How the Hungarian Nation-State Designed Magyar Ethnic Kansei
A Study of Posters and Nationalism in Eastern Europe
Toshino IGUCHI
University of Kitakyushu 4-2-1 Kitagata Kokura-minami Kitakyushu-shi Fukuoka 802-8577
JAPAN, [email protected]
Abstract: This paper pursues how Hungary as a nation-state expressed Magyar ethnic’s kansei by analyzing war
posters produced during the First World War period. As Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy was established in the
Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867, the main policy in administration, education and cultural activities was the
standardization of Magyar as the national language for all people including minorities. The revival of Magyar
ethnicity became prevalent in fine arts and design. Hungarians sought their national identity in their ethnic roots, Asia.
At the turn of the century, such national identity was reflected in the Secessionist style architecture, as can be
observed in the Asian tastes of the Museum of Applied Arts designed by Lechner Öden. This was a realization of the
Hungarian Nation-State as an “Imagined Community”. During the war period, when nationalism reached its peak,
visual expressions went hand in hand with ethnic kansei and rendered strong support to political propaganda. In fact,
we can find similar productions of visual art for political purposes at the socialist revolution during the inter-war
period as well as in the democratic revolution of 1989.
A thorough research on the entire collection of posters printed during 1914 and 1918, currently owned by the
Military History Institute and Museum and the Hungarian National Gallery, reveals that these can be classified into
six categories with respect to their themes: books, journals and newspapers; Promotion war loans; Advertisements for
war exhibitions, films, movies and theaters; exaltation of the fighting spirit; The International Red Cross and charity
programs; and Memorial day. Of particular interest are the advertisements in which a specific newspaper or magazine
is featured by the depiction of soldier reading that item. Other patterns include the composition of the king himself
appealing to the people. I analyze these posters in relation with national identity, history and media and propose a new
methodology of looking at poster design in the context of nationalism.
Key words: nationalism, Hungary, poster, kansei
1. Introduction
I believe that posters as the visual media represented complicated ethnic problems and history in the Hapsburg
territory in the context of nationalism. The factors framing design are not only economic activities but also
requests from the political side. We can find examples of such political designs in the World Exposition or the
Olympic Games. The ethnic kansei was represented in designs with typical ethnic motifs. The styles of these
designs constructed the history of the nation. In the war period and the revolution which followed, designs had
been conflicting with the interests of some national political groups, and then, nationalism led the artist to new
ideas. Nation-states required that artists choose their designs from the motifs of Magyar folk art, that is to say, the
language of ethnic forms.
Let me mention that the Japanese word “kansei” means “the high order function of the brain as a source of
inspiration, intuition, pleasure/displeasure, taste, curiosity, aesthetics, and creation” [1]. When the ethnic kansei is
involved in design, kansei can transcend artists as individual, and is apt to change in accordance with community,
nation and times. In such a case, kansei is not only a physical capacity of each individual, but also a conscious or
unconscious collective result of incorporation of historical, social and political influence. In other words, I would
like to propose that kansei is constructed in the context of history and society.
2. Method
First of all, I shall examine previous studies. Secondly, I will consider the question of Hungarian nationalism
and design. Thirdly, I would like to focus attention on war posters in Hungarian collections. I examined the
collections of the Military History Institute and Museum Budapest (Haditörténeti Intézet és Múzeum Budapest),
the Budapest City Library (Fôvárosi Szavó Ervín Könyvtár), the Hungary National Gallery (Magyar Nemzset
Galéria) and the Hungarian National Library (Országos Széchényi Könyvtár).
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Previous Studies
Hungarian researchers have themselves examined propaganda posters. According to the research group at the
Part History Institute of Hungarian Socialist Workers Part Central Committee (a Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt
Központi Bizttságának Párttörténeti Intézete), we can find 12 separate studies on posters printed after the First
World War and the revolution period (1918-1919) [2]. On the other hand, few attempts have been made to look at
war posters. Only one exhibition of war posters was held by the Military History Museum in collaboration with
the Austrian National Library in 1994 [3].
As concerns advertising posters printed inter war period, there are rich collections in the Hungarian National
Library (Országos Széchényi Könyvtár) and the Hungarian National Gallery. We can read one paper about works
of painters: Berény Róbert, Bortnyik Sándor and Csemiczky Tihamér [4]. Further we know of one set of the
political propaganda posters printed at the time of the opening up of Soviet-bloc culture in 1989 [5]. These studies,
however, did not consider poster design from the point of view of esthetics and media studies.
In Japan, it was in the First World War period that war posters from all over the world began to be collected and
researched. The Asahi Newspaper Company gathered a collection which numbered about 6000 pieces from
English, American, German, French, Russian and Japanese. Later, the Asahi Newspaper held a traveling
exhibition of “World War Posters” in Osaka City Hall in May 1920, and in the Tokyo Asahi Newspaper Company
Building in June 1920. The Asahi published a book on “World War Posters”, selecting 170 pieces from its
collections in August.
