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Precambrian Ophiolites and Related Rocks
Edited by Martin J. van Kranendonk, R. Hugh Smithies and Vickie C. Bennett
Developments in Precambrian Geology, Vol. 15 (K.C. Condie, Series Editor)
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1016/S0166-2635(07)15075-1
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Chapter 7.5
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SULPHUR ON THE EARLY EARTH
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STEPHEN J. MOJZSIS
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Department of Geological Sciences, Center for Astrobiology, University of Colorado,
2200 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, CO 80309-0399, USA
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7.5-1. INTRODUCTION
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On the young Earth, the surface zone of the planet was shaped by physical and chemical interactions between the crust, hydrosphere, atmosphere and the emergent biosphere,
on the geochemical cycles of the biologically important elements (H, C, N, O, P, S, Fe
and others). An explicit record of the early co-evolution of the atmosphere and biosphere
with the geosphere has been notoriously difficult to investigate. By its very nature the
atmosphere is ephemeral, and the result has been that a direct record of its chemical evolution remained frustratingly out of reach. It is now reasonably well understood that the
geochemical behaviour of the multiple sulphur isotopes are the best tool for investigations
of the long term evolution of the surface system, and that they provide a uniquely powerful
proxy for long-term changes in atmospheric chemistry and other key processes (Thiemens,
1999, 2006). The geochemistry of sulphur is complex. There is a long history of study on
the topic so that a single review on the generalities of sulphur biogeochemistry on the early
Earth cannot hope to cover all progress in this rapidly changing field (please see Ohmoto
and Goldhaber (1997), Canfield and Raiswell (1999), Canfield (2001), Farquhar and Wing
(2003) and Seal (2006) for comprehensive reviews). Instead, the goal here will be to outline several key aspects of sulphur that are of particular interest to studies of Earth’s oldest
rocks (limited to before ca. 3.5 Ga), and to make the case that a comprehensive program
of retrospective multiple sulphur isotope analyses is required on samples for which prior
34 S/32 S data have been compiled (Strauss, 2003).
When one attempts to review processes operative on the early Earth, global environmental aspects unique to the young planet need to be acknowledged. In the first billion
years, higher crustal heat flow and enhanced mantle outgassing, widespread (and rapid?)
crustal recycling and considerable changes in continental volume, and the emergence of
life and its subsequent take-over of several important aspects of chemistry of the surface
zone, were all likely governing factors that influenced the various sub-cycles of the global
sulphur cycle schematically represented in Fig. 7.5-1. Furthermore, exogenous processes
unique to the young planet were also important, even if they are more difficult to account
for in physical models. These processes included a higher frequency of asteroid and comet
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-1. Schematic representation of global geochemical cycles of sulphur and the average
sulphur isotope compositions of important reservoirs in the Earth system. The interface between
the geosphere and hydrosphere is dominated by exchange of sulphur between seawater and rocks
by fluids, weathering, dissolution and re-precipitation. Sulphide will precipitate with an adequate supply of dissolved iron (and other metals) and can be abiogenic or biogenic. Sulphur
may also be sequestered in evaporates, brine pools or crustal fluids as sulphate, sulphide or elemental sulphur. Chemical weathering is the principal mechanism that returns sulphur from rocks and
sediments on land to the hydrosphere. Hydrothermal activity and subduction transports sulphur back
to the geosphere. Submarine dissolution of basalt and other rocks also returns S to the hydrosphere.
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7.5-1. Introduction
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Fig. 7.5-1. (Continued.) Volcanism injects sulphur gases to the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Volcanic gases in the atmosphere can become transformed by light-driven reactions and returned to
sediments from aerosol deposition. Subduction will bring all components back to the mantle. Extraterrestrial input is minimal, but could be important in a few cases of large impacts.
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impacts, an enhanced rate of extraterrestrial dust delivery compared to present, as well as
reduced solar luminosity (but higher ultraviolet flux) from the young Sun.
However, there exists a further and yet more fundamental limitation to what can be
known about the earliest Earth. A geologic record of the interactions outlined in Fig. 7.5-1
has apparently been lost for the first ca. 750 My due to the effective recycling of all crust
except for remnant ca. 4.4–3.8 Ga zircons contained in younger sediments (see Cavosie
et al., this volume). Sedimentary rocks 3.7 Ga in age, which could potentially preserve
a direct sample of the ancient sulphur cycle, occur only as rare and deformed enclaves
in high-grade Archaean metamorphic granitoid-gneiss terranes. Nevertheless, given recent
advances in instrumental techniques, experimental and observational geomicrobiology and
molecular biochemistry, chemical oceanography, and access to an increasingly large sample base of ancient rocks, our knowledge of early Earth environments has accumulated to
the point where it is now perhaps worthwhile to revisit what we know of the interactions
between the geochemical cycles of sulphur at that time. Specifically:
(1) Sulphur comes in four stable isotopes of well-defined relative abundance. What is the
origin of sulphur to the Earth? How do changes occur to the abundance ratios of the
sulphur isotopes? What is the significance of mass-independent isotope fractionation
as opposed to ‘normal’ mass-dependent effects in the early Earth record?
(2) The infall of meteoritic and cometary debris to the planets was greater in the first billion
years than at present. What contributions could extraterrestrial sources have made to
the global geochemical sulphur cycle in the first billion years? Could a trace of this
extraterrestrial material remain in the oldest sedimentary rocks?
(3) Subsequent to primary outgassing, the atmosphere underwent chemical changes. What
clues can sulphur provide to the composition and chemical evolution of the atmosphere
prior to about 3.5 Ga?
(4) Sulphur compounds are central to many fundamental biochemical processes. What
role could sulphur have played in the establishment of the biosphere? Could sulphur
isotope fractionations serve as a robust isotopic biomarker in highly metamorphosed
rocks?
(5) All rocks older than about 3.5 Ga have been strongly transformed by metamorphism.
How well is the sulphur isotope record preserved in the oldest rocks?
(6) Banded iron-formations (BIFs) are the most common sedimentary rock preserved from
the early Archaean, but their derivation remains enigmatic. What can sulphur isotopes
inform us of the origins of the BIFs?
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
7.5-2. ORIGIN OF SULPHUR TO THE EARTH
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The elemental inventory of the planets was determined by the composition of the nebular gas and dust from which the solar system formed. In stars greater than 8 times solar
mass, and at temperatures near 1.5 × 109 K, oxygen fusion begins as a result of the slow
(s-process) fusion of neutrons (n), protons (p) and 4 He nuclei (α) to a variety of seed nuclei
(Cameron, 1979; Woosley and Weaver, 1986). In this scenario, the various sulphur isotopes
can be produced from the following important oxygen-burning nuclear reactions:
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16
O O, γ → 32 S; 32 S He, γ → 36 S; 32 S(n, γ ) → 33 S; 33 S(n, γ ) → 34 S
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Here, it can be seen how the major oxygen-oxygen reaction 16 O(16 O, γ ) → 32 S yields
the abundant 32 S isotope and energy. Neutrons evolved from side reactions such as
16 O(16 O, n) → 31 S can result in further s-processes and the formation of the minor isotopes
(Seeger et al., 1965). As a result of these processes, there are four stable isotopes of sulphur
which have the following relative abundances as defined by the meteorite sulphur standard
Cañon Diablo troilite (Hultson and Thode, 1965; see Ding et al., 2001 and Beaudoin et al.,
1994):
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32
S = 95.02%;
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S = 0.75%;
34
S = 4.21%;
36
S = 0.02%
The high relative abundance of 32 S can therefore be understood from the fact that it is
directly synthesized from O-burning reactions. Sulphur is an exceptionally stable element.
It has an even atomic number (Z = 16) and the nuclide 32 S has both a mass number (A)
and a neutron number (N ) that are multiples of 4 (the mass of the He nucleus), so that
A = Z + N = 16 + 16 + 32. Since the minor S isotopes are more closely tied to rates
and types of various s-process reactions which also include synthesis from 4 He-fusion with
the stable isotopes of Si (28 Si, 29 Si and 30 Si), the relative abundances of 33 S, 34 S and 36 S
are much lower. This inventory of the different sulphur isotopes was imparted to the solar
nebula at some time prior to the accretion of the planets.
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7.5-2.1. Primordial Sulphur
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The formation time of Earth and other planets, and the elemental inventory of Earth, has
been deduced in part on the basis of comparison with primitive meteorites (type 1 carbonaceous chondrites; CI) and the solar photosphere. The average compositions of CI meteorites and the Sun have been compiled by numerous workers (e.g., Anders and Grevesse,
1989), who showed that CI:solar photosphere displays a nearly 1:1 correspondence in sulphur content normalized to Si, so that bulk meteoritic sulphur is probably a reasonably
good approximation for bulk planetary sulphur isotopic compositions. Primitive carbonaceous chondrites contain approximately 5.4 wt% sulphur (Dreibus et al., 1995) and S is the
tenth most abundant element in the solar system (Anders and Ebihara, 1982). Sulphur ranks
as eighth in abundance for the whole Earth (silicates + core; Morgan and Anders, 1980)
and the Bulk Silicate Earth concentration is about 250 ppm (McDonough and Sun, 1995).
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7.5-2. Origin of Sulphur to the Earth
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A summary of the various concentrations of sulphur and sulphur-containing compounds in
the terrestrial reservoirs in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere is provided in Table 7.5-1. The sulphur isotopic composition of the bulk Earth is assumed to be
close to that of the major S-phases of iron meteorites. Because the record of sulphur is
geochemical, a brief review of the stable isotope geochemistry of sulphur is warranted.
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7.5-2.2. Sulphur Isotope Fractionations
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For low atomic number elements like sulphur, the mass differences between the various isotopes are large enough for many physical, chemical, and biological processes or reactions
to change the relative proportions of the isotopes (reviewed in Hoefs (1997)). In normal
physical-chemical interactions on Earth, two isotope effects – equilibrium and kinetics –
result in isotope fractionation. Due to these fractionation processes, products often develop
unique isotopic compositions (normally expressed as ratios of heavy to light isotopes) that
may be indicative of their source, or of the processes that formed them (Faure, 1986, and
references therein). Reaction rates depend on the ratios of the masses of the isotopes and
their zero-point energies. As a general rule, bonds between the lighter isotopes are several
calories less than bonds between heavy isotopes. The lighter isotopes tend to react more
readily and become concentrated in the products, and the residual reactants tend to become
enriched in the heavy isotopes. The magnitude of the fractionation strongly depends on the
reaction pathway utilized and the relative energies of the bonds broken and formed by the
reaction. Slower reactions (for instance those proceeding at lower temperatures) tend to
show larger isotopic fractionation effects than faster ones.
Equilibrium isotope-exchange reactions involve the redistribution of isotopes among
various chemical species or compounds. During equilibrium reactions, the heavier isotopes preferentially accumulate in the compound with the higher energy state. Kinetic
isotope fractionations occur when systems are out of isotopic equilibrium, such that forward and back reaction rates are not identical. When reactions are unidirectional, reaction
products become physically isolated from the reactants. Biological processes are kinetic
isotope reactions that tend to be unidirectional. Both diffusion and metabolic discrimination against the heavier isotopic species occurs because of the differences in zero-point
energies of the different isotopes. This can result in significant fractionations between the
substrate (isotopically heavier) and the biologically mediated product (isotopically lighter).
Many reactions can take place either under purely equilibrium conditions or be affected by
an additional kinetic isotope fractionation, and metabolic (oxido-reduction) reactions will
preferentially select molecules with lighter isotopes (Schidlowski et al., 1983).
To follow the various isotopic fractionation pathways, partitioning of stable isotopes between two substances A and B is expressed by use of the isotopic fractionation factor (α):
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α(A − B) = RA /RB
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34 S/32 S
33 S/32 S).
where R is the ratio of the heavy to light isotope (e.g.,
or
Values for α
tend to be close to 1.00 so that differences in isotopic compositions are usually expressed in
parts-per-thousand, or ‘per mil’ (h). Kinetic fractionation factors are typically described
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Reservoir
Reduced S
H2 S
Atmospherea
Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Riversd
Oceans
Shale
Granite
Mafic rocks and
Ultramafics
Volcanic gasesj
Other
OCS
Total
S
2–9 × 10−5b
–
Sulphate
SO4 2−
–
–
5 × 10−4
–
<1 × 10−3
1000c
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
11.5
2784e
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
∼2800f
2400g
260h
∼1000–4000i
3 × 10−4 –1.89
0.006–47.7
[0.03–0.06]
–
2 × 10−5 –0.08
3–10 × 10−5
–
Elemental S
S2 (S0 , S8 )
∼1.5 × 10−5
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.057–3.21
Oxidized S
SO2 [SO]
a present troposphere (Warneck et al., 1988); b as CS ; c dry weight of tissue (Berner and Berner, 1996 – citing Zinke, 1977); Schlesinger, 1997); d Stumm and
2
Morgan (1996); e Millero and Sohn (1992); f Li (1991); g Turekian and Wedepohl (1961); h Mason and Moore (1982); i Wedepohl and Muramatsu (1979);
j Symonds et al. (1994) values expressed in mol%; k Kissel et al. (1986); l Schramm et al. (1988).
