative
research procedures and methodologies. The
purpose of this qualitative study is to explore
managers’ perspectives on morality, stress,
and unawareness of human welfare, and to
discover the impact of spiritual practices
such as mindful meditation, detachment
from expectations, and compassion and love
on those three perspectives’ areas.
In this research study, the definitions
of mindful meditation, detachment, and
compassion and love, are dealt in relation to
the following theoretical pointers. Firstly the
concept of mindful mediation is discussed
by Thich Nhat Hanh (1987), a Vietnamse
Buddhist monk and a Zen master, who refers
to the term mindfulness as the awareness
of present time, that is, “keeping one’s
consciousness alive to the present reality”
(p. 11) . Research on compassion has a large
area of theoretical knowledge that has to
be taken into account in the understanding
of the term. Solomon (2002) combined
feeling and understanding into the meaning
of the word compassion. Finally, the word
detachment is defined by Kirger and Hanson
(1999) as to let thing go. This term is also
not unproblematic in its meaning and
refers to the central Buddhist view that all
reality is an illusion and that attachment to
illusions result in false and empty actions.
Therefore detachment refers to a “letting
go” of illusionary and false notions or views
of reality. There are many corollaries in a
modern sense to this view and while this
concept may not always be understood or
observed in its “pure” or traditional Buddhist
or Zen sense it has received a great amount
of attention as a factor in modern society
and has also been shown to have an effect on
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contemporary perceptions of the intersection
between management in the workplace and
spirituality.
This study will also determine if these
three aspects of spirituality improve
managers’ life, morality, business decisions,
leadership values, and interrelation with
their employees. The qualitative research
design is grounded in theory. This study
will use face-to-face interviews with twenty
managerial professionals who work in
commercial avionics services within the
western region of Washington State.
With regard to the above and to the choice
of a qualitative methods of data collection
and research , it is also of important to bear
in mind the dominant modes of research
which has been used in management
research to date. It is also important to take
account of the underlying philosophical
foundations of the standard research process
as it relates to management in order to
compare it with the present approach and to
stress the significance and functionality of
the approach that is being adopted in this
study.
Essentially conventional management
research theory has three foundational
levels to the research paradigm. These
are the meta-theoretical levels and the
philosophical or basic beliefs about the
world in which we live. The social level deals
with various guidelines dealing with how a
researcher should conduct their research.
(RESEARCH AND PARADIGMS) Thirdly
there is technical or methodological level of
paradigm construction.
What is of concern here is the
foundational or philosophical level which
is conventionality divided into five sets
of assumption; subjectivist /objectivist
dimensions; ontological, epistemological,
axiological, methodological assumptions.
(RESEARCH AND PARADIGMS) All
of these areas have an impact on the
research process. However, central to
this thesis in terms of the subject matter
under investigation is the epistemological
foundations of the understanding of
management and leadership within the
research context. Epistemology as the
investigation of the construction and nature
of knowledge is divided into positivist and
anti-positivist points of view. (RESEARCH
AND PARADIGMS) The positivist stance
assumes that true objectivity is possible in
research; while the anti - positivist stance
suggests that knowledge and understanding
is obtained and dependent on an interaction
and interdependence between the knower
and known. It is this awareness of the
interaction suggested by the anti-positivist
mode of research that forms the basis of the
qualitative approach that is being employed
in this research study. This difference is
essential in understanding the present
research design that is being applied in the
analysis the function of spirituality in the
workplace.
There are also other assumptions within
the ambit of the research methodology
that have to be taken into account. The
distinction between Nomothetic and
ideographic approaches is also taken into
account in the choice of the methodological
foundation. Nomothetic methodology “…
focuses on an examination of regularities
and relationships to universal laws, while
ideographic approaches centre on reasons
why individuals create and interpret their
world in a particular way.” (Putman, 1983,
p. 41).
Therefore, from a conventional point
of view it is clear that the majority of
studies and research on management is
strongly related to a rigorous, systematic
and methodical investigative process. The
purpose of research in this field is essentially
to review and process existing knowledge,
as well as to provide solutions to problems
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via the analysis of general issues. This leads
to the three central research classifications;
namely, exploratory, descriptive and causal
or predictive. (Sarantakos, 31-35).