In 1929 the ARS Company published the “Modern Commercial Art Series” (Gendai Shougyo-Bijutsu Zenshu)
with “World Posters” as the first volume in the series. This volume shows rich graphic works and some topics as
follows:
Posters during the European War
Recruiting posters during the European War
French posters during the European War
This volume has 2 works of the Hungarian painter Biró. In “Modern Commercial Art Series” some critics
analyzed these posters as an applied art, and spoke about the graphic designers of each country.
As concerns studies of architecture and culture in Central and Eastern Europe in the context of nationalism and
internationalism, it should be noted that a journal called “Centropa” was established by the Hungarian art historian
Eva Forgacs, who now lives in the U.S.A. [6]. They edited a special issue about 19th century Central European
city plans in 2001. There is also a study of design in Poland titled “National Style and Nation-State” by British art
historian David Crowley in 1992 [7]. These previous studies reexamine of modernism and show us the necessity
of researching the modern design of Eastern Europe in comparison with that of Western Europe.
3.2 Hungarian Nationalism and Design
Hungarian nationalism originated from the consciousness of the class of nobility. JosephⅡ’s policy of
centralization and Germanization in 1780 contributed to the rise of Magyar and non-Magyar nationalism. In the
middle of the 19th century, Hungarian nationalism grew along with the Magyarization of the language. The
Hungarian language was promoted in public life instead of German or Latin. Later, Magyar national
consciousness appeared in the field of literature and arts. When the revolutionary fight for national independence
from the Habsburgs occurred in 1848, a young, radical-nationalist poet named Petöfi Sándor (1823-1849)
expressed Magyar national identity in his poems. The revolutionary regime decided that “all Hungarian-speakers
should be Hungarian and every Hungarian should speak Magyar” [8].
When the Dual Monarchy was established by the Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867, the new regime enforced
all minorities to submit to the policy of Magyarization. As one author wrote of this period; “the respect of
Hungarian politicians for the linguistic, educational, and cultural rights of non-Magyars vanished rather rapidly, as
shown by the new laws aimed at the reorganization of elementary and high school education, the kindergartens,
the training of teachers, the administration of counties, townships, and municipalities at all levels. Legislation and
ordinances promoting the Magyarization of names of villages and persons, restrictions in the press laws,
instructions to village notaries concerning the usage of Magyar in their official correspondence were
supplemented by a combination of social and administrative pressure manifest in the dissolution of non-Magyar
cultural societies, closing of schools, establishment of clubs in defense of Magyardom, trumped-up charges
against the leaders of nationalities and efforts to prevent them from being elected to Parliament or elective
offices.” [9].
In the decades after the Ausgleich, Budapest developed rapidly. Artists, therefore, desired to represent Magyar
identity in art and architecture. Art historian Jószef Huszka (1854-1934) researched the motifs of folk art in order
to discover the oriental origins of the Magyar nation. “The form of Magyar nations” was represented in the
Secession Style architecture constructed in Budapest and the Millennium Exhibition was organized in 1896 to
celebrate the thousandth anniversary of the Hungarian Conquest. At the Millennium Exhibition a folk village was
reconstructed, showing the culture of the minorities and it made a strong impression on the spectators. In addition,
handicrafts (embroidery, pottery, furniture) brought folk motifs into fashion. The Museum of Applied Arts, the
Royal Hungarian Geological Institute, and the Post Office Savings Bank by architect Lechner Ödön (1845-1914)
were typical examples of the Hungarian Secession called “Magyar National Style”.
As an example, let us discuss porcelain produced in Zsolnay Factory, which was dominated in decorating the
outer walls and roofs of the most Magyar National Style architectures. The most salient characteristic of the
porcelain is its color, yellow and green. This combination is commonly regarded as symbolizing the Magyar
ethnic kansei. However, yellow in fact was the favorite color of Austrian Empress Maria Theresia, and green was
a result of a chemical reaction of Eosin glazes. That is to say, the Magyar ethnic kansei that is commonly
recognized now was not really ethnically motivated but derived out of the historical legacy and technology of that
time.
Posters were printed for commercial art at around the turn of the century. The most important poster was a
lithograph for the first Danube Ship Company of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Elsö Császári és Királyi Duna
Göz-hajózási Társaság). In this poster we see the elegant people enjoying themselves with the Danube river in the
background. The Danube Ship Company stimulated the people to satisfy their visual desire and called them to go
on tours with their charming posters. Postcards were another information media that portrayed various locations
within Austria-Hungary and mass-produced Hungarian history and culture. These graphics, however, changed
their purpose from economic activity to propaganda for the nation-state during the First World War.