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
95480k
41664l
Comet particles
IDPs
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Table 7.5-1. Average concentration of sulphur in various reservoirs on Earth (values are in 10−6 g/g unless otherwise indicated)
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7.5-2. Origin of Sulphur to the Earth
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in terms of various enrichment or discrimination factors and these are defined in various
ways by different researchers (see O’Neil, 1986).
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7.5-2.3. Mass-Dependent Fractionation of Sulphur Isotopes
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The numerous paths of sulphur between the different reservoirs shown in Fig. 7.5-1 often involve changes in oxidation states that are modulated through both abiotic and biotic
equilibrium and kinetic reaction processes, and the different degrees of S-isotope fractionations depend on these modes of isotopic exchange. In order to track these fractionations
in nature, sulphur isotope compositions of substances are expressed with the conventional
δ notation as:
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δ 34 SCDT (h) = Rsample
/RCDT
− 1 × 1000
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33
/RCDT
− 1 × 1000,
δ 33 SCDT (h) = Rsample
where R 34 = 34 S/32 S, R 33 = 33 S/32 S and the reference standard is the pyrrhotite endmember phase troilite (FeS) from the Cañon Diablo meteorite (CDT; see Beaudoin et al.,
1994). Similarly, this expression holds for δ 36 S, however the value has not usually been
reported because the trace abundance of 36 S makes the measurement difficult with normal mass-spectrometric techniques (e.g., Hulston and Thode, 1965; Hoering, 1989; Gao
and Thiemens, 1989). As reviewed elsewhere (Mojzsis et al., 2003; Farquhar and Wing,
2003), most conventional sulphur isotope studies omitted the minor isotope 33 S with the
view that there would be no new information conveyed by the measurement of 33 S/32 S
(cf. Hoering, 1989; Lundberg et al., 1994). This is because normal physical, chemical,
or biological processes fractionate isotopes with predictable mass-dependent behaviour
(Urey, 1947; Bigeleisen and Mayer, 1947). In other words, on sulphur three-isotope plots
of [(33 S/32 S)/(34 S/32 S)] or [(36 S/32 S)/(34 S/32 S)], the relative mass differences of the isotopomers are such that variations in δ 33 S and δ 33 S ought to be correlated with those in δ 34 S.
Mass-dependent fractionation laws arise from the kinetic and equilibrium reactions that
fractionate sulphur in approximate proportion to their relative mass difference. Because
the mass difference between 33 S and 32 S is about half of that between 34 S and 32 S, any
mass-dependent isotope effects in δ 33 S would be about half those in δ 34 S. Mass-dependent
fractionation (MDF) processes lead to isotopic compositions that can be described by the
equation:
λ
34 32 34 32 33 32 33 32 S/ S
S/ S CDT =
S/ S
S/ S CDT .
In this treatment, linear regression in (x, y) with y =
and x =
(34 S/32 S)CDT ] has slope λ. Theoretical analyses of equilibrium MDF laws define slopes
of λ ≈ 0.515 (Bigeleisen and Mayer, 1947; Hulston and Thode, 1965). York regressions
through large datasets from sulphur standards measurements yield values λ = 0.515 ±
0.005 (Farquhar et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2000c; Mojzsis et al., 2003; Farquhar and Wing,
2003; Ono et al., 2003; Hu et al., 2003; Papineau et al., 2005, 2006; Papineau and Mojzsis,
2006; Cates and Mojzsis, 2006; Whitehouse et al., 2005; Ono et al., 2006, 2007; Papineau
ln(33 S/32 S)
ln[(34 S/32 S)/
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
et al., 2007). Empirical determinations of 33 S/32 S are obtained by fixing λ at 0.515 with
(34 S/32 S)V-CDT = (22.6436)−1 (Ding et al., 2001), so that regressions through standards
data with fixed λ result in intercepts that equal ln[(33 S/32 S)V-CDT ]. This yields (33 S/32 S)CDT
values = (126.3434)−1 , and with the thousands of standards measurements reported thus
far, mass-dependent values have been narrowly defined about [(34 S/32 S)/(33 S/32 S)]CDT =
0 ± 0.1h(2σ ).
Different modes of mass-dependent fractionations can arise from different kinetic and
equilibrium effects (Bigeleisen and Wolfsberg, 1958). What is little-discussed but germane
to sulphur isotope geochemistry is that the scatter often seen in [(34 S/32 S)/(33 S/32 S)] data
can deviate slightly from orthodox mass-dependency because different slopes in λ may
result from these different mass-dependent modes (e.g., Young et al., 2002) captured in
the compositions of natural standards. In light of this observation, Papineau et al. (2005)
argued that MDF trajectories on a three-isotope plot should be projected as a band that
encompasses the different mass-dependent laws, rather than as a simple ‘terrestrial (mass-)
fractionation line’. Based on this analysis, the width of the York-MDF band is defined as
the standard deviations in y about the fixed-slope York regression through all standards in
(x, y)-space with a slope λ = 0.515 ± 0.005 when transformed to δ 34 SCDT vs δ 33 SCDT
space. This scrutiny of the various modes of mass-dependent sulphur isotope fractionations
in the three-isotope system yields external errors in the range of ±0.20h. Other, more
detailed studies that explore the quadruple sulphur isotope system at high resolution with
laser fluorination methods is reviewed in Ono et al. (2003, 2006, 2007).
Admittedly, there remains considerable room for improvement in these measurements
and it is expected that when synthetic sulphur standards become available, the external
errors will decrease and finer details of sulphur isotope fractionations will be revealed.
Theoretical treatments of the MDF boundaries within the range of possible MDF types
show that they plot as shallow curves, and the York MDF-bandwidth (approximately
±0.1h, 2σ in the theoretically best possible case) increases slightly with absolute values
of (δ 33 S/δ 34 S)CDT (Fig. 7.5-2). However, some unusual photolytic atmospheric reactions
that occur in the gas-phase, and some nuclear effects in space, produce sulphur that significantly deviates from mass-dependent fractionation laws in what has come to be known as
‘mass-independent fractionation’.
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7.5-2.4. Mass-Independent Fractionation of Sulphur Isotopes
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In order to better grasp the significance of mass-independent sulphur isotope effects captured in the geologic record of the early Earth, it is worthwhile to briefly summarise the
initial discovery of this phenomenon in the oxygen isotopes. Mass-independent fractionation (MIF) behaviour of stable isotopes was found in the oxygen isotopic compositions
(16 O, 17 O, 18 O) of carbonaceous meteorites (Clayton et al., 1973). In extensive work since,
Clayton and others have shown that on a three-isotope oxygen plot1 , anhydrous minerals in carbonaceous meteorites lie along a line of slope of +1 (Fig. 7.5-3) instead of a
1 (δ 17 O vs δ 18 O; where δ 1x O = ((1x O/16 O)
1x
16
sample /( O/ O)V-SMOW − 1) × 1000h, x is either 7 or 8 and
V-SMOW is the Vienna standard mean ocean water).
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Fig. 7.5-2. Three-isotope plot (δ 33 S vs δ 34 S) for various sulphide standards that are used to define
the York-MDF bandwidth. For clarity, the error bars for the individual measurements have been
omitted (from Papineau et al., 2005).
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slope of approximately +0.5 expected to define normal mass-dependent isotope effects on
Earth. The initial interpretation that nucleosynthetic processes produced mass-independent
isotopic signatures was re-visited by Thiemens and Heidenreich (1983) who showed experimentally that the origin of MIF oxygen isotopes was likely photochemical (Fig. 7.5-4).
Photolysis of diatomic oxygen under ultraviolet radiation produces MIF oxygen isotopes
in the residual molecular oxygen (O2 ) and in the product ozone (O3 ). Fig. 7.5-4 defines
a theoretical mass fractionation (band), which is the regime wherein all O-isotope MDF
processes plot according to the equation:
17
18
λ δ O
δ O
17 O = 1000 ×
+1 −
+1
.
1000
1000
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17 O
is the permil deviation from mass-dependent fractionation and λ repreIn this case,
sents the slope, which expresses the mass-dependent fractionation relationship between
δ 17 O and δ 18 O (approximately δ 17 O = 0.52 × δ 18 O). Mass-dependent fractionation
processes result in isotopic compositions that have a 17 O of 0h, while mass-independent
processes that arise from ultraviolet photolysis will result in 17 O = 0h, or significant
deviation from the mass-dependent fractionation band. In Fig. 7.5-4, product ozone (O3 )
from the photolysis of molecular oxygen (O2 ) has a positive 17 O, which means that it is
significantly more enriched in 17 O than it would if the fractionation process was purely
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-3. Three-isotope plot (δ 17 O vs δ 18 O) of anhydrous minerals in carbonaceous meteorites
showing MIF oxygen isotopes (from Clayton et al., 1973).
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mass-dependent. The isotopic composition of residual O2 also shows MIF in isotopic
mass-balance and has a negative 17 O, which is a depletion of 17 O relative to isotopic compositions characteristic of mass-dependent processes. The slope of the data in Fig. 7.5-4 is
close to +1, while the slope for MDF processes is about +0.5. These results convincingly
demonstrated that UV photochemical reactions can lead to products and residual reactants that exhibit mass-independent fractionation. Note that the range of δ 18 O and δ 17 O
in Fig. 7.5-4 for the photochemical experiments is different than that observed in carbonaceous meteorites (Fig. 7.5-3). This could mean that photochemical reactions are more
efficient in a controlled experiment and/or that isotopic dilution occurred from mixing
mass-independently fractionated components within dominantly mass-dependently fractionated oxygen reservoirs. Further progress in our understanding is hampered by the fact
that the actual mechanism(s) for mass-independent fractionation have yet to be fully elucidated with quantum-chemical theory (Thiemens, 1999; Mauersberger et al., 1999; Gao
and Marcus, 2001; Deines, 2003).
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7.5-2. Origin of Sulphur to the Earth
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Fig. 7.5-4. Three-isotope plot (δ 17 O vs δ 18 O) for oxygen isotopes in product O3 and residual O2
after irradiation of O2 with ultraviolet light from electrical discharge (from Thiemens, 1999).
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Sulphur is isoelectronic with oxygen2 and has also been found to display massindependent isotope fractionation. Multiple sulphur isotope data are reported using the
conventional notation as:
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34
λ δ S
δ S
33 S = 1000 ×
+1 −
+1
1000
1000
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36
λ δ S
δ S
36
S = 1000 ×
+1 −
+1
,
1000
1000
where 33 S and 36 S are the permil deviations from mass-dependent isotopic fractionation processes, δ 3x S = ((3x S/32 S)sample /(3x S/32 S)CDT − 1) × 1000h where x = 3, 4
or 6, and λ represents the mass-dependent fractionation relationship between δ 33 S and
δ 34 S (δ 33 S = 0.52 × δ 34 S) or between δ 36 S and δ 34 S (δ 36 S = 1.9 × δ 34 S). Like oxygen
2 Only mass-dependent fractionations have been reported for Selenium (Johnson and Bullen, 2004). Tellurium
does not appear to display MIF, although searches have been conducted (Fehr et al., 2005).
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-5. Three isotope plots (δ 33 S vs δ 34 S) showing (a) experimental results with an ArF excimer
laser on SO2 gas and (b) Precambrian sedimentary sulphide and sulphate multiple sulphur isotope
compositions (from Farquhar et al., 2001).
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17 O, sulphur 33 S and 36 S values ∼0h result from MDF processes such as kinetic,
equilibrium and oxido-reduction reactions. Laboratory experiments have shown that massindependently fractionated sulphur isotopes can arise in gas-phase reactions with starting
mixtures of SO2 , H2 S and CS2 (Zmolek et al., 1999; Farquhar et al., 2000a, 2000b, 2001).
Results from photolysis experiments with an ArF excimer UV laser at 193 nm in a SO2
gas are shown in Fig. 7.5-5(a). These experiments documented MIF sulphur isotopes in
product S0 , SO4 2− and residual SO2 . The 33 S values of these S-phases are positive for
product elemental sulphur so that they plot above the mass-dependent fractionation band,
and negative for product sulphate (i.e., they plot below the MDF band).
The MIF behaviour of three sulphur isotopes (32 S, 33 S and 34 S) in photochemical experiments resembles multiple sulphur isotopes from Precambrian sedimentary sulphides
and sulphates as seen in Figs. 7.5-5(b) and 7.5-6. Similar to the results for oxygen isotopes, the main difference between the plots is that the range of δ 33 S and δ 34 S values is
larger in the photochemical experiments (tens of permil) and much smaller (a few permil)
for natural samples that exhibit mass-independent behaviour such as found in pre-2.45 Ga
sedimentary sulphides and sulphates. As for the oxygen case discussed above, this may
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Fig. 7.5-5. (Continued.)
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arise from more efficient photochemical reactions in controlled experiments and/or from
isotopic dilution occurring in natural systems.