However, central as well to the modern
view of management research and
particularly with regard to the problematics
of learning in management is the importance
of the more holistic approach which does not
attempt to fragment or compartmentalize.
This focus here is on learning and leadership
in management as an integrative process. In
terms of human research development it has
been recognized for example that research into
human development within the management
contact “… will be increasingly concerned
with facilitating the learning of individuals,
teams and organizations through the design,
structuring and organization of work itself”
(Mcgoldrick, Stewart, and Watson 396).
This tends to suggest that there has been
a shift in management research theory
from a positivist to a more interpretive and
subjectively orientated approach – which
is the foundation of the present qualitative
approach in this study.
Research questions
The proposed research and data
collection in this study will be qualitative
and generative in nature. By this is
meant that there will be a great degree
of flexibility and openness to responses
from the interviewees. On the other hand
these responses and answers to the various
questions will of course be closely related to
various parameters dictated by the research
design and the central theoretical construct
that informs this study. The questions that
are asked will therefore have to be carefully
selected and presented so as to ensure that
a consistent and useful response pattern can
be drawn for the answers. Certain variables
will also have to be borne in mind in terms
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the question design and construction. These
have been discussed in other sections of
this introduction and include the three main
issues of detachment, care and compassion
and mindfulness.
However, a central concern that affects
the construction of the questions and the
way in which they are asked is the focus on
providing adequate data and material that
will assist in proving or disproving the central
hypothesis of the study. This hypothesis can
be stated as follows.
a. The present study is firstly concerned
with establishing the connection between
spirituality and managerial concerns in
the workplace.
b. Secondly, this study intends to show that
spirituality and spiritual practices have a
profound and measurable effect on the
development and learning process of the
individual.
c. That this personal individual growth tends
to translate into actions and into aspects
such as positive motivation and the
reduction of negative work aspects and
increases in positive facets and values,
such as caring and communication.
d. By being aware of spirituality and
spiritual aspects managers can become
better leaders and can motivate and
understand their staff more effectively
As was mentioned previously, a more
phenomenological approach to the interview
process will be used in which the questions
are more interrogative and open to the flow
of responses and counter – responses; rather
then being predetermined to fit into certain
pre-selected categories. A useful guideline
in this regard is the psycho – biographical
format to qualitative research. This involves
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an interview and research methodology
which “…involves doing research with
rather than on people” ( Lips-Wiernma,
2002, Analyzing the Career Concerns….).
This implies a more interactive interview
process where the participant does not
merely respond to the questions being asked
but rather interacts with the interviewer in
an interview process that is intended to elicit
more subjective and in-depth results.
There are eight central questions that
will act as guiding questions in this study. It
should be pointed that these are basic guiding
questions and that a certain amount of latitude
will be exercised in their application. The
questions are to be seen as starting points of
inquiry that are to be amplified and expanded
on. This will also lead to their extension into
various sub-questions and areas that will be
determined by the interactions between the
interview and the interviewee. However the
central impetus of the main hypothesis and
the central variables will essentially act as
guiding elements in the collation of the data
as well as in the analysis of the material.
The first of these questions that will
be explored is stated as follows: to what
extent does low morality, stress, and lack
of emotional intelligence in terms of
empathy and caring for people, impact
organizations?
The central impetus of this question is
intended to explore the degree to which
the interviewee discerns a problem in terms
of the variables that have been associated
with a lack of spirituality in the workplace;
namely low morality, stress and lack of
empathy. The general intention of this
question will be to determine the extent of
the problem from the point of view of the
manager. This relates to the first section
of the basic hypothesis to this study and
serves to explore the connection between
spirituality and the working environment.
This question can also lead to more specific
subsections of the investigation; such as
which aspect or aspects are seen by the
interviewee to have a negative effect in the
workplace. For example, the emphasis may
be on low morality rather than on stress or
lack of empathy.
