University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative
Exchange
Masters Theses
Graduate School
8-2010
Subjective Social Status and Youth’s Body Mass
Index and Perceived Weight
Jennifer Renee Phagan
[email protected]
Recommended Citation
Phagan, Jennifer Renee, "Subjective Social Status and Youth’s Body Mass Index and Perceived Weight. " Master's Thesis, University of
Tennessee, 2010.
http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/741
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please contact [email protected].
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Jennifer Renee Phagan entitled "Subjective Social Status and
Youth’s Body Mass Index and Perceived Weight." I have examined the final electronic copy of this thesis
for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science, with a major in Child and Family Studies.
Elizabeth I. Johnson, Major Professor
We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance:
Priscilla Blanton, Carol A. Costello
Accepted for the Council:
Dixie L. Thompson
Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School
(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Jennifer Renee Phagan entitled “Subjective
Social Status and Youth’s Body Mass Index and Perceived Weight.” I have examined
the electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science, with a major in Child
and Family Studies.
Elizabeth Johnson
Major Professor
We have read this thesis
and recommend its acceptance:
Priscilla Blanton
Carol A. Costello
Accepted for the Council:
Carolyn R. Hodges
Vice Provost and Dean
of the Graduate School
(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)
SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL STATUS AND YOUTH’S BODY MASS INDEX AND
PERCEIVED WEIGHT
A Thesis Presented for
the Master of Science
Degree
University of Tennessee
Jennifer Renee Phagan
August 2010
Copyright © by Jennifer Phagan
all rights reserved.
ii
Abstract
To date there are no studies focusing on the relationship between subjective social
status (SSS) and weight perceptions among young people. This study aims to fill this gap
in current available literature by examining associations between youth’s family SSS and
individual SSS with their gender, race, body mass index (BMI), and weight perceptions.
Questionnaires and BMI data were collected from 1,171 youth participating in the 2008
Global Finals of Destination ImagiNation (DI) hosted by the University of Tennessee.
Participants ranged in ages 11 to 18 years. Regression analyses indicated that gender,
race and individual SSS were significant predictors of BMI. Gender was the only
significant predictor of underweight perceptions, while gender, race, and individual SSS
were predictors of overweight perceptions. Results for outcomes based on two grade
levels, middle school and high school, are also discussed. Findings have implications of
gender and racial differences for BMI and weight perception status. Lastly, individual
SSS within the school community was a significant predictor of both BMI and
overweight perception.
iii
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………… 1
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………. 5
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 5
Objective Socioeconomic Status and Body Mass Index Status ………….……... 6
Objective Socioeconomic Status and Perceived Weight …………………………10
Subjective Socioeconomic Status and Body Mass Index Status ………………… 12
Subjective Socioeconomic Status and Perceived Weight ……………………….. 15
Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 16
Current Study ……………………………………………………………………. 16
CHAPTER 3: METHODS ………………………………………………………….. 19
Sample and Procedure …………………………………………………………… 19
Measures …………………………………………………………………………. 21
Subjective Social Status………………………………………………………. 21
Body Mass Index.………………………………………………………………22
Weight Perception……. ……………………………………………………… 23
Grade …………………………………………………………………………. 23
Race ……………………………………………………………………………23
Analysis Plan …………………………………………………………………….. 24
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ……………………………………………………………..27
Body Mass Index. …………………………………………………………………27
Weight Perception.……………………………………………………………….. 27
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………..….30
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………..…….35
References ……………………………………………………………………..……...37
Appendix ……………………………………………………………………..……….47
Vita.. ………………………………………………………………………..…………51
iv
List of Tables
TABLE 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE …………………………………………48
TABLE 2 SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL STATUS AND BODY MASS INDEX ….………..49
TABLE 3 SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL STATUS AND WEIGHT PERCEPTION…..…..…50
v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
As technology rapidly grows and introduces new sedentary activities such as the
latest television programs, computer upgrades, video games, and mobile phone
enhancements, the United States is facing other rapid growths, such as that of their
children’s waistlines. Recent analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey (NHANES) indicates that child obesity rates have more than doubled in the past
30 years (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). More specifically, obesity
percentages for children between the ages of two and five increased from 5.0% to 12.4%,
those between six and 11 years went from 6.5% to 17.%, and percentages for 12 to 19
year olds grew from 5% to 17.6% (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009a).
A child with a high BMI, a measure highly correlated with amount of body fat, is
at an increased risk of being overweight or obese as an adult (Guo, Wu, Chumlea, &
Rosche, 2002). In addition to obesity in adulthood, other potential consequences from
childhood obesity are adult coronary heart disease, type II diabetes, cancers,
hypertension, dyslipidemia, liver disease, gallbladder disease, sleep apnea, respiratory
problems, osteoarthritis, and gynecological problems (Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2009c). Furthermore, the annual costs of obesity to society are
approximately $147 billion (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009a).
In addition to health and financial consequences, overweight children may also
experience many social and emotional damages. Overweight, having a BMI between the
85th and 95th percentiles, and obese children are more likely to be negatively labeled and
characterized due to weight-related characteristics than peers who are not overweight
(Gray, Kahhan, & Janicke, 2009). This negative social response is referred to as
1
stigmatization and “obesity is one of the most stigmatizing and least socially acceptable
conditions in childhood” (Schwimmer, Burwikle, & Varni, 2003, p. 1818). Negative,
socially held views of overweight individuals may therefore lead to acts of discrimination
and exploitation. Gray, Kahhan, and Janicke (2009) further point out that overweight and
obese children are at risk of victimization, which may further decrease emotional and
psychological well-being. Given these negative social reactions, it is no surprise that
overweight youth are also at risk for experiencing major emotional difficulties such as
depression, lowered self-esteem (Allen, Byrne, Blair, & Davis, 2006), anxiety, and
feelings of inferiority (BeLue, Francis, & Colaco, 2009). Peer victimization is negatively
related to children’s level of physical activity, which in turn exacerbates unhealthy
weight (Storch et al., 2007). In other words, childhood obesity leads to stigmatization
and victimization, which then exacerbates their overweight status. This negative, cyclical
pattern is one very important reason for the importance of interventions that help to
reduce overweight and obesity rates in childhood.