Barring further detailed experimental verification from a wider range of UV wavelengths (Lyons, 2006), data from ancient sulphur are consistent with the view that short
wavelength solar radiation (i.e., λ < 220 nm) penetrated deeply in the early terrestrial
atmosphere in the absence of an effective ozone screen to lead to significant MIF in the
geologic record (Farquhar et al., 2001). It is interesting to note that the higher extreme UV
(EUV) output observed for young solar-type stars (Wood et al., 2002) requires that in the
early Earth’s atmosphere the incident solar EUV flux fell from ∼30× to approximately 4×
present between 4.4 to 3.5 Ga (Zahnle, 2006). The evolution in the incident UV flux has
yet to be accounted for in our models for the generation of mass-independent fractionation
of sulphur isotopes in the ancient atmosphere. Mass-independently fractionated signatures
in early Precambrian sedimentary sulphides and sulphates could be coupled to results of
experiments that explore the magnitude of MIF under specific atmospheric regimes and
UV intensities at different wavelengths. These data could then be used to trace the chemical evolution of the atmosphere in relation to the long-term interaction of the surface zone
with the evolving young Sun.
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-6. Plot of 33 S vs δ 34 S for sulphides and sulphates from pre-2.45 Ga samples (triangles)
with data from samples younger than ca. 2 Ga (from Farquhar and Wing, 2003). The field of isotope
compositions for barite and hydrothermal sulphide (volcanogenic massive sulphide ‘VMS’ deposits)
is shown. Data for pre-2.45 Ga samples tend to plot with an aspect ratio similar to the 193 nm
photolysis array of SO2 and SO (discussed in Farquhar et al., 2001; Pavlov and Kasting, 2002).
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It is thought that the early Earth experienced significant mass input from extraterrestrial
sources from the sweep-up of remnant debris from solar system formation. Therefore, it
makes sense to explore whether extraterrestrial sources of sulphur could have been important to the earliest sulphur cycle.
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7.5-3. EXTRATERRESTRIAL INPUTS TO THE SULPHUR CYCLE ON THE EARLY
EARTH
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Dust delivery has always been important to planets, and interplanetary dust was likely
a major contributor to the surface inventory of biogenic elements at the formation and
early evolution of terrestrial planets (Maurette et al., 2000; Pavlov et al., 1999; Marty
and Yokochi, 2006). Micrometeorites and interplanetary dust particles dominate the contemporary extraterrestrial matter flux to Earth on the order of 103 –104 tons/yr (Love and
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Brownlee, 1993), or about 2–3 orders of magnitude above the calculated present-day meteorite flux (Bland, 2005).
In the last decade evidence has emerged that many (or most) stars are born with circumstellar disks with abundant dust and rocky debris (Habing et al., 2001; Carpenter et
al., 2005). The solar system’s original disk became severely depleted by planetesimal accretion and by planet formation within about the first 100 My (Rieke et al., 2005) have
shown that some debris disk systems observed around young (<1 Gyr old) stars by the
Spitzer telescope look brighter than others of similar age and may represent dust generated from evaporation of comets and/or planetary-scale bombardment events (Kenyon and
Bromley, 2005) well after the primary phase of planetary accretion should have ended (Beichman et al. 2005; Rieke et al., 2005; Meyer et al., 2006). If cometary dust production
rates from comet Hale-Bopp (Bocklée-Morvan et al., 2004) are any measure of the composition of the early disk dust for our solar system, then the combined sulphur species
measured for coma dust (OCS, CS2 , H2 CS) amounts to a mere ∼0.65% of the comet’s water content. At first glance, it appears that late implantation of extraterrestrial sulphur from
dust would have been a relatively minor player in the chemistry of early planetary surfaces
and atmospheres. Since some meteorite components show mass-independently fractionated sulphur isotopes, it is germane to explore whether these inputs were at all significant
to the post-primary accretion sulphur budget of the early Earth.
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7.5-3.1. Extraterrestrial Dust
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Interplanetary dust particles compositionally resemble the CM type carbonaceous chondrites (Kurat et al., 1994). Murchison (CM) meteorite contains 3.3% S (Wasson and
Kallemeyn, 1988), and has 34 S/32 S and 33 S/32 S values comparable to terrestrial crust and
mantle (Gao and Thiemens, 1993a) with average 33 S = 0.013 ± 0.054h. These values
are well within the terrestrial mass-dependent field of the sulphur isotopes. Other primitive meteorites such as Orgeuil (CI), considered by some to be a representative of Jupiter
family comet compositions (Gounelle et al., 2006), contains upwards of 5% total sulphur.
Orgeuil has 34 S/32 S and 33 S/32 S values slightly enriched in the heavier isotopes compared
to Murchison, and preserves an average 33 S value of −0.005h (Gao and Thiemens,
1993a). The majority of meteoritic materials that have been analysed so far for the minor
sulphur isotopes indicate that inhomogeneities in S isotope compositions possibly related
to nucleosynthetic, spallation reactions on Fe, or gas-phase (ion-molecule) photolytic reactions in space, were mixed-in for the most part in the early solar system (Hulston and
Thode, 1965; Gao and Thiemens, 1993a, 1993b). Values of 33 S not equal to 0h have
been found in a class of igneous meteorites called the ureilites (Farquhar et al., 2000b), in
organic residues from carbonaceous chondrites (Cooper et al., 1997), in the acid-resistant
‘phase Q’ of the Allende meteorite (Rees and Thode, 1977), in various phase separates of
chondrite (Rai and Thiemens, 2007) as well as achondrite (Rai et al., 2005) meteorites.
Greenwood et al., 2000a) raised the possibility that the increased rates of extraterrestrial
matter input to the planets of the early solar system from later bombardments could have
implanted heterogeneous distributions of the sulphur isotopes to the early surface.
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
7.5-3.2. Sulphur and the Late Heavy Bombardment
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We have no direct measure of the influx of extraterrestrial dust to Earth before about 3.85
Ga during the so-called ‘late lunar cataclysm’ or ‘late heavy bombardment’ (Tera et al.,
1974; Ryder, 1990). Hartmann et al. (2000) calculated that the total mass of impactors to
the Moon at ca. 3.9 Ga was approximately 6 × 1021 g, and that the amount of mass accumulated by the Moon in the 4.4–4.0 Ga timeframe was roughly equivalent to the mass
influx that formed the major lunar basins during the late heavy bombardment (4.1–3.85 Ga;
reviewed in Mojzsis and Ryder (2001)). Therefore, the total amount of dust accumulated
to the Moon during the Hadean could have been on the order of 1.2 × 1022 g. Several
studies have attempted to acquire information on the rate of accumulation and intensity of
impacts at the tail end of the bombardment epoch from the study of Earth rocks. Koeberl
and Sharpton (1988) searched for shock features in quartz from ∼3.7–3.8 Ga rocks from
Isua (West Greenland). Later, Koeberl et al. (1998, 2000) looked for impact shocked zircons from the same Isua rocks, and of the hundreds of crystals studied, none showed any
evidence of optically resolvable shock deformations (Koeberl, 2003). Mojzsis and Ryder
(2001) and Anbar et al. (2001) could likewise find no unequivocal chemical evidence from
platinum-group elements for the late heavy bombardment in sedimentary rocks with ages at
least to ∼3.83 Ga (Nutman et al., 1997; Manning et al., 2006). On the other hand, Schoenberg et al. (2002) reported tungsten isotope anomalies in ca. 3.7–3.8 Ga paragneisses from
West Greenland and Labrador (Canada) which they interpreted to be remnants of the late
bombardment in younger materials. However, follow-up studies with platinoid elements,
Cr and other isotopic systems (e.g., Frei and Rosing, 2005) could find no corroborating
evidence for cosmic materials in the Isua sediments (Koeberl, 2006). To further compound
these difficulties, the various studies cited above explored rocks with formation times (ca.
3.7–3.8 Ga) that likely did not overlap with the main period of late heavy bombardment to
the inner solar system (Kring and Cohen, 2002).
Since evidence for the bombardment epoch from terrestrial rocks remains elusive, all
estimates of the role of extraterrestrial matter to the early Earth must be treated with caution. Marty and Yokochi (2006) estimated the total range of all extraterrestrial material
(including dust and other meteoritic debris) collected on Earth’s surface from 4.4–3.8 Ga
to have been in the range of 2.4–7.2 × 1023 g. With the average sulphur content of CM
and CI meteorites provided above as a guide, this would amount to an accumulation of
about 0.8–3.6 × 1022 g of extraterrestrial sulphur to the planet integrated over the first 600
My Although significant when compared to the cumulative mass delivered to the Moon as
provided in Hartmann et al. (2000), this amount is still 1% of the total sulphur inventory for all sediments + seawater presently in the surface zone of the Earth (Holser et al.,
1988). In terms of MIF sulphur, Farquhar et al. (2002) argued that bulk extracts of many
different meteorite classes indicate that 33 S values are homogeneous and range between
−0.01 and +0.04h. Earth’s mantle did not inherit S-isotope heterogeneities from its own
formation. It appears that terrestrial sulphur was dominantly indigenous to the Earth since
primary accretion ceased prior to ∼4.4 Ga and that extraterrestrial matter was, overall, a
relatively minor contributor to the global sulphur cycle to the early Earth. This is important,
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because mass-independently fractionated sulphur isotopes documented in the oldest Earth
rocks and minerals can with reasonable confidence be assigned an origin from terrestrial
atmospheric reactions.
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A subset of Hadean zircons, which are up to 4.38 Gyr old (Harrison et al., 2005, 2006)
are enriched in heavy oxygen (Wilde et al., 2001; Mojzsis et al., 2001; Peck et al., 2001;
Cavosie et al., 2005, 2006; Trail et al., 2007). This observation, coupled with characteristic
trace element patterns (Maas and McCulloch, 1991; Maas et al., 1992; Peck et al., 2001;
Crowley et al., 2005) has provided mutually consistent evidence that an evolved rock cycle
was present within ∼150 My of the formation of the Moon (cf. Whitehouse and Kamber,
2002; Nemchin et al., 2006; Coogan and Hinton, 2006). Detailed studies of Hadean zircons
from 176 Hf/177 Hf systematics show that large volumes of continental crust were present
throughout the Hadean (Amelin et al., 1999; Harrison et al., 2005, 2006; cf. Valley, 2006).
Zircon thermometry based on Ti contents of individual pre-4.0 Ga Jack Hills grains also
shows that formation temperatures cluster narrowly around 680 ◦ C (Watson and Harrison,
2005). The simplest explanation for this result is that low-temperature wet minimum-melt
conditions during granite genesis prevailed in Hadean melts that gave rise to the oldest
zircons (Watson and Harrison, 2006). Studies of pre-4 Ga zircons now provide a rather
firm foundation to arguments that water and a sustained atmosphere was present within the
first 100 My of the formation of the solar system. In the absence of an actual rock record
from the first ∼500 My, what data for the earliest surface state might possibly be gleaned
from sulphur isotopes?
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7.5-4.1. Surface Environments in the Hadean
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No terrestrial rocks have yet been found that yield ages older than ca. 4.03 Ga (Bowring
and Williams, 1999). What we do know of the geochemical evolution of Hadean Earth
comes primarily from the study of pre-4.0 Gyr old Hadean detrital zircons shed in younger
sediments captured in the Mount Narryer (Froude et al., 1983) and the Jack Hills (Compston and Pidgeon, 1986) sedimentary belts in Western Australia (see Cavosie et al., this
volume).
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Some Hadean zircons contain inclusions of diverse minerals, but few studies have provided
comprehensive results bearing on identified inclusions in these samples (Maas et al., 1992;
Cavosie et al., 2004; Crowley et al., 2005). In fact, zircons with noticeable inclusions are
often avoided during the selection process as an ion probe spot analyses that overlap inclusions may affect data (e.g., Amelin et al., 1999). Individual Hadean zircons have been
shown to contain polyphase domains of albite, Ca-Al silicate, muscovite/quartz/Fe-oxide,
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Fig. 7.5-7. Optical micrographs of Hadean zircon sample JH992_CF01_88 from Mojzsis et al.
(2001). The location of a Ni-rich pyrite inclusion is shown by the arrow. The multicollector ion microprobe analysis area is indicated by the dashed oval (transmitted light micrograph at top, reflected
light below).
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abundant quartz, K-feldspar, and phosphates such as monazite, apatite and xenotime (Maas
et al., 1992; Cavosie et al., 2004; Crowley et al., 2005). In these studies, it is important to
distinguish between primary melt inclusions and secondary/exsolution products of zircon.