3.3. War Posters
Austro-Hungarian war posters began to be collected by Dr. Othmar Doublier and the Hofbibliothek in August
1915. They were not only interested in books but also newspapers, journals, photographs, drawings, and letters
concerning the war. Both collections drew upon materials from all over Austria-Hungary.
These collections include about 16000 printed items, 1000 graphic posters, 60,000 propaganda placards, 2000
leaflets, 8000 photographs and 10,000 postcards. After the war, the Hofbibliothek changed its name to the
Nationalbibliothek [10].
Turning now to the war posters collection in Hungary, there are 176 posters in the Military History Institute and
the Museum Budapest (HMB), 71 posters in the Budapest City Library (FSZEK), and 16 posters by Biró in the
Hungary National Gallery (MNG), I examined all of these, excluding only the non-graphic posters.
First we must make clear how many artists printed posters and who they were. We can recognize at least 33
names from the signatures on the posters: Bardócz Árpád (1882-1938), Barta Ernô (1878-1956), Basch Árpád
(1873-1944), Bér Dezsô (1875-1924), Biczó András (1888-1957), Biró Mihály (1886-1948), Chabada Béla
(1878-?), Dienes László (1891-?), Faragó Géza (1877-1928), Földes Imre (1881-?), Gábor Móric (1889-1987),
Gara Arnold (1882-1929), Garay Ákos (1866-1952), Gebauer Ernô (1882-1962), Geiger Richárd (1870-1945),
Haranghy Jenô (1894-1951), Heller Ödön (1878-?), Honti Nádor (1878-1935), Kóber Leó (1876-1931), Kocsic
György (1867-?), Kónya Sándor (1891-?), Kürthy György (1882-?), Lurja László (1884-?), Moldován Béla (18851967), Pólya Tibor (1886-1937), Sátori Lipót (1899-1943), Schneider Péter (1886-1944), Suján Pál (1880-?),
Székely Andor (1877-?), Teplánszky Sándor (1886-1944), Vadász Mikrós (1881-1927), Végh Gusztáv (1889-?),
Vértes Marcell (1895-1961) [11].
Some of these were well-known artists Gara Arnold, for example, was a painter who worked before the First
World War and Bió Mihály is known for revolutionary propaganda posters after the war.
Secondly, we must consider where the posters were printed. Almost all the posters were printed at one
company; Seidner Plakát és Címkegyár in Budapest. At this time there were 41 print companies in Budapest and
one company in Szeged city: Apostol Nyomda R.T. Bp., Athenaeum R.T. Bp., Auer-nyomda Bp., Besskó
Nyomdai Mûintézet Bp., Bíró Miklós Konyvnyomdai Mûintézet Bp., Élete Irodalmi és Nyomda R.T. Bp.,
Express-nyomda Bp., Fejér és Glatter Bp., Globus Bp., Gottlieb Litografia Bp., Grünhut és Steiner Bp.,
Hauptmann Béla Bp., Hedvig Sándor Könyvnyomda Bp., Herbst Mûintézet Bp., Heisler és Kozólkô Könynyomda
Mûintézet Bp., Hornyánszky Viktor Bp., Jókai Könyvnyomda R.T., Károlyi György Nyomdája Bp., Kellner Ernô
Bp., Kellner Albert Bp., Kellner és Mohrlüder Mûintézet Bp., Klösz Mûintézet Bp., Községi Nyomda R.T. Bp.,
Kultura Nyomda R.T. Bp., Kunossy Plakát Mûintézet Bp., Lengyel Lipót Mûintézet Bp., Légrády Testvérek Bp.,
Matthéy Ágoston Bp.-Graz, Nobel Károly Bp., Országos Hírlaptudósító Lith. Mûintézet, Pallas Nyomda Bp., Pest
Lloyd-társulat Nyomdája, Pollak és Leopold Bp., Posner Bp., Radá Gyula és Jenô Bp., Róvó Aladár Mûintézet Bp,
Schultz Béla és Társa Bp., Seidner Plakát és Címkegyár Bp., Székesfôvárosi házinyomda, Thália-mûintézet R.T.
Bp., Weiss L. és F. Bp., and Engel Lajos Mûintézet Szeged.
Thirdly, we must consider the contents of posters. We can divide them into six categories according to the list of
the HMB as follows:
1) Concerning books, journals and newspapers
1) Promotion of war loans
1) Advertisements for war exhibitions, films, movies and theaters
1) Exaltation of the fighting spirit
1) The International Red Cross and charity programs
1) Memorial day
Fig. 1 Az Érdekes Újság és a
Kis Erdekes
Fig. 2 Jegyezzünk Hadikölcsönt
Fig. 3 Imádkozik a Király
Regarding books, journals and newspapers, the works of this type are very few, but can be represented by “Pest
Daily” (Pest Napló) by Földes Imre and “Pest Newspaper” (Pest Hirlap) by Faragó Géza. In these posters, a
soldier is reading a newspaper that informs him of the battlefield situation.