Given these health and psychological consequences, researchers have devoted
considerable attention to understanding factors that heighten the risk of childhood
overweight and obesity. Particular attention has been paid to objective and subjective
indicators of social status. Objective social status is often measured by assessing one’s
socioeconomic status (SES) by examining household income, level of education, or
occupational status (Duncan & Magnuson, 2003). Moreover, subjective social status can
be defined as one’s personal judgment about their ranking or position within their
surrounding societal hierarchy. The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (SSS)
measures individuals’ SSS with respect to two domains, socioeconomic status (SES) and
2
community standing (Adler, Epel, Castellazzo, & Ickovics, 2000). In order to measure
one’s SSS, with respect to community, this research tool encompasses questions that
require the reader to visualize a ladder when determining where people are positioned
within their community. Rungs at the top of the ladder represent those with higher
community standings while rungs near the bottom symbolize those with lower standings.
The reader must identify the rung that best represents their perceived position in this
hierarchical structure. Specifications about how a community is defined are left to the
interpretation of the reader. The participant’s designated rung gives researchers an idea
about how individuals view themselves in their social environments.
Subjective social status has been associated with a number of health outcomes in
adults such as depression (Adler et al., 2008), poor self-rated health and physical
functioning (Hu, Adler, Goldman, Weinstein, & Seeman, 2005) as well as long-standing
illnesses, diabetes, and elevated cholesterol levels (Demakakos, Nazroo, Breeze, &
Marmot, 2008). Fewer studies however have examined these relationships among
adolescents. The majority of these studies examine the connection between SSS and
adolescent health where weight was only one consideration. Research shows that
measures of SSS are correlated with indicators of youth’s self-rated health (Goodman, et
al., 2001; Page et al., 2009). In other words, those with lower perceptions of social status
tend to view themselves as having unhealthier weight perceptions among other things.
Even fewer studies exist that focus specifically on the association between
adolescent SSS and weight variables in particular. Lemeshow and colleagues (2008)
indicated that a perceived high social status in the school environment might serve as a
protective factor against adolescent weight gain. Additionally, Goodman and colleagues
3
(2003) found that school SSS was associated with BMI, but did not consider whether or
not SSS was related to perceived weight status. Studying perceived weight status in
young people is important because these perceptions greatly impact emotional,
behavioral, and physical health (Allen, Byren, Blaire, & Davis, 2006; Kim & Kim, 2009;
Storch et al, 2007). Further research in this area is needed in order to fully understand the
relationship between adolescent SSS, BMI and perceived weight status.
4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Previous reviews of the literature suggest that socioeconomic status (SES) leads
to various health outcomes in children (Chen, Martin, & Matthews, 2006; Tabone &
Vincelet, 2000). SES is often measured objectively by assessing family income,
education level, and occupational prestige (Duncan & Magnuson, 2003). These
indicators of social status have been consistently and inversely associated with children’s
weight, both within the United States (BeLue, Francis, Rollins, & Colaco, 2009;
Costarelli & Manios, 2009; Goodman, Slap & Huang, 2003; Murasko, 2009) and in
developed countries around the world (Wang, 2001). However, in order to fully
understand the impact that social status can have on youth weight outcomes, subjective
measures of SES also need to be examined.
The position in which one views himself or herself in relation to others has the
ability to create risks that have the ability to influence health and well-being. Marmot
(2003) pointed out that relative deprivation can lead to absolute deprivation by means of
creating inabilities to fully and proudly participate in society. This isolation creates risks
for the health of those who view themselves in lower socially ranked position. This
notion is similar to that of one’s SSS, which refers to the way in which an individual
views their position or ranking in their surrounding societal hierarchy. Many studies
exist that examine the relationship between SSS and physical health outcomes in adults
(Demakakos, Nazroo, Breeze, & Marmot, 2008; Sanders, Slade, Turrell, Spencer, &
Marcenes, 2006; Singh-Manoux, Marmot, & Adler, 2005; Theodossiou & Zangelidis,
2009). However, as will be discussed, very few studies have examined this relationship
5
among youth. Those that do exist, fewer still have considered the relationship between
SSS and weight variables in particular.
The purpose of this review is to summarize the relationship between objective and
subjective measures and adolescents’ weight-related matters. Currently there are no
studies that examine the association between subjective SES and youth’s perceived
weight status. In order to fully understand the impact that SES, both objective and
subjective components, has on youth’s weights future studies should focus on the
association between subjective SES and youth’s weight perception. First, is a description
explaining the nature of the relationship between objective SES and BMI status in young
people. Next, a summary is given to describe the extent to which objective SES is
associated with youth weight perceptions. Then, literature pertaining to the relationship
between subjective SES and youth’s BMI status is examined. Finally, identification of
the need to study the relationship between subjective SES and weight perceptions in
young people is described.
Objective SES and BMI Status
Childhood obesity is a complex condition that can have many contributing
factors. SES has long been researched as a factor that can render children vulnerable to
childhood obesity (Strauss & Knight, 1999) and has been considered one of the most
influential variables related to weight status in adolescence (BeLue, Francis, Rollins, &
Colaco, 2009). Understanding the relationship between family SES, individual child
characteristics and child obesity will provide further evidence of the impact that SES has
on the physical development of children. In a recent and substantial, nationally
representative sample Murasko (2009) examined the relationship between a family’s SES
6
and child obesity. SES was measured by assessing the family’s income while obesity
was determined by calculating each participant’s BMI. The researcher was able to collect
data on a sample of 12,895 participants between the ages of 2 - 19 years. Results from
this study support existing evidence for the claim that a family’s SES is inversely related
to child obesity. In other words, the lower a family’s SES the more likely their child or
children are of becoming obese. This study provides evidence supporting the claim that
family SES and child BMI hold an interactive relationship.
The mechanisms through which objective SES influences rates of childhood
obesity vary. Components of the home environment have powerful effects on children’s
weights. Typically, parents are influential role models in their children’s lives in that
parental weight status and habits impact their children’s weight status. Parental obesity is
considered one the strongest risk factors for childhood obesity (Crothers, Kehle, Bray, &
Theodore, 2009). Examining this concept in more detail, Semmler, Ashcroft, van
Jaarsveld, Carnell, and Wardle (2009) studied the relationship between SES, parental
weight, and childhood overweight and obesity. This study used information from 333
children who had successfully submitted data both at the beginning of the study and then
at a seven-year follow up. Height and weight measures were calculated to attain a BMI
for each family member, which in turn represented each person’s weight status. SES was
represented by level of maternal education when children were age four. After analyses
researchers concluded that at age four children with an obese parent were more likely to
be overweight than those with lean parents and this was true for both categories of SES.