Mineral inclusions encapsulated inside zircons are only of relevance to host rock characteristics if it is possible to show that they represent patches of melt now solid at normal
surface temperatures and specifically of magmatic origin. Such inclusions are often ovoid
and chemically incompatible with zircon. For example, in sample JH992_88 from Mojzsis
et al. (2001), a small (<10 µm diameter) Ni-rich pyrite inclusion was identified near the
centre of a 96% concordant 4.105 Ga zircon with igneous [Th/U]Zr values = 0.52 (Mojzsis
and Harrison, 2002). This zircon has no visible alteration or cracks leading to or from the
inclusion (Fig. 7.5-7). Zircon JH992_88 has δ 18 OVSMOW values from two separate analysis spots of +5.9 ± 0.7h and +6.3 ± 0.4h (reported in Mojzsis et al., 2001), which are
slightly enriched in 18 O compared to average crust and mantle oxygen (+5.5h; Eiler et
al., 1997), but still within the field of I-type magmas (White and Chappell, 1977). The
sulphide contained ∼2 wt% Ni as determined by wavelength dispersive spectroscopy by
electron microprobe, which along with oxygen values, is consistent with a mafic- (or ultramafic?) origin for zircon and its inclusion (e.g., Fleet, 1987). Three separate measurements
of the multiple sulphur isotope composition of this sulphide were obtained following the
techniques described in Mojzsis et al. (2003). The δ 34 S values yield a narrow range of
−8.1 to −10.1h (1σ uncertainties were ±0.17h); these values are lower in 34 S/32 S than
average MORB and mantle (Chaussidon et al., 1987) but comparable to those reported
for hydrothermally altered oceanic crust sulphides (Alt, 1995). Two of the three 33 S values measured for the inclusion are within 1σ error of the York-MDF band (+0.5 ± 0.5h
and −0.9 ± 1.2h), and the third has a slightly 33 S-depleted value of −1.3 ± 0.7h (Table 7.5-2). The absence of resolvable 33 S in 2/3 of the measurements may in part be a
consequence of the low S count rates for this minute sulphide inclusion. It is obvious that
further analyses of this kind are needed on larger sulphide inclusions in Hadean zircon
when they can be found. Other sulphide inclusion studies in resistant mineral hosts such
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33 S/32 S
±1σ
CF01_88@1
CF01_88@2
CF01_88@3
4.4640E–02
4.4549E–02
4.4603E–02
7.89E–06
7.60E–06
7.09E–06
7.9399E–03
7.9464E–03
7.9399E–03
5.53E–06
3.94E–06
9.28E–06
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±1σ
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0.71
0.52
1.18
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CF01_88@1
CF01_88@2
CF01_88@3
−8.11
−10.12
−8.92
VCDT
±1σ
δ 33 S
±1σ
33 S
0.18
0.17
0.16
−5.53
−4.71
−5.53
0.70
0.50
1.17
−1.35
0.50
−0.93
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±1σ
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δ 34 S
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Table 7.5-2. Sulphur isotope composition of sulphide inclusion in JH992_CF01_88 by in situ ion
microprobe multicollection
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Notes: zircon 207 Pb/206 Pb age (1σ ) = 4105±11 Ma; [Th/U]Zr = 0.52; δ 18 OZr = +5.9±0.7h and +6.3±0.4h
at two separate spots as reported in Mojzsis et al. (2001). Average 32 S count rates were: 3.62E7 to 4.23E7 cps.
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as in diamonds (Chaussidon et al., 1987) have been used to draw conclusions about the
nature of sulphur in the mantle as well as crust of the Archaean. For instance, Farquhar et
al. (2002) reported the presence of resolvable 33 S anomalies in Archaean eclogite-type
diamonds from the Orapa kimberlite (Kaapvaal Craton, Botswana) and inferred from these
results that atmospheric MIF sulphur was transferred to the mantle. If mass-independently
fractionated sulphur isotopes are preserved in Hadean zircons, as hinted at by the single
analysis that provided a slightly negative 33 S composition, it may be possible in the future with a greatly expanded data set to place some general constraints on the coupling
between Hadean mantle, crust and atmosphere.
It is interesting to note that in the conceptual model of Farquhar et al. (2002) for the
early Archaean sulphur cycle, sulphur dioxide expelled from volcanoes and transformed
by ultraviolet radiation can be deposited to surface reservoirs as aerosols and ultimately
recycled into the mantle. In their schema, sulphate in oceanic crust accumulates uniformly
negative 33 S values (Farquhar and Wing, 2003) which can become reduced to sulfide
(biologically or thermo-chemically), subducted, and recycled into arc magmas (Fig. 7.5-8).
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Fig. 7.5-8. A schematic model for sulphur cycles on the early Earth (from Mojzsis et al., 2003).
The figure represents a passive margin environment, for a model of the possible contribution of
mass-independent sulphur to subduction products on the early Earth see Farquhar et al. (2002).
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Fig. 7.5-9. Changing CO2 levels in the Earth’s atmosphere over time expressed as both partial pressure of CO2 in bars (left), and against present atmospheric level (PAL; right). The grey shaded region
is the range of concentrations required to compensate for the fainter young Sun (Kasting, 1993).
Other data points shown are reviewed in (Rollinson, 2007). The multiple sulphur isotopes provide a
strong upper constraint on the limit of CO2 partial pressure to below 0.5 bar as far back as 3.83 Ga,
and perhaps before 4.0 Ga (Cates and Mojzsis, 2007b). The same may be said for partial pressures
of methane, which had to be below the threshold necessary for haze formation (Pavlov et al., 2001a,
2001b).
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A key feature of these arguments is that the atmosphere must have been transparent to
ultraviolet and that an ozone UV shield was not present for MIF sulphur isotopes to be imparted to crustal rocks (Farquhar and Wing, 2003). This is because ultraviolet absorption by
the Rayleigh scattering tail of the CO2 absorption spectrum at partial pressures that exceed
∼0.5 bar would have blocked UV sufficiently (Shemansky, 1972) to stop the reactions
responsible for mass-independent sulphur isotope fractionations (Farquhar et al., 2001).
Under these conditions, and with most solar models which show that solar luminosity was
∼70% of present day values, other greenhouse gases were required to keep the Hadean
Earth from freezing over (Kasting, 1993). Abundant methane is the prime candidate for a
greenhouse gas that supplemented water vapor and CO2 throughout the Hadean-Archaean
to have kept the Earth above the freezing point of water (Sagan and Mullen, 1972; Kasting,
2005). Sagan and Chyba (1997) and Pavlov et al. (2001a, 2001b) suggested that photolysis
of methane in the mesosphere by wavelengths shorter than 145 nm could have generated
an organic haze that served as an UV shield early in Earth’s history to stabilise ammonia. If
however short wavelength UV sulphur dioxide photolysis accounts for the Archaean mass-
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
independently fractionated sulphur isotopes, data are inconsistent with the presence of a
high-altitude UV shield, whether from ozone, dense CO2 or an organic haze (Fig. 7.5-9).
It may also be that the atmosphere was mostly transparent to UV for much of the Hadean
and the planet was cool (Zahnle, 2006), although the lack of evidence for glaciations older
than ∼2.9 Ga (Young et al., 1998) apparently weakens this hypothesis.
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7.5-5. SULPHUR AND THE EARLY ARCHAEAN ATMOSPHERE
Quantitative constraints on the composition of the Archaean-Proterozoic atmosphere
have been attempted for many years based on investigations of redox-sensitive minerals
in the geologic record used as input parameters for model calculations. The prevailing
view has been that free oxygen (O2 ) levels were substantially lower than present values,
with estimates of pO2 10−2 present atmospheric level (PAL) before about 2.3 Ga (e.g.,
Cloud, 1968, 1972; Walker, 1990; Holland, 1984, 1994; Kasting, 1993; Rye et al., 1997;
Rye and Holland, 1998; Farquhar et al., 2000a; Pavlov and Kasting, 2002). Alternatively,
some have argued for an O2 -rich surface zone, or at least the condition that the atmosphere
was not anoxic, for much or all of the Archaean (Dimroth and Kimberley, 1976; Towe,
1990; Ohmoto, 1997; Watanabe et al., 1997). Regardless of these different arguments for
an oxic Archaean, it has not been specified whether these models would also apply to the
Hadean Earth. Several reviews of the geologic evidence used to support the contention
that the Archaean was anoxic by Holland (1984, 1994) noted detrital uraninite and pyrite
grains in pre-2.3 Ga sediments as well as other geochemical data (e.g., Fe(II)/Fe(III) in
palaeosols) as indicative of global anoxia at time of deposition (Rye and Holland, 1998;
Rasmussen and Buick, 1999).
As outlined in Mojzsis et al. (2003), the extensive production of mass-independently
fractionated S isotopes formed on Earth in gas-phase reactions in UV transparent anoxic
atmospheres, and preserved in terrestrial rocks and minerals in the absence of enough MDF
oceanic sulphate to dilute mass-independently fractionated sulphur products to the surface
zone, potentially provides three fundamental constraints on the nature of the early Earth’s
atmosphere:
(1) Separate mass-dependent arrays of slope m ≈ 0.5–0.52 within MIF δ 33 S vs δ 34 S data
from ancient sulphur minerals show that effective oxidation of sulphur in the surface
zone and homogenization of reduced and oxidised sulphur reservoirs by biological cycling was either absent or suppressed. In a model study, Pavlov and Kasting (2002)
argued that in addition to the palaeosol and detrital mineral data cited above, pO2
levels had to be below ∼10−6 PAL throughout the Archaean. A conclusion of this
work, and separate experimental studies of microbial sulphate reduction capabilities
of organisms at low seawater SO4 2− concentrations (Habicht et al., 2002), is that sulphate was severely limited in the oceans for microbial sulphate reduction before the
rise of atmospheric oxygen in the Proterozoic (Papineau et al., 2005, 2007; Papineau
and Mojzsis, 2006). This observation is important because in standard 34 S/32 S isotopic
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Fig. 7.5-10. Plot of 33 S vs δ 34 S for closed cell photolysis experiments of SO2 gas mixtures irradiated at 193 nm (from Farquhar and Wing, 2003; data in Farquhar et al., 2001).
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analyses of ca. 3.5 Ga barite deposits from the North Pole (Warrawoona Group, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia), Shen et al. (2001) concluded that a 20h range in δ 34 S
values was evidence for effective microbial sulphate reduction by 3.5 Ga. As noted previously, photolysis reactions that involve SO2 + SO and other gases (e.g., H2 S, CS2 ) in
anoxic atmospheres are known to produce large MIF effects (Fig. 7.5-10) with a range
in 34 S/32 S of product sulphur that can mimic the entire range of biological fractionations of the sulphur isotopes. This observation underscores the now critical importance
of multiple isotope measurements in all subsequent sulphur studies of ancient rocks,
and warrants a comprehensive re-visit of pre-2.3 Gyr old terranes previously sampled
for sulphur (reviewed in Strauss (1997, 2003)).
(2) Experiments to delimit the range of conditions necessary for UV light-driven photolysis reactions with sulphur gases deep in the atmosphere, and to investigate the
magnitude of isotopic fractionations in the mass-independently fractionated products
(reviewed in Thiemens (1999) and Farquhar et al. (2001)), have succeeded in reproducing the large range of MIF observed in Archaean sulphides. A consensus view has
emerged that column abundances of O2 and O3 before ∼2.3 Ga were very low if, for
example, 190 nm UV and other wavelengths could penetrate deep into the atmosphere
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
to result in widespread MIF. Farquhar et al. (2000a, 2001) showed that this result can
be used to place an upper limit on pO2 in the Archaean of <10−2 PAL and an upper
limit on pCO2 of ∼0.5 bar (1.5 × 103 PAL). Methane may have been present, but did
not produce aerosols to attenuate UV (Fig. 7.5-9).
(3) In Fig. 7.5-6 the principal laboratory reaction that has been documented to be most
consistent with the data thus far obtained for MIF S in the geologic record involves
SO2 photolysis at 193 nm UV (Farquhar and Wing, 2003). Pavlov and Kasting, 2002
used one-dimensional photochemical models of atmospheres at various O2 concentrations and found that the transfer of MIF S to the surface by aerosol deposition is
only possible in anoxic conditions of the early Earth (e.g., Kasting et al., 1989, 1992).
The proposed mechanism is that MIF in sulphur aerosols are preserved from homogenization in oceanic sulphate reservoirs only in atmospheres where pO2 10−6 PAL.
Pavlov and Kasting (2002) concluded that it is not possible to preserve MIF δ 33 S/δ 34 S
in high-O2 atmospheres; in these models, the demise of MIF S in the geologic record
is reached even before the pO2 = 10−6 PAL threshold was overtaken in the Paleoproterozoic (Farquhar et al., 2000a; Mojzsis et al., 2003; Ono et al., 2003; Bekker et al.,
2004), sometime between 2.35 and 2.42 Ga during glaciations (Papineau et al., 2006,
2007).
As ever larger data sets become generated for multiple S isotopes in early Archaean rocks,
results provide an increasingly robust indication that a chemically reactive, UV transparent,
anoxic atmosphere existed on Earth prior to about 2.35 Ga. This anoxic regime stretched
as far back as ∼3.83 Ga, and perhaps well into the Hadean. The diverse 33 S values for
sulphides reported from Archaean and early Proterozoic rocks means that up to several
percent of the marine sulphur cycle was affected by atmospheric deposition of MIF S
aerosols following residence in the atmosphere.
A consequence of planetary-scale deposition of sulphur aerosols (Fig. 7.5-8) is that they
could have been tapped as a food source for early microbial communities that metabolise
elemental sulphur and sulphate.