The second question is intended to
directly address the meaning and definition
of spirituality. This question therefore builds
on for the previous one and is intended to
ascertain what the interviewee understands
by the term spirituality. In this regard
reference should be made to the theoretical
foundations of this study and to the various
definitions and perceptions of spirituality;
particularly with regard to the differentiation
between “pure “ spiritual and applied
spirituality. ( Heaton et al 2004)
The fourth question is; in business
decision-making, does spirituality influence
morality? This question is directed at
establishing the extent of the influence of
spirituality in the actual process of business
and in the active workplace. This also relates
to the central hypotheses in terms of the way
that the manager perceives spirituality as an
active and “real” factor in the workplace,
rather than a theoretical construct. This
question is also intended to ascertain the
personal view that the interviewee has of
his or her spirituality and the way that this is
subjectively perceived as having an impact
on work and business activity. As was noted
previously, this question will be open to
variations and extensions in terms of the
interviewee’s responses.
The above question is followed up
with a further interrogation of the way
that spirituality affects business decision.
The following question is: What are the
perceptions of the interviewee based on?
This is intended to explore and analyze the
foundations of the view of spirituality that the
interviewee has. This will obviously include
a number of possible variations in response
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and the central intention is to remain sensitive
to personal responses that can add to the
understanding of the way that spirituality is
perceived as a means of reducing negative
aspects in the workplace and improving
the positive and functional elements in the
business and working environment. This
is an interrogative question that requires
further questioning.
Throughout the process of the interviews,
the three central variables of detachment,
compassion and mindfulness form the
background to these questions. Aspects of
these variables are therefore included in the
questions where appropriate. For example,
within the framework of the central eight
questions at appropriate junctures questions
such as, do you feel that unselfish actions are
important in management, are asked. This
question therefore adds to our knowledge
of the way in which detachment acts as a
part of spirituality in the workplace. These
questions therefore add depth in terms of the
collation of data and analysis.
The following question is intended
to elicit a more personal and subjective
response which builds on the previous
views and answers that have already been
produced by the earlier question. The sixth
central question is: in practicing spirituality
in the workplace, how do managers guard
their souls, in the manner of not letting the
mind be deluded by greed and negative
emotion, as part of their leadership values?
This question obviously alludes to the main
variables and particularly to the centrality
of the concept of detachment as a spiritual
means of improving workplace functionality
and the avoidance of negative aspects such
as greed.
This question is followed by more indepth questions that are aimed at eliciting
extensive information and data that can be
analyzed in terms of the central theoretical
constructs of this study. The seventh
149
question used in the interview process is: Is
there a paradigm shift when the managers
face temptations that go against their moral
values, and, if so, how? This question is
intended to explore the world-views and
the changes in the perception of reality
that is engendered by the understudying of
spirituality in the workplace. This is followed
by the final question which is: To what extent
does having compassion and love continue
to shape managers’ interrelation with their
subordinates?
These questions will subscribe to the
phenomenological and qualitative approach
that has been suggested in this study.
Central to this process will be the theoretical
distinction between pure and applied
spirituality – although it should be borne
in mind that this is in reality an artificial
separation. For the purposes of analysis
however the personal interview situation
allows for an in-depth approach which can
be used to ascertain the relationship between
pure and applied concepts of spirituality.
Conceptual
Framework
or
Theoretical
This qualitative research study is based on
general system theory, originally introduced
in 1948 by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, in which
all parts are interdependent components
in a system. That means in business
organizations, in spite of the unpredictable
behaviors of human beings, people are
still part of a management system that
needs to be understood in order to make it
work efficiently. The conceptual patterns
underlying systems theory have been
chosen as the most appropriate theoretical
framework as it allows for the analysis of
interaction on many levels and, furthermore,
provides a theoretical scaffolding, as it
were, that is able to take into account the
more subtle and interactive nature of this
Bosch L. - The Inevitable Role of Spirituality in the Workplace
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study. To this end a more phenomenological
theoretical approach will also be used in
this research study in order to provide an
interpretive platform for an analysis of the
many subjective perceptions and constructs
that that will form an integral part of the
process of the research.
The conceptual approach in this study
is therefore aligned to a subjective and
inter-subjective stance in terms of the data
collection. In a study by Heaton et al ( 2004 )
this conceptual model is seen as an approach
to organizational change from the “ inside”
rather than from the “outside ! in”. In other
words, this theoretical approach is reliant on
subjective interpretations from individual
responses to spirituality. This approach is
also dependent on the understanding and
implication of a more spiritual approach.