Of the children overweight at age four, 86% of the lower SES child participants were still
over weight at age 11 compared to 41% of the high SES child participants. In other
7
words, being overweight and in lower socioeconomic conditions at age four meant facing
a greater likelihood of continuing to be overweight seven years later. Low
socioeconomic conditions create additional health barriers for families thus causing
associated children to be more vulnerable to being overweight.
Recent increases in food prices have sparked interest among researchers because
parents rely on economic resources to provide provisions for their family. High food
costs can compromise a family’s food security thus potentially impacting health
negatively of those in disadvantageous positions, such as those in lower socioeconomic
conditions. A family’s income determines the quality of food available in the home as
well as the quality of nutritional intake of each family member (Lo, Chang, Lee, &
Wahlqvist, 2009). In other words, limited financial resources create barriers for families
when trying to provide and maintain an adequate level of food security for its members.
Examining this concept in more detail, Casey and colleagues (2006) conducted a study to
look at the association between childhood overweight status and two levels of food
insecurity, household food insecurity and child food insecurity. For the majority of this
nationally represented sample, food insecurity at both levels were significantly linked to
being at risk of developing an overweight status, even after adjusting for family poverty
level. These findings were indicative of all groups, excluding black child participants,
thus indicating potentially important group variations. Financial insecurity accompanied
by rising food costs has been shown to create food insecurity within a family’s home
environment and associated members. Food insecurity then causes children to be
vulnerable to unhealthy weight gain as well as exacerbating the weight status of already
8
overweight youth, which further compromises one’s health (Casey et al., 2006). Factors
immediately surrounding the home also influence a child’s weight characteristics.
Access to an array of physically active settings helps children to build a wide
range of healthy skills and habits that will be applied throughout their lifecycles. Skills
and habits learned early in life contribute greatly to the ways in which individuals grow.
One’s environment plays a large role in the types of skills and habits built, because it
encompasses the resources and experiences in which individuals are exposed to early in
life.
Characteristics of children’s neighborhoods depend on socioeconomic conditions
(Ziviani et al., 2008) and those lacking the economic resources to travel outside of the
immediate neighborhood may be restricting children’s opportunities for exposure to
unique physical activities and settings. Ziviani and colleagues (2008) tested this
assumption by examining subjective parental information and objective data concerning
the physical activity and SES conditions of 318 children. SES was inferred from
examining the child participants’ school characteristics and location. Even though both
groups of children engaged in similar amounts of physical activity the types of activities
engaged in differed between the two groups. Lower SES individuals engaged more in
activities that allowed maintenance of proximity to the home and local neighborhood
while high SES participants displayed engagement in commercial amenities. Being
limited to activities in the local neighborhood has a tendency to diminish the quality of
physical exercise as it restricts the variety of available activities. Confinement to local
activities, indicative of low socioeconomic environments, limits physically active
opportunities for children thus potentially contributing to the inverse relationship between
9
SES and children’s weight. Children exposed to enriching environments with a variety of
opportunities for safe exercise and active play provide children with opportunities to gain
an array of healthy habits and skills, which are essential to healthy development.
Objective SES and Perceived Weight
Objective SES not only influences the characteristics of children’s home
environments, but also has the potential to mold the ways in which children perceive and
feel about their weight. In addition to the quality of nutritional intake, opportunity for
physical exercise, and food insecurity, one’s perception of an appealing body image also
contributes to the inverse relationship between SES and childhood weight (Costarelli &
Manios, 2009).
Studies exist that explain the effects of objective SES on body image and how
these views affect a person’s BMI. O’Dea and Caputi (2001) begin with the concept that
adolescence is a time of great concern for appearance and wanted to examine how this
concern was affected by objective SES. Researchers recruited 1,126 participants between
the ages of six and nineteen years. SES was determined by parental income and “schools
in which the majority of combined family incomes were below the 20th percentile of
incomes in the state were then classified as low SES” (O’Dea & Caputi, 2001, p. 522).
BMI measures were collected for each participant. Compared to middle and high SES
participants, overweight youth of a low SES displayed skewed perceptions of themselves
in that they were more likely to view themselves as too thin and in need of gaining
weight. However, overweight participants of middle and upper SES suffered the most
when examining self-esteem levels. In other words, low SES youth experienced greater
rates of overweight and obesity and were more likely to misperceive themselves as
10
needing to gain weight while their high SES counterparts experience more emotional
struggles with their perceived overweight status. Examining the ways in which objective
SES is associated with weight perceptions and attitudes provides a greater understanding
of the relationship between a child’s SES and weight.
Levels of objective SES not only affect body image, but also affect the level of
concern about body weight and how adolescents feel they should manage their weights
(Wardle & Marsland, 1990; Wardle et al., 2004). Wardle and colleagues (2004)
conducted a study to examine the differing stances on weight-related attitudes held by
low and high SES adolescent girls. SES was measured by assessing area-level
deprivation of youths’ neighborhoods, ethnicity, and the value of material assets owned
by the family. For example, type of vehicle, whether or not the family owned a
computer, housing tenure, and whether or not the student had the option to receive free
school meals were used to determine level of SES. In addition to SES, researchers
collected information on weight and height, social norms for weight control, weight
ideals, body image, and weight control behavior. Affluent teenagers also displayed
greater awareness of social ideals of thinness and perceived fatness at thinner sizes than
did low SES teenagers. Affluent adolescents were more often exposed to pressures for
attaining thinness and displayed a greater awareness of socially held views of thinness.
In a similar study higher SES youth showed more concern over weight-related topics and
engaged in more dieting behaviors than lower SES subjects (Wardle & Marsland, 1990).
Differences in attitude and level of concern toward weight further explain the
socioeconomic differences in weight-related perceptions and how these impact weight
through weight-related practices.
11
Subjective SES and BMI Status
Subjective social status is defined as one’s personal judgment about their ranking
or position within their surrounding societal hierarchy. The MacArthur Scale of SSS is
often used to measures individuals’ SSS with respect to two domains, SES and
community standing (Adler, Epel, Castellazzo, & Ickovics, 2000). In order to measure
one’s SSS, with respect to community, this research tool encompasses questions that
require the reader to visualize a ladder when determining where people are positioned
within their community. Rungs at the top of the ladder represent those with higher
community standings while rungs near the bottom symbolize those with lower standings.
The reader must identify the rung that best represents their perceived position in this
hierarchical structure. The participant’s designated rung gives researchers an idea about
how individuals view themselves in their social environments. Youth-focused studies use
a modified version of the MacArthur Scale of SSS in which youth rate their perceived
personal placement within their school community rather than in the general population
and to also rank their family’s position within society.