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Sulphur has played a central role in biological systems since the origin of life and has
followed the genomic and metabolic diversification of organisms since their emergence
some 4 b.y. ago (DeDuve, 2005). A landmark in studies of the evolutionary relationships
of organisms was established with the comparative sequence analysis of genomes used to
infer phylogenetic relationships (Woese and Fox, 1977; Woese, 2000). It is now widely
held that the evolutionary history of life is recapitulated by its molecular biochemical inheritance (Pace, 1997, 2001), and that all life can be classified into three Domains within
the small subunit ribosomal RNA Phylogenetic Tree: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. In
this context, a major objective to analyse the sulphur isotope compositions of Archaean
sediments has been to identify and trace the long-term evolution of microbial metabolisms
(e.g., Monster et al., 1979; Schidlowski et al., 1983), and lately, to be able to relate the
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divergence of different sulphur metabolisms to events in the geologic and paleontological
record (Canfield, 2004). This rationale is based on several key observations: (i) some of
the most deeply branching lineages in the universal phylogenetic tree that reside close to
the ‘Root’ population that gave rise to all extant life, can metabolize sulphur compounds;
(ii) significant sulphur isotopic fractionations can result from enzymatic processing of Scontaining molecules; and (iii) sulphides preserved in the geological record have a large
range of isotopic compositions and data show that this range has increased in time (reviewed in Canfield and Raiswell (1999)).
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Reduced sulphur as H2 S, and its organic derivatives in the thiols (R –SH) and the thioesters
(CO–S), form from the dehydration condensation of carboxylic acid (R –COOH) and thiol
in the simple reaction:
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These compounds were likely participants in the most basic proto-metabolic processes in
the origin of life. Furthermore, no discussion of sulphur biochemistry is complete without
taking into account the rich chemistry of metal-sulphur compounds. In all contemporary
organisms, transition metal sulphide clusters play a central catalytic role in biological energy conversion systems (Beinert, 2000) and have been important since the establishment
of the earliest metabolic cycles (Rees and Howard, 2003). It is the connection between
the essential role of thioesters and the predominance of mineral sulphides in hydrothermal and volcanic vents that has led a number of workers to speculate how life could
have emerged in such environments (e.g., Russell and Hall, 1997; Russell and Martin,
2004). Hydrothermal cells form wherever there is hot rock in contact with water, and such
environments may have been widespread in the Hadean crust. It is thus highly likely –
because of the ubiquity of hydrothermal environments away from a surface zone affected
by impacts and intense UV – that the deep biosphere was amongst the earliest on Earth
even if it was not necessarily the first (Russell and Arndt, 2005). As a basis for an ironsulphide theory for the origin of life, Wächtershäuser (1988, 1992) proposed a ‘fast origin’
by an autotrophic proto-metabolism of low-molecular weight constituents (Fig. 7.5-11)
in hydrothermal environments. Along these lines, Cody et al. (2000) presented experimental support for the formation of pyruvic acid (CH3 –CO–COOH) from formic acid
(HCOOH) in the presence of organo-metallic sulphur compounds such as nonylmercaptane (Fe2 (CH3 S)2 –(CO)6 ), and iron sulphide (FeS2 ) at high temperatures and pressures
consistent with shallow oceanic crust near volcanic centres (250 ◦ C and 200 MPa). Mixture of these reaction products with lower temperature fluids that emanated further away
from vent centres, such as is found at the crust-ocean interface, would have been more
conducive to the survivability of other important biomolecules such as amino acids and
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Fig. 7.5-11. Basic proto-biotic reactions that could have taken place in the ‘Iron-Sulphur World’
(modified after Wächtershäuser (2000)).
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nucleosides (Orgel, 1998). In a separate analogy with the H2 S/CO system, the formation
of FeS2 in the simple reaction:
FeS(pyrrhotite) + H2 S → FeS2 (pyrite) + H2
produces molecular hydrogen. The FeS/H2 S couple is a strong reductant that could have
played an important supporting role in prebiotic organic synthesis under crustal conditions
common to the Hadean Earth.
Therefore, a self-consistent picture has emerged that hydrothermal zones in shallow
Hadean oceanic crust were, if not the birthplace of life on Earth as advocated by Russell
and Arndt (2006) and Russell et al. (2005), at least were the crucible wherein early biological forms found a ready source of fluids rich in reduced carbon and more complex organic
molecules (Shock and Schulte, 1998). In this scenario, electron acceptors such as S0 either
from recycled sulphur in oceanic crust, from sulphidic hydrothermal fluids, or transferred
from the water column to the crust plumbing system (Fig. 7.5-1) to be catalysed by carbonylated iron-sulphur clusters (Cody et al., 2000), could have provided both a kick-start
to, and a rich food source for, the Hadean biosphere.
A primordial repose for life in deep hydrothermal vent systems that metabolized reduced sulphur compounds is further supported by molecular phylogenetic studies. Biochemical evidence shows that some of the earliest biomes were located in deep hydrother-
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Fig. 7.5-12. Phylogenetic tree based on ssu 16s rRNA comparisons which shows Bacterial and Archaeal lineages of extant organisms capable of elemental sulphur reduction (framed characters),
sulphate reduction (underlined lineages) and sulphide oxidation (boxed lineages). This figure is modified from Pace (1997) with information from Klein et al. (2001), Canfield and Raiswell (1999),
Stetter and Gaag (1983).
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mal environments. A crucial caveat to these studies is that before we actually know how
life on Earth began there is no definite requirement that life started in a mild-, medium- or
hot-hydrothermal vent field, even if it is a compelling and convenient place for the origin
of life (Nisbet and Sleep, 2001). Sulphate and other oxidised S species figure prominently
as electron acceptors for those deeply branching microbes that perform microbial sulphate
reduction, yet were probably of limited use in the absence of significant sulphate before
the Proterozoic. Instead, the ancient metabolic cycles of life that arose out of the metal-S
chemistry described above in all probability metabolized volcanogenic sulphur gases such
as H2 S, SO2 and sulphur compounds including elemental S.
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Many hyperthermophilic, deep-branching organisms in the domains Bacteria (Thermotogales, Proteobacter) and in various Archaea (sub-Domain Crenarcheota and Pyrococcus,
Thermoplasma in sub-Domain Euryarcheota) are known to reduce elemental sulphur to
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
H2 S with both H2 and organic compounds as an electron donor (Fig. 7.5-12). This pathway could have evolved from proto-metabolic metal-sulphur cycles, and presently involves
a short electron transport chain controlled by the activity of key enzymes including sulphur
reductase, polysulphide reductase and hydrogenase (Laska et al., 2003). The antiquity
of this metabolism is further evident in that both deep-branching bacterial and archaeal
lineages share this metabolic style (Stetter and Gaag, 1983; Stetter, 1996; Canfield and
Raiswell, 1999), an observation that strongly suggests that elemental sulphur reduction
(ESR) might be an inherited trait from the last common ancestor of all life that resided in
a high-temperature environment (Corliss, 1990).
Supposing that ESR is truly ancient, it still remains unknown whether the last common
ancestral population at the base of the phylogenetic tree (labelled ‘Root’ in Fig. 7.5-12)
included the genes for this particular metabolic style. Elemental sulphur reduction could
very well have evolved later in one of the domains and subsequent lateral gene transfer
occurred between domains. Indeed, the lateral-transfer argument holds for all the discussions on the early rise of metabolisms interpreted from extant phylogenies if they cannot
be specifically tied to molecular or isotopic biomarkers in the geologic record. It is anticipated that future phylogenetic comparisons with amino acid sequences of specific enzymes
will better constrain the branching sequence of lineages. If a large number of lineages that
perform a specific metabolic pathway are known from both the bacterial and archaeal domains, evidence would seem to favour a deeply ancient origin. A critical clue may be that
no known Eukaryal organism has this metabolic style. Anaerobic respiration with elemental sulphur is performed by several bacteria and archaea, but has only been investigated in
a few organisms in detail (Hedderich et al., 1998). As was noted by Canfield and Raiswell
(1999), organisms that do ESR can readily obtain elemental sulphur from rapid cooling of
volcanogenic sulphur gases where:
SO2 + 2H2 S ↔ 3S + 2H2 O.
0
This reaction shifts the equilibrium in favor of S0 (Grinenko and Thode, 1970). For example, with S0 present, microbes can perform the reaction:
4S0 + 4H2 O → 3H2 S + SO4 2− + 2H+
and in the presence of iron hydroxides, which were abundant in the oceans before 1.9 Ga
(see Holland, 1984; Bjerrum and Canfield, 2002; Thamdrup et al., 1993):
H2 S + 4H+ + 2Fe(OH)3 → 2Fe2+ + S0 + 6H2 O
As implied by Fig. 7.5-11, the rich chemistry at the interface of metal-sulphur and biochemistry is not restricted to iron, even if that particular branch of inorganic biochemistry
has always been dominated by Fe-S (Daniel and Danson, 1995). Many metals which happen to be abundant in most mafic and ultramafic rocks readily interact with sulphur, such
as Zn, Mo, Co and Ni. Average MORB contains 79 ppm Zn, 0.46 ppm Mo, 47 ppm Co
and 150 ppm Ni (Hertogen et al., 1980; Newsom et al., 1986; Hofmann, 1988). Transition metal-sulphur chemistry figures prominently in the biochemistry of many deeplybranching microbes (reviewed in Konhauser, 2007). Most of the various catalytic roles of
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metal ion + S clusters other than Fe await experimental verification from analysis of controlled (culture) experiments and such experiments represent an important new avenue for
research into the question of a biological origin of sulphur isotope fractionations in the
geologic record.
Microbial sulphate reduction (MSR) is an anaerobic metabolic pathway in which SO4 2−
is used as an electron acceptor to be reduced to H2 S with electron donors such as H2 and/or
a variety of organic molecules to produce hydrogen sulphide in the general form:
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SO4 2− + 5H2 → H2 S + 4H2 O
Sulphate reduction in bacteria and archaea can proceed via dissimilatory or assimilatory
pathways that either excrete H2 S or insert it in organic compounds. A few key enzymes
and compounds in MSR are illustrated in Fig. 7.5-13. The timing of evolution of these
genes is not accurately known, but qualitative information can be obtained from molecular
phylogeny of sulphate reducers.
7.5-6.3. Biological Sulphur Isotopic Fractionations
Sulphate-reducers preferentially metabolize 32 SO4 2− rather than 34 SO4 2− to produce isotopically light H2 S with a range of δ 34 S values between −4 and −46h under nonlimiting concentrations of SO4 2− (Canfield and Raiswell, 1999, and references therein).
Microbially-produced H2 S can react with dissolved Fe2+ or other metal cations to precipitate sulphides in the simple reaction:
2H2 S + Fe
2+
→ FeS2 + 2H2
Diagenetic sulphides formed from H2 S and FeS (or other metal-sulfide) reactions carry the
combined mass-balanced sulphur isotopic composition without significant isotopic fractionation (Butler et al., 2004; Böttcher et al., 1998). These isotope ratios can then become
incorporated and preserved in the geological record of authigenic sulphides. The sulphur
isotopic composition of sedimentary sulphides can therefore be used to pinpoint the isotopic fractionation between dissolved SO4 2− , and product H2 S as an isotopic biosignature
to trace the early evolution of microbial sulphur metabolisms.
It has been experimentally verified that microbial sulphate reduction under limiting
SO4 2− concentrations (i.e., lower than 200 µM) has insignificant effect on the δ 34 S value
of product H2 S (Habicht et al., 2002). If the concentration of SO4 2− in the environment is
low, microbial sulphate reduction produces H2 S (and thence sulphide) with approximately
the same δ 34 S value as the available δ 34 Ssulphate . The δ 34 S of sulphides from ancient sediments can also be used to trace the concentration of dissolved SO4 2− in seawater at the
time of sedimentation. Sedimentary sulphides with negative δ 34 S values (i.e., <−10h)
are consistent with microbial sulphate reduction in high seawater SO4 2− concentrations.
Variability in sulphur isotopic fractionations during MSR can also depend strongly on the
sources of organic compounds consumed during growth (Kleikemper et al., 2004) and
on the different lineages of sulphate reducers (Detmers et al., 2001). Some organisms
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
Fig. 7.5-13. Simplified biochemistry of sulphate reduction showing (left) key intermediate compounds produced during sulphate reduction and
(at right) schemes of assimilative and dissimilative sulphate reduction (modified from Madigan et al. (2000)).
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Fig. 7.5-14. Isotopic fractionation in the modern sulfur cycle showing the values for average sulfur
fractionations (± standard deviations) associated either with reduction or oxidation. Each disproportionation reaction couples the production of both H2 S and SO4 2− (from Habicht et al., 1998).
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2−
S0 ,
can also disproportionate thiosulphate (S2 O3
SO3 and/or
and the disproportionation of sulphur-containing compounds produces different molar amounts of both H2 S
and SO4 2− with isotopic fractionations characterized by enrichments of 34 S in SO4 2−
and depletions of 34 S in H2 S (Böttcher, 2001; Habicht et al., 2002). Natural microbial
communities are known to produce sulphide significantly more depleted in 34 S than is
expected from microbial sulphate reduction alone. The disproportionation of intermediate sulphur-compounds metabolized by sulphate reducers can recycle sulphur through yet
greater degrees of isotopic fractionation and this has been used to explain the observed
large range of δ 34 S in modern sediments (Habicht and Canfield, 2001; Canfield and Thamdrup, 1994). A schematic representation of the different sulphur isotopic fractionations
is shown in Fig. 7.5-14. Sulphur oxidation does not significantly fractionate δ 34 S values
but returns oxidized sulphur compounds to the environment, which in the context of a hierarchical microbial community can then be recycled as electron acceptors for microbial
sulphate reduction or disproportionation reactions.