Conventional
approaches
to
changing people and culture involve
aligningorganizational systems and
structures with desired behaviors…We
may characterize this kind of approach
as “outside ! in” because it aims to
change human behavior by first changing
something outside the individual,
which in turn defines or constrains
behavior. Recognition of spirituality as
the fundamental aspect of the human
personality suggests that there may be
another approach to managing change.
While traditional approaches aim at
managing change from the outside in,
knowledge of the spiritual foundation of
life suggests that change can be spiritual
foundation of life can grow and develop
in ways consistent withorganizational
goals.(Heaton et al 2004 )
The above quotation is cited at length
because it is important implications for the
theoretical foundations of this study. In
essence, what Heaton states is that positive
change and learning in the workplace is not
only determined by external factors and
actions. Change in the workplace can come
from within – or rather change within the
emotional, spiritual and emotional complex
of the leader or worker can be the precursor
to major changes and in the advancement
of the learning process in the workplace.
This is related to the three central variables
that will be the focus of this study: namely
the subjective implications of mindful
mediation, the concept of detachment and
the meaning of love and compassion. These
are the central theoretical aspects that inform
this study.
In terms of the history of research theory
and techniques associated with the study
of spirituality, a distinction has been made
between interior forms of spiritual expression
and its outer manifestations. ( Tishlet et al,
2002) The term interior spirituality refers
to the inner and subjective emotional states
in the individual. These forms of experience
are not easily accessible or amenable to a
quantitative or objective scientific approach.
Within this context, the study of spirituality
in the workplace must therefore fall within
the theoretical category of internal spiritual
experiences.
The history of the qualitative and more
descriptive approach to the study of the
phenomenon of spirituality as a subjective
experience and a legitimate focus of scientific
research, has an impressive history since the
latter half of the Twentieth Century. For
example, one might mention scholars like
Charles Tart, who is renowned for research
into altered states of spiritual consciousness
and who has encouraged the recording of
reports of subjective spiritual experiences
and “ trance” states. ( Tishlet et al, 2002)
Tart has stated that there are at present (
2001) more than 2000 studies on the effect
of spiritual experiences.
There are also numerous studies which
show that spiritual experiences and the
centrality of spiritual aspects in everyday
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life has been seen to provide positive
psychological and physiological effects.
“ For example , spiritual well-being has
been purported to provide a significant
inner strength to people, especially in times
of uncertainty and chaos in life” ( Tichter,
2002, p. 208). This view also coincides
with research on the propensity of spiritual
well-being to enrich life and personality.
Numerous studies attest to the realization of
spirituality as a factor that enhances positive
proclivity and action in human life.
Spiritual development is the process
through which all aspects of the
personality grow from experiences of
pure spirituality. Like most psychological
processes, spiritual development occurs
in stages representing a hierarchy of
increasingly more abstract, and thus
more inclusive, levels of functioning.
(Heaton et al 2004 )
Another very significant aspect of the
theoretical foundations of this study is that
there is a sense of progression or movement
from a sense of “pure” spiritually to an
“applied” spirituality. This means that true
inner and subjective spiritual experience is a
central motivating force in the manifestation
of that spirituality in life and work. (Heaton
et al 2004) Therefore “applied” spirituality
is in reality inner spirituality in action
in the external world. This aspect has
enormous implications for the present study
as it suggests that the inner significance
of spiritual experiential aspects such as
detachment or “ letting go” ( Zazen in Zen
Buddhism ) as a deeply felt experience in
the subjective nature of the individual, is
translated into understanding and action
which can practically improve leadership
capabilities and interaction in the workplace.
As Kinjerski and Skrypnek (2004) state, this
theoretical model,
… is the foundation for a comprehensive
research program for investigating an
151
“inside ! out” approach: investigating the
practical value of growth of spirituality
in the individual as the basis for
exploring its impact on organizations. It
can focus research by measuring applied
spirituality in terms of behavior, sensory
perception, mental processes, decisionmaking, emotional intelligence, intuition,
insight and wisdom. This model also
suggests a means to develop applied
spirituality through the experience
of pure spirituality. (Kinjerski and
Skrypnek, 2004)
This view and the application of
spirituality in the workplace lead to positive
aspects that coincide with effects such as
increased creativity and commitment and
a reduction of aggression and hostility, as
evidenced by Arias’ work in positive effects
of meditation on executives’ performance
(Arias, J.C., 2008).