Compared to objective social status, subjective social status has been considered
to be a better predictor of health over time (Singh-Manoux, Marmot, & Adler, 2005) and
has been connected with a number of physical and mental health outcomes in adults such
as depression, long-standing illness, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterols levels
(Demakakos, Nazroo, Breeze, & Marmot, 2008), anxiety, pessimism, stress (Ghaed &
Gallo, 2007), oral health (Sanders, Slade, Turrell, Spencer, & Marcenes, 2006), as well as
postpartum smoking (Reitzel et al., 2007). SSS has also been linked to self-rated health
in which weight was only one comprising variable (Demakakos, Nazroo, Breeze,
12
Marmot, 2008; Goodman, Huang, Schafer-Kalkhoff, & Adler, 2007; Page et al., 2009).
Fewer studies exist that examine SSS and weight variables in particular and those that do
exist suggest that SSS may have influential impacts on a young person’s weight status.
Adolescence is a time of emerging independence as youth begin their transition
into adulthood. Childhood social status is primarily dependent on familial characteristics
while adult social status is dependent more on self-determinants (Goodman et al., 2001).
Therefore, adolescence is a time in which individuals begin to identify self-characteristics
in which they will use to identify their social position in surrounding environments.
Goodman and colleagues (2001) examined how adolescent SSS was associated with their
physical and mental health outcomes outside of the effects of objective SES. Physical
and mental health outcomes were represented by obesity and depressive symptoms. For
the purpose of this literature review I will focus only on the physical health outcomes, as
it will demonstrate the association between youth SSS and weight status. Adolescent’s
SSS was measured using the youth version of the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social
Status while weight status was represented by BMI. An association between adolescent
SSS and obesity was identified in that possessing a higher SSS was associated with a
decrease in the risk of being overweight or obese. Both family SSS and individual SSS
were associated with this physical health outcome however when entered simultaneously
only individual SSS displayed an independent effect. These findings suggest that a
youth’s SSS within their immediate surroundings, such as the school environment, have
stronger associations with their BMI status.
In a 2003 study, Goodman and colleagues set out to examine whether or not an
adolescent’s perception of their social status was associated with their weight.
13
Researchers gathered data from over 1,000 high and junior high school students. Trained
researchers gathered height and weight information from students in order to calculate
BMI, which then represented each participant’s weight status. SES was represented by
parental education and family income while responses from the youth version of the
MacArthur Scale of SSS was used to measure perceptions of social standing. Results
indicated that in all groups, besides black female students, individual SSS held the
strongest association to being overweight than did family SSS and SES. Furthermore,
this association was strongest among white female students and intermediate among both
black and white male participants. These findings further support the claim that youth’s
SSS within their immediate surroundings, such as the school environment, have stronger
associations with their BMI status, and that there are also important sex-race group
variations.
Given that individual SSS within the school community has shown to be a more
powerful predictor of weight status, one study focuses specifically on that environment.
Lemeshow and colleagues (2008) conducted a study on over 4,000 adolescent girls to
determine whether or not SSS within the school environment predicted changes in BMI
over a two-year period. This study focused specifically on female adolescents as it was
anticipated that the relationship between school SSS and actual weight would be stronger
in females than males.
The dependent variable for this study was adiposity, having the property of
containing fat, and was represented by adolescents’ BMI. The predictor variable,
individual SSS, was assessed using a modified version of the adult SSS Scale.
It was
concluded that adolescent girls’ SSS and weight were inversely related in that girls with a
14
low SSS experienced greater risks of having a larger BMI and those holding a high SSS
having a lower BMI. In other words, having a low SSS in the school increases a young
girl’s chance of gaining excess fat over a period of time while having a high SSS served
as a protective factor in weight gain. These findings are consistent with other studies in
that a potential protective factor against attaining an unhealthy weight status in
adolescence is holding a high SSS (Goodman et al., 2001; Goodman et al, 2003).
Subjective SES and Perceived Weight
Research has pointed out that objective and subjective SES are associated with a
young person’s BMI status. Objective SES has also been associated with weight-related
attitudes and perceptions. Studying youth’s weight perception is of particular importance
given that the way in which a young person perceives his or her weight status has the
potential to impact overall health outcomes. Teenagers perceiving themselves as
overweight are at risk of leading lower quality lives (Kurth & Ellert, 2008), experiencing
psychological distress, decreased mental health, depression (Al Maum et al., 2007), as
well as lowered self-esteem (Ozmen et al., 2007). In addition, negatively held weight
perceptions can also lead to health sacrificing behaviors (Strauss, 1999).
Given the influence that weight-related perceptions have over youths’ mental,
physical, and behavioral functioning in conjunction with the evidence that objective SES
influences such perceptions, then it is of great importance to study all domains of SES on
weight-related perceptions. To date there are no studies to indicate the ways in which a
youth’s subjective SES, SSS, is associated with their weight-related perceptions. This is
an area that needs more focus in order to provide valuable data on the full impact that
SES, both objective and subjective, potentially has on adolescents’ health. Furthermore,
15
knowing the full range of details will allow identification of effective mechanisms for
prevention, intervention, and treatment of weight-related issues that foster unhealthy
lifestyles.
Summary
Objective SES is often determined by examining household income, parental
education and occupational status and has shown to hold an inverse relationship with
children’s actual weight status. Individuals in lower socioeconomic conditions face
greater risks when it comes to being overweight and obese. Objective SES also impacts
the ways in which young people view and feel about their personal weight status.
Subjective SES is often considered to by synonymous with SSS and much like objective
SES, a young person’s SSS also holds an inverse relationship with BMI status. Those
holding a higher SSS, especially within the school community, often experience fewer
risks when it comes to overweight and obesity. However, unlike objective SES the
association between a young person’s SSS and perceived weight is currently unknown.
Literature indicates that one’s perception of their weight status influences aspects of
psychological, physical and behavioral health outcomes. Therefore, studying the
association between a youth’s SSS and weight perceptions will provide the necessary
information to fully understand the impact that SES has over weight status and may shed
light on additional ways in which to fight against the current childhood obesity epidemic.
Current Study
Indicators of socioeconomic status have long been associated with the health and
well-being of young people. The current study extends this line of research by
considering whether adolescent perception of their social status are similarly associated
16
with BMI and weight perception. The underlying assumption is that social status
influences weight and weight perceptions. Given the non-experimental, cross-sectional
nature of this data, this assumption cannot be directly tested and it may also be argued
that the reverse is true (i.e., that weight influences perceptions of social status).