The poster “Pest newspaper” says: “The most important newspaper for the World War: official reports, maps
and exciting information every day”. The other poster, “The interesting newspaper and a little interesting” (Az
Érdekes Újság és a Kis Erdekes) that is by Biró, says: “Competition for 3000 koronas. The most impressive image
of battlefield (3000 koronás pályázata A legszenzáciosabb harctéri felvételre)” (fig.1). Biró drew a military
photographer taking a picture at the moment when an enemy airplane is being shot down. From such posters, we
can understand that journalists began to participate in modern war with their new media, cameras, and newspapers
and came to develop the mass media of this era.
As concerns the pomotion of war loans, a general view of the graphics reveal significant messages. The main
motif is the Hungarian king’s “crest and a crown”. For example, Biró drew a huge coin, representing war loans, in
his work, “Take out a War Loan” (Jegyezzünk Hadikölcsönt) (fig.2). He put a “crest and a crown” on the surface
of coin. The message is that a shield is a burden for the nation which they must take up in order to save the state.
The intention here is to stimulate patriotism and to raise national consciousness.
Haraghy Jenô printed the poster “Take out War Loan Insurance! The Agriculture Insurance Association”
(Hadikölcsön-Biztositást! A Gazdák Biztositó Szövetkezetnénél) (1918), which depicts a woman in the folk
costume of Kalocsa, which was well known as being typical of Hungary.
An important work by an unknown artist, “Take out War Loans” shows a unique technique: making a collage of
city and country images with soldiers and other people. It is similar to the modern technique which uses photostories for a propaganda journal by Russian avant-garde artists. This picture shows the connection between the
buttlefield and the homefront.
In terms of advertisements for war exhibitions, films, movies and theaters, we should consider an advertising
poster for the film drama “King Pray” (Imádkozik a Király) (fig.3) by Földes Imre. The image of the meditating
king is painted minutely, appealing to the nation in the severe situation of the war. This poster can also be included
in the category of exaltation of the fighting spirit. The same meaning is found in one of Biró’s works about the
Transylvanian battlefield. Transylvania represented the love of the Hungarian countryside as the root of the
national spirit. The motifs of the picture gave an impression that exalted the fighting spirit of the spectator.
In terms of the International Red Cross and charity programs, as well as Memorial day posters, they can be
represented by such posters as the “Exhibition by a Bratislava Artist” (Pozsonyi Honvédkerûlet Bevonvlt
Mûvészeinek Kiállitása) by Székely Andor and “Whitsunday” (Mollináry Majalis) by Gara Arnold.
It follows from what has been said that the poster design in the War period was represented that Hungary
Nation-State modulated Magyar ethnic kansei. That kansei was characteristic of Hungarian history beyond each
artist inherent kansei.
3.4. Posters for the Hungary-Soviet Republic
Posters in the revolution period 1918–1919 were printed as propaganda supporting the Hungary-Soviet
Republic (Tanácsköztársaság). These are 49 posters in the HMB now. We know the number of artists, 29,
including painters who printed war posters and some avant-garde artists such as Berény Róbert, Pór Bertalan, and
Uitz Béla. One of them, Biró, who is the most important artist, worked at the journal of the Social Democratic
Party, “Voice of People” (Népszava), as a graphic artist. He drew a red worker with hammer on surface of a
newspaper dated January 1st 1913. This work was reprinted at the May 1st 1919 May Day celebrations.
The style and expression of propaganda posters are different from war posters. The style is not national (not
representing the Magyar national kansei) but is an international style. The change from a national style to an
international style in design parallels changes in Magyar nationalism in this period.
4. Conclusions
We may say that the World War gave painters and designers a chance for creative activities. The works
represent national consciousness and ethnic kansei in a visible form. The artists chose the contents and
compositions to promote their sense of belonging to the nation. The designs did not employ the decorative
Secession style.
The technique of making posters and their method of employment as a media was developed during the war
period after the war, propaganda posters were created by avant-garde artists for the Social Revolution from 1918
to 1919. The states designed other types of kansei. But this question will be addressed in another paper.
This paper suggests that the cultural identity of the Hungarian nation was constructed in large part through the
use of poster art.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people amongst many who have helped me in different ways to research
and write this paper: Bakos Katalin of the Hungary National Gallery, Tóth Orsolya of the Military History
Institute and Museum Budapest, and Majoros Váléria Vanília of the Research Institute for Art History of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
References
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