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Because sulphur is so widely distributed in the Earth and occurs in oxidized forms
(sulphate), neutral state (elemental S0 ) and reduced forms (sulphides), it readily travels
throughout the rock cycle. Criteria used to distinguish sedimentary from hydrothermal sulphides include the crystal habit, sulphur isotopic composition, and sometimes an unusual
abundance of trace metals. Detrital sulphides, which can sometimes be identified from
their rounded appearance and occurrence with other characteristic detrital minerals, are
older than the depositional age of the sediment. Sulphide formation can postdate the origin
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
of host sedimentary rocks if they formed from the crystallization of remobilized sulphur
from post-depositional circulating fluids. Hydrothermal fluids may assimilate sulphur from
host sedimentary rocks during water-rock interactions and therefore carry the δ 34 S value
of the host rock. Pyrite in sediments may have the isotopic signature of microbial sulphate
reduction, and subsequent hydrothermal circulation can transport Cu that will react with
pyrite to form chalcopyrite with the same δ 34 S as the precursor pyrite (Ohmoto and Goldhaber, 1997; Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006). High concentrations of trace metals such as Co,
Zn and Ni in sulphides may be used as an indicator of diagenetic conditions or interaction
with magmatic or other fluids. The δ 34 S value of sulphur in igneous rocks from the upper
mantle is in the range of −0.7 ± 5.0h (Chaussidon and Lorand, 1990) and more generally
is in the range of −3.0 to +3.0h (Ohmoto, 1986).
Sulphur isotopes of Archaean magmas (Hattori and Cameron, 1986) have massdependently fractionated 33 S values between −0.3 and +0.3h, unless the magma originated primarily from recycled Archaean sediments with a nonzero 33 S and the MIF
sulphur isotopes were isolated from dilution by mantle sulphur (e.g., Farquhar et al., 2002;
Mojzsis et al., 2003). Metamorphic effects only slightly fractionate sulphur isotopes, and
these minor effects are mass-dependent. Metamorphism can potentially modify the 33 S
value of sedimentary sulphides but it is thought that this can only be achieved by interaction with sulphur-containing metamorphic fluids such that a pre-existing MIF signature
is either diluted or remobilized by the fluid. At 900–950 ◦ C, the self-diffusion of S in sulphides (pyrrhotite) is slow, (log D = 10−16 m2 s−1 ; Condit et al., 1974), which will tend to
preserve mass-independent sulphur isotope signatures even in metamorphic sulphides, but
an important caveat to this is that it must otherwise occur in the absence of massive S-rich
fluid infiltration and replacement (Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006).
Because of these competing factors, it must be noted that near-zero 33 S values for
Archaean sedimentary rocks may not necessarily imply high levels of atmospheric O2
at time of deposition. Mass-independently fractionated sulphur isotopes can be diluted
by mass-dependently fractionated sulphur, especially if sulphate production is enhanced
in local Archaean environments (Huston et al., 2001a). This point probably explains the
observation that some sulphides with nonzero 33 S values from Archaean sediments coexist in samples that also have mass-dependently fractionates sulphur isotopes (Mojzsis et
al., 2003; Hu et al, 2003; Farquhar et al., 2000a; Whitehouse et al., 2005). The presence of a
mass-independently fractionated sulphur isotopic signature is consistent with sedimentary
sulphur that cycled through the atmosphere. However, to propose that mass-independent
sulphur isotopes were absent at time of deposition requires other lines of evidence such as
δ 34 S, sulphide composition, morphology and petrogenesis to firmly assign a sedimentary
source of sulphur. In sum, without more data to support a sedimentary source, the nearzero 33 S values of these samples cannot be used to constrain atmospheric O2 at time of
deposition.
The crystal habit of the analysed sulphide crystals from metasedimentary rocks can
vary from anhedral to euhedral and may be related to degree of recrystallization related
to metamorphism. All Archaean sedimentary rocks experienced some degree of metamorphism, which may have modified the original sulphide morphologies. However, analysis
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Fig. 7.5-15. Sulphur multiple isotope data (expressed as 33 S) for sedimentary sulphides and sulphates as a function of age (replotted after Farquhar et al. (2000); see also Seal (2006)). A large range
in 33 S values for samples older than 2.4 Ga most likely reflects a change in atmospheric oxygen
concentration past the pO2 = 10−6 PAL threshold (Pavlov and Kasting, 2002). Filled symbols are
data from sulphides, open symbols are sulphates.
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of visible light and electron micrographs of sulphides thus far analysed in situ have failed
to show any obvious correlations between sulphur isotopic composition and grain shape
and/or size (e.g., Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006). Papineau et al. (2005, 2007) have argued
that the habit of a sulphide grain is a weak criterion to assess the sedimentary origin of the
sulphur, unless specific features can be identified, such as sulphide nodules. Metamorphic
recrystallization is probably responsible for most of the large euhedral crystals observed in
samples of various ages. Visible light, as well as electron micrograph images have so far
failed to show any evidence for sulphide overgrowths on pre-existing sulphide cores in the
hundreds of analysed sulphides from various Archaean localities worldwide.
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33 S
sulphur aerosol formation is that pyrite,
A consequence of the model for anomalous
forming via elemental sulphur reduction by organisms to H2 S, would retain positive 33 S
signatures, while pyrite from sulphate reduction would be expected to preserve negative
33 S values. The latter case may be seen in published 33 S data for sedimentary rocks
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Fig. 7.5-16. Three-isotope plot of sulphur isotope data from sulphides analysed in Isua supracrustal
belt metasediments showing the MDF bands (grey lines) reported in Papineau and Mojzsis (2006).
The separate MIF arrays in the data shows that effective homogenization of the S reservoirs by
mixture with sulphate was suppressed in the anoxic Eoarchean oceans. Mojzsis et al. (2003) noted
that the paucity of negative 33 S in early Archaean rocks argues against widespread MSR at that
time and could provide crucial clues about BIF origins.
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2.5 Ga where pyrites preserve both negative and positive mass-dependent fractionations
(Fig. 7.5-15). In the majority of Archaean samples for which multiple sulphur isotope data
are available, most sulphides have strongly positive 33 S values. Mojzsis et al. (2003)
and Papineau and Mojzsis (2006) interpreted these data to be inconsistent with sulphate
reduction and more in line with elemental sulphur reduction. The presence of such positive
33 S values provides a strong case that the source of sulphur in these systems was cycled
through the atmosphere and introduced to the oceans in the early Archaean, and separate
linear mass-dependent arrays in δ 33 S/δ 34 S space show that the sulphur was subsequently
isolated there from re-homogenisation by volcanic and hydrothermal sources (Fig. 7.5-16).
Elemental sulphur (S0 , S8 ) aerosols derived from mass-independent isotope fractionations from atmospheric reactions and implanted into the oceans would have provided a
ready source of sulphur to a plethora of environments at the global scale from the Hadean
onwards. In the absence of oxidative weathering of surface pyrite or other ready sources of
sulphate, anoxic waters contain no more than trace sulphate over HS− + H2 S (Thorstenson, 1970). Although far from representing a consensus view, the current paradigm holds
that the Archaean oceans were generally poor in sulphate relative to present values (Hol-
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(Papineau et al., 2007).
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7.5-7.1. Sulphides and Sulphates from the (ca. 3.49 Ga) Dresser Formation, Warrawoona
Group, Western Australia
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Sulphides are often preserved in ancient marine sediments but sedimentary sulphate
minerals have yet to be reported in rocks older than about 3.5 Ga (Huston and Logan,
2004). The oldest evidence of sedimentary sulphate occurs as ∼3.4–3.5 Ga barite from
Western Australia, South Africa and India (reviewed in Van Kranendonk (2006)). It is
because of the paucity of early Archaean multiple sulphur isotope data that the sulphur
isotopic composition of seawater sulphate during the 3.5–3.2 Ga interval is not well established, and not established at all for before 3.5 Ga. However, it is not unreasonable to
suppose that seawater δ 34 Ssulphate at the time of deposition of Isua sedimentary protoliths
at ca. 3.8 Ga (see below) was not significantly different from the 3.4–3.5 Ga seawater
δ 34 Ssulphate of between +2.7 and +8.7h (Strauss, 2003).
As opposed to the conventional 34 S/32 S measurements, an increasingly large body of
multiple sulphur isotope data has been collected in the last few years for several of the
key metasedimentary units in Western Australia (ca. 3.5 Ga) and West Greenland (ca. 3.8
Ga). These studies have brought to light several important features of the early Archaean
surface state.
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Microscopic sulphide (pyrite) grains in ca. 3.49 Ga barite beds from the Dresser Formation,
Warrawoona Group at North Pole (Western Australia) have δ 34 S values up to 24h lighter
than co-existing sulphate (barite) from the same unit. These data were interpreted by Shen
et al. (2001) as evidence of microbial sulphate reduction in the Paleoarchaean, an interpretation that could also be viewed consistent with phylogenetic arguments that suggest an
early evolution of microbial sulphate reduction (Fig. 7.5-12). However, to assign an actual
time of relative phylogenetic divergence episodes on the RNA phylogenetic tree (Pace,
2001) should be attempted with extreme caution because changes per nucleotide/time have
not yet been established with confidence. Smaller ranges of δ 34 S values in pyrite from
Mesoarchaean marine metasedimentary rocks of between −2.5 and +8.5h have been put
forth as evidence for sulphate-rich Archaean oceans with concentrations >1 mM that existed under 10−13 PAL O2 (Ohmoto and Felder, 1987; Ohmoto, 1997, 1999; Ohmoto
et al., 1993). Such concentrations are about 5 times higher than what is expected from
experiments that show similarly small sulphur isotopic fractionations when microbial sulphate reduction occurs at seawater sulphate concentrations of less than 0.2 mM (Habicht
et al., 2002). If the Archaean atmosphere was oxygen-rich and stabilised sufficient sulphate in seawater to form the large barite deposits, it requires distinctive interpretations of
geologic data and of thermodynamic arguments for oxidative weathering of siderite and
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-17. Evolution of 34 S/32 S sulphur isotope ratios in the geological record. The two upper
lines represent the band of δ 34 Ssulfate values and the diamonds are compiled published δ 34 Ssulfide
data for sedimentary rocks. Before ∼1.7 Ga, constraints on δ 34 Ssulfate are scarce and the lower line
is a 55h fractionation from contemporaneous seawater sulphate (from Shen et al., 2001). Data for
pre-3.5 Ga sediments are incomplete for this graph.
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detrital heavy minerals (Ohmoto, 1999; cf. Rasmussen et al., 1999), a different explanation of BIF genesis, and alternative interpretations of δ 13 Corg , δ 13 Ccarb and δ 34 Ssulphide
data for Archaean sedimentary rocks (Ohmoto, 1997). The proposed evolution for seawater δ 34 Ssulphate is illustrated as a continuous band in Fig. 7.5-17. The observation that
the range of δ 34 Ssulphide values has increased over time – specifically during the Paleoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic – is instead most easily explained by significant
accumulations of atmospheric O2 after about 2.5 Ga which helped stabilise oceanic sulphate at higher concentrations (Holland, 1984). The generally small ranges of δ 34 S values
in Archaean metasedimentary rocks appear to indicate that either sulphate-reducing microbes were frustrated by the generally low concentration of seawater sulphate and limited
to specific microenvironments where sulphate was present, or they had not yet evolved.
The data of Shen et al. (2001) were collected in cherty barite-containing rocks from
the Dresser Formation. The rocks experienced low degrees of metamorphism and slight
deformation (Van Kranendonk, 2006), which argues against extensive post-diagenetic alteration of the sulphur isotopes. Groves et al. (1981) interpreted the depositional setting
for these units as sedimentary deposits with precipitated gypsum (later replaced by barite)
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from brine ponds separated from the sea by a sand berm. Buick and Dunlop (1990) postulated the origin of the precipitated sulphate from originally low sulphate sea water that
had seeped into briny lagoons and evaporated to concentrate sulphate. These authors also
suggested that sulphate may have been locally supplemented by the phototrophic oxidation
of volcanogenic sulphide.