However, it is assumed here that a person’s perceived social status has the potential to
influence personal identity and individual characteristics. This notion is similar to that of
the sociological concept of “master status”, a representation of social position that
influences all other aspects of a person’s life including personal identity and life choices
(Marshall, 1998). Basically, a person’s opinion of how they rank among their peers is a
social label with the potential to influence individual characteristics. For example, low
individual SSS is a socially undesirable status and this personal view may further impact
a person’s weight as well as their weight perception.
As children grow older they tend to become more aware of their social
surroundings and perhaps have a greater understanding for what is considered socially
valuable. Therefore, when compared to younger children, differences may be present in
the way adolescents interpret social meanings, conduct themselves in social settings as a
means to reach higher social rankings as well as perceive themselves within their social
surroundings. In order to examine differences due to age this project first examines
participants as a whole, not split by grade, and then in two models with respect to grade
level. Based on existing literature the author’s hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1: Youth’s family SSS within surrounding society will be significantly related
to both weight perceptions.
17
Hypothesis 2: Youth’s family SSS within surrounding society will be significantly and
related to their BMI status.
Hypothesis 3: Youth’s individual SSS within the school community will be significantly
related to both weight perceptions.
Hypothesis 4: Youth’s individual SSS within the school community will be significantly
related to their BMI status.
Hypothesis 5: Youth’s individual SSS will be a better predictor of their weight perception
than youth’s family SSS.
Hypothesis 6: Youth’s individual SSS will be a better predictor of their BMI status.
18
CHAPTER 3: METHODS
Sample and Procedure
Youth who participated in the 2008 creative problem-solving competition,
Destination ImagiNation (DI), were targeted for this study. Students worked in teams in
after-school settings to competitively solve challenges that exercised critical thinking
skills and those who qualified were invited to the DI Global Finals. A total of 6,000
students came from all over the world to participate in the Global Finals, but for this
project only American students were targeted for participation. Both children and their
parents were invited to take part in this study. Researchers were able to obtain parental
consent for participation in the research project on 47.4% (n = 2,843) of the children. Of
those, measurements were gathered on 78.6% (n = 2,236) of the child participants. Only
those in grade seven and higher were asked to complete the youth version of the
MacAruthur Scale of SSS. Given that SSS was the independent variable, this project
analyzed data only from participants in grades 7th to 12th (n =1,171). Middle school
participants were those in the seventh and eighth grades and consisted of 44.24% (n =
518) of the total sample studied. High school participants were those in grades 9th
through 12th and occupied 55.76% (n = 653) of the sample studied. Out of the 1,171
middle and high school participants, 57.6% (n = 675) were female while 42.4% (n = 496)
were male, and the majority of participants were white (n = 1001). A full description of
the sample can be found in Table 1.
Socioeconomic status is represented by parental education as well as annual
household income. This information was collected from self-reported data from parental
surveys. 22.2% of the parents who provided educational attainment reported having
19
some college or technical school edification while 72.4% (n = 176) reported having a
college degree. Upon examining descriptive data on annual household income, 23.1% (n
= 54) reported earning between $75,001 and $100,000 annually while 47.9% (n = 112)
described their annual household income as being greater than $100,000.
Prior to DI registration, parents were mailed packets of information outlining the
details of a research project in which their children could participate during the DI event.
Parents allowing their children to participate were further encouraged to complete a
parental survey in order to collect information on household income, parents’ selfreported height and weight, as well as general demographic information and various
aspects of their own dietary habits and physical activity. A numerical code was used on
each child and parent survey as a way to ensure privacy as well as a mechanism through
which child data could later be matched with corresponding parental data.
Age-appropriate surveys were given to each child participants in order to collect
general demographic characteristics, dietary and physical activity habits, perceived
weight status, as well as two levels of SSS. Questions on these surveys were drawn from
the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance (YRBS), a survey used to assess adolescent
behavior that may serve as a risk or protective factor to their health. After completion of
surveys, assenting participants were then directed to a station in which a trained research
assistant measured their heights and weights in order to obtain the data necessary to
calculate their BMI. Each participant’s height and weight were measured twice by the
same researcher as an effort to maximize accuracy and reliability. Children were then
rewarded with a decorative pin for participation in the research project.
20
Measures
Subjective Social Status
The MacArthur Scale of SSS-youth version was used to measure youth’s
perceived social status (Goodman, Adler, Kawachi, Frazier, Huang, and Colditz, 2001).
In order to measure young participant’s SSS at the family level this research tool
provided adolescents with a picture of a 10-rung ladder and asked participants to
visualize the ladder as representing American society. Those near the top of the ladder
held a higher status in society, occupied respectful jobs and were financially well off
while those at the bottom ranked lower in American society, did not have admirable jobs
and did not have financial stability. The adolescent was then asked to identify the rung in
which best represented where they view their family’s ranking within American society
Individual SSS was similarly measured with the youth version of the MacArthur
Scale of SSS. Young participants were asked to visualize the ladder as representing their
school community. Those near the top of the ladder were those who ranked higher within
the school environment, had a lot of respect from peers and received good grades. Those
near the bottom of the ladder ranked lower within the school community, did not have
peer respect and received bad grades. Participants were then asked to identify the rung
that best represented where they viewed their individual ranking with their school
community.
The top rung of the ladder was originally given a value of one thus representing
the highest SSS and the bottom rung as 10 representing the lowest SSS. In order to
maintain consistency with wording, the rung values were reverse coded so that the
highest SSS, the top rung, held the highest numerical value of 10 while the lowest SSS,
21
the bottom rung, held the lowest numerical value of one. The numeric-word agreement
eliminated potential confusion about positions of SSS by simplifying that the higher the
number the higher the SSS.
BMI
Height and weight measurements of each child were collected by a trained
research assistant. Each child participant was measured twice by the same researcher in
order to assure accuracy of measurements. Height was measured with the use of a
stadiometer and weight with a digital scale. These values were later converted into BMI
measurements and then categorized into one of five percentile ranges with the use of a
growth chart. Following guidelines established by the Center for Disease Control
(2009b), a child with a BMI less than the 5th percentile was categorized as
“underweight”. Participants with a BMI falling between the 5th and 85th percentiles
were considered to be in the “normal weight” group. A participant in the “overweight”
category had a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles, while those with a BMI equal
to or greater than the 95th percentile were in the “obese” group.
Out of the total sample studied only 1.6% (n = 19) had a BMI in the underweight
category. Due to the small size of this category underweight participants were combined
with normal weight participants to allow for accurate comparison between groups. Upon
completion of recoding, participants either fell into the normal weight (n = 840, 71.7%),
overweight (n = 192, 16.4%) or obese categories (n = 134, 11.4%).