Definitions
Spirituality
The central concept of spirituality is
problematic from a number of points of
view. However, as has been noted, the
concept of spirituality is a multivalent but
internally uniform concept that, for the
purposes of research, can be can be divided
into “pure’ and “applied” spiritually. Pure
spirituality refers to “…silent, unbounded,
inner experience of pure self-awareness, to
devoid of customary content of perception,
thoughts, and feelings” ( Heaton et al,
2004). While applied spiritually refers the
“…domain of practical applications and
measurable outcomes that automatically
arise from the inner experience of
‘pure spirituality’”(Heaton et al, 2004).
Furthermore, the term spiritual development
refers to a “…holistic process of positive
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transformation through experience of pure
spirituality.” (Heaton et al, 2004).
Detachment and “letting go”
Detachment is a complex concept which is
often difficult to understand for the uninitiated
Western person who is used to rational and
logocentric concepts. Detachment implies
a removal of attention and concern from
what is seen as the illusionary nature of
reality. In more practical and applied terms,
detachment can be understood as the ability
to go beyond self-concern and thoughts of
self-only; in other words it is a spiritual
attitude that transcends the personal ego and
allows the individual to see the reality of the
situation unencumbered by the constraints
of personal ambition, greed etc’ At it most
pure and intense it is known as “Letting
go of body and mind” in Zen Buddhism
as exemplified in the works of Zen master
Dogen.
In some sense, “Body and mind
dropped off” refers to the letting go of
our ancient, twisted karmic attachment
to this limited body and mind. We are
conditioned to try to acquire objects
to embellish, enhance, or improve this
body and mind. So just dropping off
body and mind is to abandon that effort
of acquisitiveness, and is a statement of
the ultimate for Dogen. (Leighton)
Assumptions
The first and most important assumption
that influences this study is that there is
in innate connection between spirituality,
human development in society and learning
and growth in the workplace. This main
assumption is, as has been discussed in the
various subsections to this introduction,
a relatively well accepted position taken
by many experts and researchers. This
assumption also has further implication that
leads to other assumptions.
If this first aspect is assumed to be correct
then it follows that the impact
and the effect of spirituality is a factor
that has a profound effect on business,
leadership and managerial research. The
assumption that directly flows from this
is that understanding spirituality from a
reflective and subjective point of view can
therefore help to improve the leadership
and other managerial considerations in the
workplace.
A further central assumption is that
spirituality is a positive aspect and not a
negative one. However caution must be
taken in the ready acceptance of this view
as spiritual aspects may also cause friction
in the workplace due to factors such as
opposing ideologies and is therefore an
aspect that is borne in mind in the overall
assessment of this study.
Another assumption is that the measure
and assessment of spirituality in the
workplace can be generally obtained in
an acceptable scientific context through
theoretical constructs such detachment,
mindfulness and compassion and love. This
is also associated with another assumption;
namely that these essentially Eastern
concepts can be applied with positive effect
in a Western social and business environment.
This implies all spiritual experiences have
a common foundation and that the spiritual
experiences in terms of different cultures and
societies are fundamentally interchangeable
and mutually applicable.
However, the most important assumption
that influences this research on spirituality
is that the pure spiritual experience, as in the
case of detachment from illusion, “…gives
rise to positive and measurable changes in
health, personality, mental functioning and
behavior “(Kinjerski and Skrypnek, 2004).
Kinjerski and Skrypnek state that this in
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Luidolf Bosch
2009
turn leads to an improved work ‘spirit’.
“Specifically, the experience of spirit at work
is linked with increased creativity, honesty,
trust, and commitment in the workplace,
along with an enhanced sense of personal
fulfillment of employees” (Kinjerski and
Skrypnek, 2004). This view also leads to the
theoretical construct of a “spiritual intellect”
which is seen by some theorists as the link
between pure spirituality and spirit in the
workplace.