In a series of papers, Van Kranendonk et al. (2001), Van Kranendonk and Pirajno (2004)
and Van Kranendonk (2006) presented an alternative explanation for the origin of the
sulphate with new high-resolution mapping and geochemical analyses of the North Pole
rocks. This work convincingly showed that the extensive bedded chert + barite units of
the Dresser Formation formed during discrete episodes of volcanogenic hydrothermal circulation during exhalative cooling of a felsic magma chamber. A similar conclusion was
reached for the origin of sulphates in the 3.2–3.6 Ga Panorama volcanic-hosted sulphide
district, also in Western Australia (Huston et al., 2001a). Under conditions analogous to
contemporary S-rich volcanism at Mt. Pinatubo (Philippines), a silicic magma chamber
with associated caldera collapse and seawater incursions will evolve highly oxidized (Scaillet et al., 1998) volatile-laden saline fluids (Newton and Manning, 2005). Such conditions
stabilise SO2 and lead to the expulsion of oxidised fluids, which in the hydrolysis reaction
(after Hattori and Cameron, 1986):
4H2 0 + 4SO2 ↔ H2 S + 3H+ + 3HSO−
4
leads to the highly localised enrichment of sulphate, without the intervention of oxygenic
photosynthesizers. In the case of the Dresser Formation barites, locally recharged submarine brine-pools with reactive Ba2+ leached from basalt would have formed barite (cf. Van
Kranendonk, 2006). Sulphate would have been rapidly scavenged by Ba2+ ; the solubility
of barite is low (Hr◦ = 6.35 kcal mol−1 , log K = −9.97; Stumm and Morgan (1996)),
and Ba2+ leached from basalt (average Archaean basalt contains 569 ppm Ba; Condie
(1993)) was precipitated as barite syndepositionally with pyrite.
Multiple S-isotope measurements of sulphate-sulphide pairs provide a crucial clue to
the origin of the sulphur in the Dresser rocks. Barites from Dresser sample GSWA 169711
(A-I) reported in Farquhar et al. (2000a) have average 33 S values = −0.98 ± 0.02h and
average δ 34 SVCDT = +4.9h that form a well-defined (r 2 = 0.977) linear array of MDF
slope λ = 0.51 ± 0.04 (Fig. 7.5-18(a)). It is thus apparent from these data that the sulphur
responsible for this barite resided for some time in the Archaean atmosphere before it was
deposited in the water and stabilised as sulphate. Core rock samples of black chert with
finely disseminated pyrite, also from the Dresser Formation (core sample GSWA 169729),
have average 33 S values = +3.67 ± 0.03h and average δ 34 SVCDT = +2.70 ± 0.01h
(Table 7.5-3) that form a linear array (r 2 = 0.893) of non-MDF slope λ = 0.837 ± 0.16
(Fig. 7.5-18(b)). When these data are plotted in 33 S vs δ 34 S space (Fig. 7.5-19), it is
apparent that they are consistent with samples that experienced SO2 (or SO) photolysis at
short UV (e.g., 193 nm) wavelengths (compare with Fig. 7.5-6).
The differences in pyrite and barite multiple sulphur isotope compositions from the
Dresser rocks show that deposition of MIF sulphur as pyrite and barite was swift once
aerosols reached the water column. Because neither hydrothermal nor biological cycling
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
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Fig. 7.5-18. A. Plot of multiple S-isotope measurements of barites from Dresser sample GSWA
169711 (A-I) reported in Farquhar et al. (2000a) shows a well-defined (r 2 = 0.977) linear array of
MDF slope λ = 0.51 ± 0.04. B. Core samples of pyrite from black chert from the Dresser Formation sample GSWA 169729 form a less well-defined linear array (r 2 = 0.893) of non-MDF slope
λ = 0.837 ± 0.16.
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of sulphate had sufficient time to homogenise the
neither process was important at time of deposition.
33 S
values, it may be the case that
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34 S/32 S
±1σ
33 S/32 S
±1σ
δ 34 SVCDT
±1σ
δ 33 S
±1σ
33 S
±1σ
G1_s1
G1_s2
G1_s3
G2_s1
G2_s2
G2_s3
G3_s1
G3_s2
G3_s3
G4-s1
4.5135E–02
4.5114E–02
4.5110E–02
4.5113E–02
4.5134E–02
4.5119E–02
4.5134E–02
4.5132E–02
4.5128E–02
4.5140E–02
6.32E–07
5.63E–07
3.74E–07
6.50E–07
2.24E–07
5.82E–07
7.65E–07
3.42E–07
6.38E–07
6.76E–07
8.0006E–03
7.9969E–03
7.9962E–03
7.9986E–03
8.0011E–03
7.9993E–03
8.0003E–03
8.0005E–03
7.9990E–03
8.0014E–03
1.67E–07
2.06E–07
1.98E–07
1.88E–07
2.53E–07
1.63E–07
1.63E–07
1.81E–07
1.33E–07
2.10E–07
2.89
2.44
2.35
2.41
2.89
2.53
2.88
2.84
2.75
3.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
5.22
4.76
4.67
4.97
5.29
5.07
5.19
5.21
5.02
5.32
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
3.73
3.50
3.45
3.72
3.79
3.75
3.69
3.74
3.59
3.76
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
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Notes: Nomenclature is grain number + ion microprobe spot number. Error demagnification and corrections for instrumental mass bias were applied to the data.
Details for these measurement conditions are reported in Papineau et al. (2005).
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Table 7.5-3. Sulphur isotope composition of sulphides in Dresser Mine core sample 169729-1B by in situ ion microprobe multicollection
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Fig. 7.5-19. Plot of 33 S vs δ 34 S for sulphides and sulphates from the 3.46 Ga Dresser Fm. (sulphate data from Farquhar et al. (2000)). The field of isotope compositions for barite and hydrothermal
sulphide (volcanogenic massive sulphide ‘VMS’ deposits) is also labelled. The data for the sulphide-sulphate pair tend to plot with an aspect ratio similar to the 193 nm photolysis array of SO2
and SO (see Fig. 7.5-6).
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7.5-7.2. Sulphides from the (3.8–3.7 Ga) Isua Supracrustal Belt, West Greenland
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Amphibolites of dominantly basaltic composition from the ca. 3.77 Ga Isua supracrustal
belt (ISB), 150 km northeast of Nuuk, West Greenland, have δ 34 S values between −1.0 and
+2.6h (Monster et al, 1979), consistent with a magmatic origin and an Archaean mantle
with near-zero δ 34 S values (Hattori and Cameron, 1986). Rocks of sedimentary protolith,
such as banded iron-formations (BIF) and garnet-biotite schists of probable ferruginous
clay-rich sedimentary origin are recognizable throughout the ISB (reviewed in Nutman
et al. (1984a)). Because these rocks are of marine sedimentary origin (Dymek and Klein,
1988) they are important candidate materials to host information relevant to the sulphur
geochemistry of the Archaean oceans. In line with these observations, it was proposed
some time ago that sulphur isotopes in sulphides from the metamorphic equivalents of
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Fig. 7.5-20. Comparison of published 34 S values for various sulfide phases in Isua supracrustal
belt metasedimentary rocks (from Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006).
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pelagic sedimentary rocks could preserve isotopic evidence of the early biosphere (Monster
et al., 1979; Schidlowski et al., 1983).
Bulk sulphides from Isua banded iron-formations have δ 34 S values in the range of −1.0
to +2.0h, comparable to values measured from associated garnet-amphibolite rocks of
basaltic composition noted above, which volumetrically dominate the lithotypes of the ISB.
Similar δ 34 S values for pyrite in other BIF units from Isua range between −1.2 to +2.5h,
and were interpreted by Strauss (2003) to reflect magmatic and hydrothermal processes
in the sulphur cycle, with no apparent biological fractionation. The total range of δ 34 S
values measured for metasedimentary rocks of the ISB extends over ∼9h and is centred around +1h (Fig. 7.5-20). This δ 34 S range is similar to other sulphur isotope ranges
that characterize some Mesoarchaean marine sediments (Ohmoto et al., 1993; Ohmoto
and Felder, 1987). A possible explanation is that the small variations in δ 34 S of sulphides
from Isua metasediments reflect mass-dependent fractionation processes during metamorphism, which depend on temperature, sulphide phase, cooling time, etc. Alternatively, such
a range may be consistent with biological fractionation at the time of deposition, but the
range in δ 34 S is small and as outlined previously, microbial sulphate reduction was either
suppressed or absent at Isua time. More data are required to test the hypothesis that elemental sulphur reduction or some other early metabolic cycling of sulphur was present
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
when the Isua sediments formed, especially if the range of δ 34 S for co-existing sulphur
phases can be expanded further.
Published sulphur isotope analyses of anhedral pyrites that occur as interstitial blebs
in biotite from various quartz-biotite schists (‘metapelites’ of clay-rich origin, as opposed
to banded iron-formations) from the ISB showed positive 33 S values between +1.06
and +1.43h, and a range of δ 34 S between −2.82 and +5.44h (Mojzsis et al., 2003;
Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006). Banded iron-formation samples have also been investigated
for their multiple sulphur isotopes from the northeast sector of the ISB. Many of these rocks
contain bands of large (<200 µm) pyrite grains within grunerite+magnetite and quartz
bands. Published data for subhedral to anhedral sulphide for the ISB can be used to define
maximum ranges of δ 34 S data for sulphides (n = 161) as between −3.1 and +5.8h,
and for reported 33 S data (n = 99) between −0.87 and +3.41h. A compendium of
published and recent δ 34 S data from metasedimentary rocks from the ISB is presented in
Fig. 7.5-20.
From the standpoint of environmental chemistry, the multiple sulphur isotope data for
the Isua supracrustal belt provides evidence for an anoxic atmosphere at 3.8 Ga and low
concentrations of dissolved seawater sulphate and atmospheric oxygen. Under these constraints, it is interesting to consider whether the early Archaean oceans were severely limited in many oxidants necessary for various microbial respiration pathways. The dominant
biome could have been carbon-fixing autotrophs as suggested by 13 C-depleted graphite
particles reported from Isua (Ueno et al., 2002; Rosing, 1999; Mojzsis et al., 1996).
This conclusion would mean that the low abundance of oxidants in early Earth environments was not conducive to an extensive biosphere nor to metabolically diverse microbial
communities before the Paleoproterozoic transition from a globally anoxic world to the
beginnings of a oxygenated planet (Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006; Papineau et al., 2007).
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7.5-7.3. Sulphides from the 3.83 Ga Akilia Association, Akilia Island, West Greenland
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As outlined in Manning et al. (2006, and references therein), the supracrustal rocks of
the Akilia association at the type locality of Akilia, an island ∼30 km S of Nuuk, West
Greenland, have undergone a complicated metamorphic history that led to recrystallization under granulite facies conditions (Griffin et al., 1980). The complexity of these rocks,
compounded with a long history of ‘reconnaissance studies’ from this terrane, has been
the principal reason for current debates in the interpretation of protoliths for the Akilia
enclaves. On the south-western peninsula of Akilia are two units of ferruginous quartzpyroxene rocks sandwiched between amphibolites (Manning et al., 2006). The mineral
composition of the units is dominated by quartz, clinopyroxene, magnetite, hornblende,
sulphides and minor accessory phases including zircon and graphite (Nutman et al., 1997).
The age of the quartz-pyroxene rock has been the subject of debate. One interpretation
holds that the units are greater than the ca. 3.83 Ga zircon U-Pb ages for tonalitic orthogneisses, some of which were shown to intersect the supracrustal enclave (Manning
et al., 2006). Published U-Th-Pb depth-profiles from Akilia orthogneiss zircons by ion
microprobe (Mojzsis and Harrison, 2002a) and Pb-Pb ages on apatite separates in the
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quartz-pyroxene rock (Sano et al., 1999b; cf. Mojzsis et al., 1999) indicate a complicated
metamorphic history with regional major events at ∼3.73 Ga, ∼3.65 Ga, ∼2.65 Ga and
∼1.50 Ga (reviewed in Cates and Mojzsis, 2006). The protolith of the quartz-pyroxene
rocks was originally interpreted as banded-iron formation (BIF) by Nutman et al. (1997)
and was used by them to earmark these particular samples for biosignatures analyses of
C-isotopes. Detailed geochemical results published in the last few years provide supporting
evidence for a sedimentary for these rocks. These data include major, minor, trace element
and rare earth distributions (Mojzsis and Harrison, 2002b; Friend et al., 2002c; Nishizawa
et al., 2005; Manning et al., 2006), δ 56 Fe and δ 57 Fe values3 (Dauphas et al., 2004), δ 18 O
values (Manning et al., 2006) and 33 S values (Mojzsis et al., 2003). In an alternative
interpretation, REE patterns and trace elements have been used to argue instead for a metasomatized ultramafic igneous protolith for the Akilia quartz-pyroxene rocks (Fedo and
Whitehouse, 2002; Bolhar et al., 2004; cf. Johannesson et al., 2006). Also, Whitehouse et
al. (2005) were unable to corroborate previously reported mass-independent sulphur isotopes values for these units (Mojzsis et al., 2003). Lastly, Manning et al. (2006) showed that
only an origin as chemical sediment with minor detrital input satisfies all field, petrologic
and geochemical tests, and because the Akilia quartz-pyroxene rocks represent a primary
lithology that was deposited in the original volcanosedimentary succession, the rocks have
the same age as the enclave as a whole or 3825 Ma.