It is worth noting that of those with a BMI status in the normal weight range
67.1% (n = 550) perceived their weight status correctly. Additionally, 73.7% (n = 14) of
those with an underweight BMI status accurately perceived themselves as underweight.
22
Lastly, out of those with a BMI status in the overweight and obese ranges 48.4% (n = 92)
and 85% (n = 113) respectively perceived themselves as being above a healthy weight
range.
Weight Perception
Each participant was asked to describe the status in which they perceived their
own weight and all but four participants completed this question. Individuals were able
to choose from the following five weight status categories, “very underweight”, “slightly
underweight”, “about the right weight”, “slightly overweight”, and “very overweight”.
Only 22 participants perceived themselves to be very underweight so they were analyzed
with the slightly underweight participants and these two groups were recoded as the
“underweight group” (n = 222). Similarly, only 17 students perceived themselves to be
in the very overweight category so they were analyzed with the slightly overweight
participants and these two groups were then recoded as the “overweight group” (n = 275).
Due to the small cell sizes collapsing of similar categories was necessary in order to
make accurate comparisons between groups possible. After recoding, child participants’
weight perceptions fell into one of three categories, normal weight (57.2%), underweight
(19%) or overweight (23.5%).
Grade
Grade was based on participants’ self-report of the grade they would be entering
at the beginning of the next academic year.
Race
Each participant was asked to pick from a list of six choices in order to identify
their race and all but 15 of the participants completed this measure. 85.5% (n = 1001) of
23
the sample identified as White, 5% (n = 59) as Asian, 3.4% (n = 40) as Multiracial, 3.1%
(n = 36) as Black or African American, 1.4% (n = 16) as American Indian or Alaska
Native, and 0.3% (n = 4) as Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and 1.3% (n = 15)
of the data was missing. Given that the vast majority of students were white and very
few students were distributed across the other groups, race was recoded into a
dichotomous variable with one group as White (n = 1001) and the other as non-White (n
= 155).
Analysis Plan
All models were estimated with continuous SSS ladder variables. Given that
social awareness matures with age and considering the hormonal changes young people
undergo from early to late adolescence this project examined participants with respect to
two models, middle school and high school. It was important and necessary to examine
data in differing models, with respect to age, in order to identify potentially influential
social and developmental impacts. The model for middle school participants
encompassed grades seventh and eighth (n = 518) ranging in ages from 11 to 14 years (M
= 12.23) while the model for high school participants includes those in grades 9th through
12th (n = 653) ranging between 12 and 18 years of age (M = 14.92).
As for BMI data, the underweight group was too small to allow for comparison to
other groups and was therefore combined with the normal weight group. The BMI
variable then consisted of three groups, normal weight, overweight, and obese groups.
Although it is categorical, this variable was treated continuously because an underlying
hierarchy between groups can be assumed. For instance, being obese, as compared to
overweight, enhances a person’s risks for certain health problems (Evangelista & Miller,
24
2006). Linear regression was the most appropriate tests to use to examine the
relationship between the independent variables and BMI because of the natural hierarchy
that exists between the BMI categories. Linear regression was used to examine the
association between BMI, gender, race, and continuous family and individual SSS
variables. The model was assessed by looking at the group as a whole and then by
splitting participants into two groups, middle school and high school.
In order to examine the relationship between the independent variables and
weight perception a multinomial logit model was used. This model was appropriate for
this study given that the three categories of the weight perception variable could not be
arranged in a hierarchical order. For example, both underweight and overweight
conditions affect overall health negatively (Ali & Lindstrom, 2006; Artero et al., 2010)
and both are associated increased risk of death (Sichieri, Everhart, & Hubbard, 1992)
therefore one cannot assume that being underweight is “better” or “worse” than being
overweight. Those viewing themselves as having a normal weight were coded as the
reference category. Nominal regression was used to examine the association between
weight perception, gender, race, and the continuous family and individual SSS variables.
Results were examined for the group as a whole and again by splitting the group into
middle and high school grades.
All models included controls for gender and race. Including these variables in the
models was important given that both gender (Murasko, 2009; O’Dea & Caputi, 2001)
and race (Hanson & Chen, 2007; Wardle & Marsland, 1990) have been shown to have
impacts on weight-related components of development.
25
Following previous research (Lemshow et al., 2008) models were also estimated
with a dichotomous variable representing high and low subjective social status. To
dichotomize the SSS variables, visual binning was used to split the sample as evenly as
possible based on participants’ answers to the two scales of SSS. After binning, it was
concluded that an answer on rung six and below represented a low family SSS (40.8%)
and rungs seven and higher represented a high family SSS (58.9%). As for youth’s
individual SSS, those identifying with rungs eight and below were considered to have a
low individual SSS (51.6%) while rungs nine and higher represented a high individual
SSS (47.9%). Results were examined for the group as a whole and then by splitting
participants into two models with respect to grade. All results were substantially the
same with the exception of family SSS becoming a significant predictor of BMI and
weight perception when entered continuously, and therefore results for this project focus
only on the continuous models.
26
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
BMI
Results for the linear regression analysis on the continuous independent variables
and BMI are presented in table 2. It was concluded that being male (β = -.145, t = -3.595,
p = 000) and being of a race other than white (β = -.153, t = -2.604, p = .009) were
predictors of youth having a higher BMI status. Additionally, the lower a youth’s
perceived family SSS (β = -.039, t = -2.531, p = .011) as well as the individual SSS (β = .027, t = -2.025, p = .043) the higher their BMI status.
Upon examining the middle school and high school models with the continuous
family and individual SSS, gender (β = -.192, t = -3.125, p = .002) was the only
significant predictor of BMI status for middle school students with males having a higher
BMI status. As for high school students, race, specifically being non-white, (β = -.168, t
= -2.027, p = .043) predicted higher BMIs and the lower a youth’s individual SSS the
higher their BMI status (β = -.042, t = -2.294, p = .022).
Weight Perception
Results of analysis for weight perception are presented in Table 3. Results for the
two continuous SSS variables revealed that gender (OR = 2.364, p = .000, CI = 1.730,
3.231) significantly influenced youth’s underweight perception with males being more
likely than females to view themselves as underweight when compared to those with
normal weight perceptions. As for overweight perceptions, males were 1.462 times more
likely than females to perceive themselves as overweight when compared to the normal
weight group (OR = 1.462, p = .011, CI = 1.091, 1.959). Race too was significantly
related to overweight perception in that the non-white group was 1.643 times more likely
27
than the white group to have a perception of overweight when compared to the normal
weight perception group (OR = 1.643, p = .014, CI = 1.105, 2.445). It was concluded that
each rung increase in a youth’s individual SSS decreased the odds of that person having
an overweight perception by a factor of .827 (OR = .827, p = .000, CI = .755, .907).