There is a final major assumption that
pervades this study. This is that a form of
spiritual intelligence exist that functions
outside of the parameters and beyond the
ambit of the formal structures of faith and
religion and which informs and affect the
growth and develop and management and
workers in the workplace.
Scope,
Limitations,
Delimitations
and
The scope of this study is necessarily
ambitious. It is an attempt to add significantly
to the developing store of knowledge and
research in a meaningful and practical way.
On the other hand, instead of attempting
as large –scale and possibly unmanageable
research project a large sample base; this
study is purposefully limited and prescribed
to a certain area as well as to interviews
within a specific discipline. While this is
from one perspective a limitation, it is also
an advantage in that the study by confining
itself to an intimate data sample and base and
using a qualitative methodology it is intended
that the study will provide an in-depth and
penetrative set of results, rather then a large
discursive overawe; which will, hopefully,
add to the discourse on this subject in a
pertinent and realistic way. This also refers
to an obvious limitation which is the fact
that externally, the study does not represent
classes of managerial professionals not
153
interviewed, such as those from educational
institutions, health-related industries, law
enforcement, or global businesses.
The methodology used could also be seen
as a limitation. The qualitative method does
not allow for the wide array of statistical
and scientific tools that could give greater
legitimacy and weight to the study. However,
as has been suggested in the above sections,
the qualitative approach is seen to be the
most fruitful and successful approach to the
topic.
This also relates to the fact that the
qualitative research internally constrains
itself within the perceptions of Buddhism
in terms of mindful meditation, detachment,
and compassion and love. On the other hand
this is a purposeful limitation in terms of
the criteria and variables that are the centre
of the research design. However there is
also delimitation in this study, which is
that although the definitions of spiritual in
this study are based on Buddhist doctrine,
the spiritual practices can be applied to
everybody, regardless their beliefs. Thus, the
study delimits biased judgments, and brings
the findings closer to reality. A cardinal that
adds to the scope of this study is that, “…
interdependencies among variables are far
more difficult to model and to measure than
dependencies.” (Mugler)
There is no empirical research to prove
that one method of practicing spirituality
in the workplace is better than another
in creating effective organizations. Thus,
while the attributes of the enneagrams are
different, the purpose is the same. That is
to help managers to connect themselves
harmoniously and positively to other
people in organizations, and to develop the
workplace into an enjoyable environment.
However, one challenge for this study might
be that participants in the interviews, being
in good part from a western culture, may not
be able to relate well to some of the eastern-
Bosch L. - The Inevitable Role of Spirituality in the Workplace
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154
culture-based concepts being explored. For
example some may not value detachment
from expectations. Another challenge
might be that the study could be quite timeconsuming.
Conclusion
The key elements of this study can be
summarized as follows. There are numerous
studies that emphasize the increasing
importance of concepts of spirituality in
management and leadership research. “The
management field will benefit greatly from
incorporating a spiritual perspective into
our theories as well as into our research and
theory development process” (Neal et al.,
1999, pp. 182-3). This has led to a growing
consensus that spirituality is central factor
which can contribute to the enhancement
and development of leadership, learning
and communication in the modern business
workplace.
Therefore, the present study has attempted
to use various concepts of spiritual praxis
in research to determine their necessity,
effectiveness and relevance to the workplace
environment. Concepts derived from mainly
Eastern spiritual theory have been included
in the research design. These include the
aspects of detachment, mindfulness and
mindful mediation and compassion and love.
These aspects are explored in terms of the
perception, attitudes and views of managers;
as well as in terms of their subjective
assessments of morality, stress and care
without that environment. The central aim
of the study is to ascertain the relevance of
spirituality within the parameters of this
theoretic research design.
To this end a qualitative methodology
will be used. This is seen to be the most
appropriate and advantageous method of
collation of the relevant data. The central
reason for this is that the subject matter is
concerned with subjective expression and
states of being which are more amenable
to an intimate and personal interview
situation.
The intention of this study is not only
to ascertain the necessity for spirituality in
the workplace but also to determine, via
the directed interviews, what aspect and
elements are seen by managers to more or
less effective in terms of the applications of
spirituality in the workplace.
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