Whole-rock sulphur isotopic analyses of Akila quartz-pyroxene sample GR9707 reported in Farquhar et al., 2000) revealed 33 S = +0.12h. Subsequent ion microprobe
measurements of sulphides in Akilia sample GR9707 reported in Mojzsis et al. (2003) revealed a large positive 33 S anomaly at +1.47 ± 0.14h (2σ ). The data also showed a
population of positive 33 S values that ranged between +0.84 to +0.30h. A relatively
large range (∼12h) of δ 34 S was also observed (−6.7 to +5.2h) from this sample. These
data are not that different from reported values for various ISB metasedimentary rocks. In
a separate study on a different Akilia sample, Whitehouse et al. (2005) measured the multiple sulphur isotope composition of quartz-pyroxene sample G91-26 (Nutman et al., 1997)
and found no clear evidence for mass-independently fractionated sulphur. Their 33 S data
ranged from −0.55 to +0.35h and they describe a range in δ 34 S of +0.02 to +2.45h,
substantially smaller than that reported in Mojzsis et al. (2003). Based on their analysis,
Whitehouse et al., 2005) concluded that multiple sulphur isotopes could not be used to
infer protolith for highly metamorphosed rocks.
It is likely that the complexity of the Akilia quartz-pyroxene rocks revealed by the various isotopic and trace element data cited above is manifest in heterogeneities in the sulphur
isotopes at the outcrop scale. Further detailed work is needed on these rocks, but fortunately, Fe-rich chemical metasedimentary rocks with abundant sulphides turn out to be
relatively common in Akilia association enclaves beyond the ‘type-locality’ on Akilia Island. Indeed, rocks of the ‘Akilia type’ in mineralogy, bulk composition and antiquity can
found throughout scattered throughout the southern limits of the Itsaq Gneiss Complex of
3 The δ 5x Fe(h) = ((5x Fe/54 Fe)
5x
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sample /( Fe/ Fe)IRMM-014 − 1) × 1000 and IRMM-014 is the Fe-isotope
standard 014 of the Institute of Reference Materials and Measurements.
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West Greenland as well as in other early Archaean terranes of the North American Craton
(Cates and Mojzsis, 2006, 2007a).
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7.5-7.4. Sulphides from the 3.77 Ga Akilia Association Enclaves on Innersuartuut
Island, West Greenland
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Finely-laminated quartz + magnetite ± garnet banded iron-formations from the main island of Innersuartuut (approximately 30 km south of Akilia at N63◦ 50.227 , W51◦ 41.173 )
were sampled for sulphur isotope analysis and reported in Cates and Mojzsis (2006).
This rock preserves quartz-magnetite bands that apparently escaped the pervasive strain/
recrystallization/silica-mobility recorded by Akilia association units on Akilia Island. In
this regard, it most resembles samples 119233 from Ugpik, and 119217 from an unspecified field locality on Innersuartuut, as described in McGregor and Mason (1977).
Multiple sulphur isotope geochemistry of this rock, which apparently experienced the
same regional metamorphisms as other Akilia association samples, provides a useful and
independent (from Akilia Island) benchmark for the preservation of mass-independent
sulphur in granulite-grade supracrustal enclaves (Fig. 7.5-21). Sulphides are present as
pyrrhotite blebs in the quartz-magnetite matrix with fine intergrowths of SiO2 . The
analysed pyrrhotites preserve consistently large 33 S values between +1.31 ± 0.19h and
+1.49 ± 0.19h (2σ external errors) and record a small range in δ 34 S of ∼1.5h. Other
ferruginous quartz-pyroxene rocks also reported in Cates and Mojzsis (2006) from the Innersuartuut localities are similar in both mineralogy and gross geochemical composition to
the samples G91-26 of Mojzsis et al. (1996) and GR9707 of Mojzsis et al. (2003). Like the
Akilia Island rocks, these samples contain abundant pyrrhotite and occasional chalcopyrite
with subhedral habit in a dominantly quartz + hedenbergite matrix. All analysed pyrrhotite
in the Innersuartuut samples preserve MIF S isotopes with large 33 S values between
+1.90 ± 0.25h and +3.15 ± 0.25h (2σ external errors) and range in δ 34 S by ∼2.5h
(Cates and Mojzsis, 2006). Although they record a smaller total range in δ 34 S compared
to sample GR9707 (∼12h) from Akilia Island (Mojzsis et al., 2003), the Innersuartuut
samples preserve exceptionally large 33 S values akin to those reported for ISB banded
iron-formation sample 248474 (Baublys et al., 2004; ca. +3.3h) that was reanalysed by
Whitehouse et al., 2005). The Innersuartuut rocks are also notable in that they preserve
a unit of quartz-biotite-garnet schist what contains abundant pyrrhotite (∼1 mode%). All
analysed sulphides from this particular unit, which Cates and Mojzsis (2006) interpreted to
be a paragneiss of probable pelitic origin, contain MIS sulphur isotopes with well-resolved
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Fig. 7.5-21. Compilation plot of 33 S vs δ 34 S for sulphides and sulphates from pre-3.7 Ga metasediments in the pre-3.77 Ga Isua supracrustal belt and the pre-3.83 Ga Akilia association rocks from
Akilia (island) and Innersuartuut (West Greenland). Data are from Farquhar et al. (2000), Mojzsis
et al. (2003), Hu et al. (2003), Whitehouse et al. (2005), Cates and Mojzsis (2006), Papineau and
Mojzsis (2006), and unpublished data. Compare the different trends in multiple isotope end-member
compositions to the 193-nm results in Fig. 7.5-6.
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Chapter 7.5: Sulphur on the Early Earth
33 S values, between +0.67 ± 0.21h and +0.98 ± 0.12h (2σ external errors), and range
in δ 34 S by ∼3h.
These results for mass-independent sulphur isotopes in amphibolite- to granulite-grade
sedimentary rocks from various early Archaean localities in West Greenland underscore
the observation that 33 S values in a rock containing accessory sulphur minerals can be
preserved. The simplest explanation for the small spread of δ 34 S values in these data for
the oldest known rocks of marine sedimentary origin is by re-precipitation of sulphides
during metamorphic processes. Dilution by invasive fluids (H2 S etc.) which carried exotic
sulphur does not appear to be an important process in rocks that contain no more than ∼1
mode percent sulphur (Ohmoto, 1986). Scatter in 33 S values is minimal for each these
units, which suggests that no significant foreign component of sulphur was added to the
system since formation as aqueous sediments in the early Archaean ocean.
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7.5-8. SUMMARY: BANDED IRON-FORMATIONS, SULPHUR AND LIFE ON THE
EARLY EARTH
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The Archaean banded iron-formations are regarded solely as a chemical sediments that
have been enriched in metals from volcanic/hydrothermal sources (reviewed in Polat and
Frei (2005)) and probably represent part of a relatively deep (>100 m) marine sedimentary
facies derived from either the photo-oxidation of upwelled Fe(II)-rich seawater to ferroferri-oxyhydroxides (Braterman et al., 1983) or biological precipitation and/or oxidation
of insoluble iron oxides (e.g., Konhauser et al., 2002). In either of these models, the Feprecipitates subsequently underwent diagenetic transformation to magnetite. Models for
biological modulation of iron-formation deposition via anoxygenic photosynthetic Fe(II)
oxidation, and the nature of microbially-mediated iron-oxide deposition and organic matter
recycling (Kappler et al., 2005), are still in their early stages of development. Cloud (1973)
postulated that ferrous iron [Fe(II)aq ] oxidation by molecular oxygen after cyanobacteria
evolved on Earth was responsible for the banded iron-formations. However, it has been
argued that the anoxygenic photoautotrophic bacteria are the most ancient type of photosynthetic organisms (Xiong et al., 2000), and these can readily catalyse Fe(II) oxidation
under anoxic conditions (Widdel et al., 1993). The Fe isotope compositions of banded
iron-formations are consistent with the possibility that anoxygenic photoautotrophs such
as purple bacteria played a role in their deposition. Calculations based on experimentally
determined Fe(II) oxidation rates by anaerobic photoautotrophic bacteria under low-light
regimes representative of ocean depths of a few hundred meters suggest that, even in the
presence of cyanobacteria, anoxygenic phototrophs living beneath a wind-mixed surface
layer provide the most likely explanation for BIF deposition in a stratified ancient ocean
and the absence of Fe in Precambrian surface waters (Kappler et al., 2005). Following
Gross (1980), the Archaean BIFs such as those at Isua and in the Akilia association tend
to resemble the ‘Algoma-type’ which are thought to have been deposited in small basins
around island arcs (Jacobsen and Pimentel-Close, 1988). Enrichment of seawater in ferrous iron and the transformation to abundant Fe3 O4 in marine sediments is considered a
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signature style of sedimentation under anoxic conditions on the early Earth, when Fe(II)
concentrations were high in seawater (Holland, 1984; Bjerrum and Canfield, 2002).
Banded iron-formations are strongly enriched in sulphur relative to average Archaean
crust and hydrothermal fluids; the average S composition of Isua iron-formation is taken
to be close to that of the international banded iron-formation standard IF-G (Govindaraju,
1994) at 700 ppm. BIF sulphur was introduced to the water column from both atmospheric
and magmatic exhalative sources at time of deposition (Huston and Logan, 2004), and
the major sulphide phases present in the Isua and Akilia rocks are pyrite and pyrrhotite
(with minor chalcopyrite and cubanite). As noted by Farquhar and Wing (2003, and references therein), an important consequence of the model for MIF-carrying aerosol formation
in the Archaean atmosphere is that sulphide formation via elemental sulphur reduction
by microbial life – perhaps deposited as greigite: Fe3 S4 , or mackinawite: Fe1−x S (e.g.,
Mann et al., 1990) which was later transformed to pyrite: FeS2 and metamorphosed to
pyrrhotite: ∼Fe7 S8 – would be expected to retain positive 33 S signatures (Mojzsis et al.,
2003) with > 10h spread in δ 34 S (Canfield and Raiswell, 1999). Sulphide formed from
microbial sulphate reduction would be expected to preserve negative 33 S values with a
potentially large spread in δ 34 S values. Sulphur aerosols provided a ready source of sulphur to a plethora of microbial environments at the global scale on the early Earth, at issue
of course is whether this oxidative chemistry was actually exploited by life, as perhaps
Fe(II)aq was by early microbial communities for an electron donor (Johnson et al., 2003;
Dauphas et al., 2004). Could then the low abundance of oxidants in early Archaean environments globally have severely limited the early biosphere before the gradual build-up of
oxygen (Papineau and Mojzsis, 2006)? If the Archaean biosphere did in fact modulate BIF
deposition, it still remains to be seen whether it left traces of itself in the sulphur isotopes.
Of the principal elements involved in biological activity (C, N, O, H, S, P, Fe etc.),
sulphur is probably the most versatile for geochemistry. As summarised by Goldschmidt
(1954), chemists have long recognised that sulphur participates in many of the most important processes in inorganic geochemistry, and serves as a bridge between the inorganic
world and the chemistry contained in the central metabolic machinery of all classes of organisms. Because of its chemical reactivity, large mass difference between multiple stable
isotopes (32 S, 33 S, 34 S and 36 S), diverse redox chemistry through eight valence states (2−
to 6+), and tendency to form both ionic and covalent bonds in a wide variety of minerals, sulphur and its isotopes have been used to trace igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic,
hydrothermal, atmospheric and biological processes since the early days of geochemistry
(Thode et al., 1949). New inroads in transition metal stable isotopic systems used to trace
changes in the surface state of the Earth with time, such as Mo (reviewed in Anbar and
Knoll (2002)) and Fe (reviewed in Johnson et al. (2003)), also figure prominently in its
phase-space as the various metal-sulphides. How the chemistry of the ‘inorganic bridge’
relates to the distribution of inorganic components in the cell (‘metallomics’) and in response to the evolution of the surface zone as traced by the multiple sulphur isotopes,
represents an exciting new horizon that is ripe for exploration. Future work will unite
transition metal isotope systematics with the chemistry of the multiple sulphur isotopes
preserved in sedimentary sulphides.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Discussions and debates over the years on the various topics presented herein with
A.D. Anbar, G.L. Arnold, A. Bekker, P.S. Braterman, R. Buick, N.L. Cates, M. Chaussidon, R.N. Clayton, C.D. Coath, N. Dauphas, J. Farquhar, C. Fedo, R. Frei, C.R.L. Friend,
J.P. Greenwood, T.M. Harrison, K. Hattori, H.D. Holland, B.S. Kamber, A.J. Kaufman,
A. Kappler, J. Karhu, J.L. Kirschvink, M.J. Van Kranendonk, A. Lepland, D. Lowe,
J.R. Lyons, C.E. Manning, B. Marty, K.D. McKeegan, S. Moorbath, A.P. Nutman,
H. Ohmoto, S. Ono, N.R. Pace, D. Papineau, A.A. Pavlov, M. Rosing, D. Rumble,
B. Runnegar, M. Schidlowski, A.K. Schmitt, J.W. Schopf, H. Strauss, M.H. Thiemens,
M.J. Whitehouse, B. Wing, Y. Watanabe and M. Van Zuilen have helped to refine and
focus this work. N. Pace at the University of Colorado is thanked for access to his library of Archaea and Bacteria molecular phylogenies. Constructive reviews by N.L. Cates,
M.J. Van Kranendonk and two anonymous reviewers helped a great deal to improve the
manuscript. Our work on the evolution of sulphur isotopes was supported by the National
Science Foundation grants EAR9978241 and EAR0228999 to SJM, and since 2000 by
the University of Colorado Center for Astrobiology through a cooperative agreement with
the NASA Astrobiology Institute. Correspondence and request for material should be addressed to [email protected].
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