Additionally, continuous family SSS variable and overweight perception were
significantly associated in that each rung increase in family SSS decreased the odds of
holding an overweight perception by a multiplicative factor of .883 (OR = .883, p = .030,
CI = .788, .988).
Further analyses examined youth with respect to grade level. Both models
included results for gender, race, continuous family SSS, as well as continuous individual
SSS. Middle school males were more likely than their female counterparts to hold an
underweight perception when compared to those who held normal weight perceptions
(OR = 2.289, p = .000, CI = 1.459, 3.599). As for overweight perceptions, being male
(OR = 1.890, p = .007, CI = 1.188, 3.007) and being a part of the non-white group (OR =
2.203, p = .016, CI = 1.138, 3.596) increased the likelihood that a middle school student
would perceive himself or herself as overweight. Additionally, each unit increase in
individual SSS decreased the odds of middle school students perceiving themselves as
overweight by a multiplicative factor of .793 (OR = .793, p = .001, CI = .689, .911).
As for high school students, males were more likely than females to view
themselves as underweight when compared to those holding normal weight perceptions
(OR = 2.674, p = .000, CI = 1.716, 4.168). Additionally, each unit increase for individual
SSS decreased the odds of youth perceiving themselves as overweight by a factor of .843
(OR = .843, p = .006, CI = .746, .953). Following interpretation of the results for the
28
gender, race, continuous SSS variables and weight perception with respect to grade level
this project further examined the association between gender, race, dichotomous SSS
variables and weight perception. All preceding significant findings for both the middle
school and high school models, with the exception of family SSS and underweight
perception in middle school, were further supported when viewing both SSS variables as
dichotomous.
29
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Research has indicated that objective and subjective components of SES are strongly
associated with young people’s BMI status. Furthermore, existing research also suggests
that objective SES impacts youth’s weight perceptions. Given that the way in which a
young person perceives his or her weight status has the potential to impact overall health
outcomes (Al Maum et al., 2007; Kurth & Ellert, 2008; Ozmen et al., 2007; Strauss,
1999) it is of equal importance to examine influential factors associated with youth’s
weight perceptions. To date there are no existing studies which examine the association
between youth’s subjective SES and their weight perceptions. It is the purpose of this
study to examine and identify potentially influential subjective components of SES and
weight perception in young people. This information will help fill the gap in existing
literature that examines various components of SES and weight-related outcomes.
Youth’s perceived family SSS and individual SSS were examined to determine if
these variables were significant predictors of corresponding BMI and weight perception
status. Family SSS was found to be inversely associated with childhood BMI status, a
finding that is consistent with previous research (Goodman et al., 2001). Low family
SSS has the ability to be detrimental to a young person’s health by creating an increase in
the risk of having a heavier BMI status. This relationship is best understood when
considering that family SSS has been inversely linked to amount of depressive symptoms
during adolescence (Goodman et al., 2001). Furthermore, “depressed adolescents are at
increased risk for the development and persistence of obesity during adolescence”
(Goodman & Whitaker, 2002, p. 497). In conclusion, family SSS was inversely
associated with childhood BMI status through the mediating factor of depression.
30
Results also indicated that family SSS was significantly associated with youths’
weight perceptions. Specifically, youth who perceived their families to have a low social
status were more likely to perceive themselves as overweight. Once again this
relationship can perhaps be best understood when taking into account that family SSS is
inversely associated with a young person’s depressive symptoms (Goodman et al., 2001).
Furthermore, adolescent depression has been associated with poor perceptions of health
(Katon et al., 2010) thus explaining how low family SSS can cause one to hold an
unhealthy overweight perception.
Individual SSS was significantly and negatively associated with youth’s BMI
status in that having a lower individual SSS was indicative of having a higher BMI status.
This finding is consistent with existing literature (Goodman et al., 2001; Lemeshow et al.,
2008) and further supports the notion that perceived subjective social standing has the
power to compromise a young person’s health in negative ways. As Goodman and
colleagues (2001) point out, individual SSS within the school environment was
significantly related to self-esteem levels in youth. Considering that along with the
finding that self-esteem and obesity in youth were inversely related (Strauss, 2000) helps
to clarify one mechanism through which low individual SSS creates risks for obesity
during early life. More specifically, having a perceived low SSS within the school
community creates susceptibilities for weight gain through feelings of self-worth and
personal confidence.
Individual SSS was also a significant predictor in youths’ weight perceptions in that
those with low individual SSS perceived themselves as overweight. Individual SSS
likely indirectly effected weight perceptions through personal opinions concerning social
31
desirability and success with peers. Having a low SSS within the school has been
associated with a young person’s popularity within the same environment (Goodman et
al., 2001). Furthermore, popularity has been inversely associated with body satisfaction
(Graham, Eich, Kephart, & Peterson, 2000) thus explaining how low individual SSS can
cause one to also perceive themselves as being in a socially undesirable or unattractive
state of overweight and obese. Future research should focus on possible direct effects that
individual SSS has on weight-related variables.
Male participants in this sample not only had higher BMI statuses, but they also
displayed more concern with their weight perceptions in that they were more likely than
the female participants to view themselves as having both underweight perceptions as
well as overweight perceptions. Although this finding may seem counterintuitive, it is
contingent with the emerging trend referred to as male body anxiety. Barrowcliffe (2008)
pointed out that the ideal male body image has undergone drastic changes in the past 30
years shifting to a more muscular and trim physique as being desirable. There is a rising
preoccupation and concern among contemporary males to gain weight in the form of
muscle mass, while simultaneously shedding excess, unappealing body fat (Barrowcliffe,
2008; McCabe, Ricciardelli, & Finemore, 2002). In other words, a bulky, muscular male
physique is idealized in modern-day views. This emphasis to attain ultimate muscular
development leads young males to perceive themselves as both underweight and
overweight in the sense that they need to gain weight in the form of muscle mass and
loose the surplus of fat that may be keeping them from attaining a trim, well-built figure
respectively. More research in this area is needed to better understand this new trend first
32
to shed light and spread awareness on the issue as well as to identify useful techniques for
therapeutic services.
Race was also relevant in that the white participants were more likely to have a
lower BMI status than their non-white counterparts. This is consistent with current
literature that outlines the dynamics of racial and ethnic disparities in BMI status (Ruel,
Reither, Robert, & Lantz, 2010; Strauss & Pollack, 2001). Explanations for these racial
disparities are due to differences in physical activity level of leisure time activities (Lee
& Im, 2010), the propensity for certain minority groups to reside in lower quality
neighborhoods that discourage healthy decision-making (Ruel, Reither, Robert, & Lantz,
2010), as well as differences in opinions concerning body size attractiveness and
desirability (Vaughan, Sacco, & Beckstead, 2008). More specifically, various ethnic
groups, African Americans in particular, have a tendency to find a larger BMI status to be
of romantic desirability when compared to whites. This helps to explain why the nonwhite participants in this sample were also more likely than white participants to hold an
overweight perception. Previous findings that larger body sizes are more desirable in
certain racial/ethnic groups explains their tendency to hold and value a perception of a
larger body size. Racial disparities in BMI status have been widely studied. However,
understanding differences in weight perceptions is an area that could use more attention
especially given that weight perceptions have the potential to impact psychological,
physical and behavioral health outcomes (Allen, Byren, Blaire, & Davis, 2006; Kim &
Kim, 2009; Storch et al., 2007).
A notable strength of this project was that trained researchers collected youth’s
height and weight for later BMI calculations rather than relying on self-reported data.
33
Additionally, child participants in this study were drawn from all over the United States.
Although having a predominately affluent sample may be perceived as a weakness
because it didn’t account for low SES children, it may also be perceived as a strength of
the current study because it allowed us to effectively control for the effects that objective
SES may have on BMI status and weight perception. One limitation of this study is that
the direction of effects is not clear. For example, this project discovered that low
individual SSS is a predictor of holding an overweight perception, which has been
explained as affecting their popularity negatively and thus causing him or her to perceive
themselves as being in a socially undesirable state of overweight or obese. However, one
could argue that the reverse could also be true. Perceiving oneself as overweight or obese
could cause that person to perceive their personal rank within the school environment,
their individual SSS, as being low. Future research on this subject should take a
longitudinal approach in order to better identify the direction of effects.
In sum, young males in today’s society are showing more concern over their
weight and experiencing a pull between the two ends of the weight perception spectrum.
The physiques these young men wish to seek inspire them to gain muscle weight while
simultaneously loosing undesirable body fat. Future research should focus more on this
emerging trend and use a variable more descriptive than gain/loose weight in order to
accurately measures the goal that males are aiming to achieve.
White participants displayed both a lower BMI status as well as a lower weight
perception status. This has been widely studied throughout literature and differences are
attributed to a number of explanations. Professionals working with these populations on
weight-related issues would benefit from understanding the many contributing factors.
34
The majority of explanations outline that environment and culture mold individuals of
different races to behave and feel differently when it comes to their own body size.
SSS effects in childhood and adolescence have not been widely examined in
current literature. However, those studies that do exist point out that youth’s SSS has
potentially powerful effects on overall development. This study revealed that youth’s
family SSS and individual SSS were inversely related to both corresponding BMI and
weight perception status. Family and individual SSS has been explained to have indirect
effects on these outcome variables. Future research should focus on possible direct
effects that SSS has on weight-related variables.
Conclusion
Recent analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
indicates that child obesity rates have more than doubled in the past 30 years (Center for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Unlike objective SES the association between a
young person’s SSS and perceived weight was not known before this project. Weight
perceptions have the ability to impact psychological, physical and behavioral health
outcomes. Therefore, studying the association between a youth’s SSS and weight
perceptions is of particular importance because it provides necessary information to fully
understand the impact that SES, both objective and subjective, has over weight-related
issues and may shed light on additional ways in which to fight against the current
childhood obesity epidemic. The findings in this project are consistent with current
research, but also extend the literature by providing evidence on youth’s SSS, BMI and
weight perceptions. This project has identified predictor variables that have yet to be
35
pointed out and will also be useful in understanding the impact and ways through which
subjective components of SES has on youth’s weight-related health and development.
36
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46
APPENDIX
47
Table 1: Description of the sample
N
%
Mean
SD
min
Demographics
Malea
496
42.40
b
Non-white
155
13.20
Age in years
13.73
1.70
11
Subjective Social Status
Family SSS
6.81
1.32
2.00
Individual SSS
8.12
1.55
1.00
Dependent Variables
Body Mass Index
Normal weightc
840
71.70
d
Overweight
192
16.40
Obesee
134
11.40
Weight Perceptionf
Normal weight
670
57.20
Underweight
222
19.00
Overweight
275
23.50
a
Gender was coded as 1=Male and 2=Female
b
Race was coded as 0=non-white and 1=white
c
Body Mass Index between the 5th and 85th percentiles
d
Body Mass Index between the 85th and 95th percentiles
e
Body Mass Index larger than the 95th percentile
f
Weight Perception coded as 1=normal, 2=under weight, and 3=overweight
48
Max
18
10.00
10.00
Table 2: Subjective social status and body mass index
a
Beta
-.145*
-.153*
-.039*
-.027*
SE
.040
.059
.016
.013
Male
Non-Whiteb
Family SSS
Individual SSS
Notes: *p < .05
a
Gender was coded as 1=Male and 2=Female
b
Race was coded as 0=non-white and 1=white
49
t-value
-3.595
-2.604
-2.531
-2.025
Table 3: Subjective social status and weight perception
Under Weight Perception
Odds p-value
Confidence
Ratio
Interval
*
2.364
.000
1.730, 3.231
.966
.890
.596, 1.568
.975
.679
.863, 1.101
.981
.724
.881, 1.092
Malea
Non-whiteb
Family SSS
Individual SSS
Notes: *p < .05
a
Gender was coded as 1=Male and 2=Female
b
Race was coded as 0=non-white and 1=white
50
Odds
Ratio
1.462
1.643
.883
.827
Overweight Perception
p-value
Confidence
Interval
*
.011
1.091, 1.959
*
.014
1.105, 2.445
.030*
.788, .988
*
.000
.755, .907
VITA
Jennifer Phagan graduated in 2002 from Tift County High School in Tifton, Georgia.
She received her Bachelors of Science in 2007 from the University of Georgia in Athens,
Georgia with a major in Psychology. She accepted a graduate student research
assistantship from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in the department of Child and
Family Studies. While a graduate student at the University of Tennessee she worked as a
part of a research team to help collect the data used in this Master of Thesis project.
Jennifer’s graduation date is set for August 2010.
51