. The Exploration, Encounter, and Exchange in Modernization The Meiji Restoration. Hyun­seok Chang Junior Division Historical Paper Paper Length : 1537 1 History usually favors the technologically advanced. This has been shown again and again during the Age of Exploration as well as the Opium Wars. In these conflicts, the technologically advanced Europeans dominated their opponents because of their superior weapons and power. However, Japan’s encounter with the West is an outlier in this generalization. When visited by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, an American explorer who wanted to westernize and open up what he saw as a backwards country, Japan, though unwilling to change their 220­year­old policy of​
voluntary isolation​
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f and later even managed to challenge a few other Western powers. Even though it may seem like Commodore Perry was solely responsible for Japan’s modernization, this was not the case. Japan was modernized through constant exploration, encounter and exchange between Western and Eastern ideas and technology, which was already happening before the Commodore Perry’s visit to Japan. Reason for Isolation Throughout its history, Japan was never cut off from the rest of the world. During the​
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15th century, Japanese had a constant trading economy with the Western countries. This trading relationship was formed for the trading of goods and securing trade route for such activity.1 Goods included, for example, Chinese silks, embroidered garments, etc. Japan also had a constant economic exchange with the Koreans and the Chinese. However, the European contact started to fall apart when the Reformation hit Europe. 1
​
Jansen, Marius B. ​
The Making of Modern Japan​
. ​
65 2 Counter­Reformation countries such as Spain and Portugal decided to regain Catholicism by expanding to Asia. Japan received an influx of evangelists such as St. Francis Xavier. These evangelists turned out to be very successful with their religious mission and soon, thousands of Japanese were converted to Christianity2 . The expansion of Catholicism worried the Japanese leaders. Some feudal lords were afraid that their subordinates would pay more loyalty to the God in Christianity than to themselves. They also feared that Christianity was the first step of an European invasion. These worries eventually lead to the expulsion of foreign missionaries in 1614 and the eventual ban on Christianity altogether3 . The Japanese also ended trade with the Spanish and the Portuguese. This movement started the long period of isolation known as Sakoku. The Dutch became the only European country who continued the trading partnership. Sakoku: is it really isolation? But even after Sakoku became effective, the truth is that Japan never truly isolated itself from the rest of the world. Trade with China, Korea, and the Netherlands still continued. During Sakoku, the Japanese government forced the Dutch to an island in Nagasaki called Dejima. The island was small and their freedom was restricted but the Dutch still maintained trading relationships. Dutch imports were mainly Chinese silks, lead, and gunpowder. Sometimes they traded luxury items such as deer pelts, spices, tropical woods, eyeglasses, clocks, mirrors and books . In return, the Dutch got 2
3
​
Blumberg, Rhoda. ​
Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun.​
67 ​
ibid 67 3 Japanese copper and silver bullion. This became so successful that the Japanese started to subsidize domains that produced copper so that they could export it instead of selling it on the domestic market4. Japan also traded extensively with the Koreans. In fact, they had a whole region called Tsushima that was dedicated to the trade. Imports from Korea included the medicine Ginseng, as well as Chinese silk in exchange for silver bullion. There was also twelve Korean diplomatic missions that came to Japan. The Korean­Japanese trade exchanged ideas such as Neo­Confucianism, medicine, and pottery. Japan also traded with the Chinese during Sakoku and set up a Chinese quarter in Japan where around 4,888 people were housed in on the first year that it was built5 . Although the contact to the outside world was restricted, information still got through in the form of books and word of mouth. This was the only way Japanese people could learn about Western Culture. However, it would be wrong to say that the Japanese were not willing to explore and adopt the ideas encountered in these books. In fact, a whole new field of Western Dutch learning called Rangaku emerged 6. The scholars in this field had two particular interests: medicine and astronomy. The medicinal field was a point of interest because the Japanese wanted to prolong and save lives. The astronomical field was a point of interest because the Japanese wanted to improve the management of their agricultural cycle7 . Rangaku is a prime example of Japan adopting Western practices as their own, ​
Jansen, Marius B. ​
The Making of Modern Japan​
.​
87 Ibid 87 6
ibid 210 7
Shiba Kōkan, Dutch Learning. 524 4
5
4 and foreshadows Japan’s later adoption of Western technology during the Meiji Restoration. Social unrest and desire for reform The Meiji Reformation is a prime example of a successful and progressive reformation. As alluded earlier, the true seed of reformation began far earlier than the arrival of Perry. The story begins with Japan’s system of government that was somewhat faulty. Japan’s geographical isolation resulted in an absence of any major invasion from outside world. This made Japan a pretty peaceful place. This is shown by the substantial 240 year gap between Commodore Perry’s arrival and the last great battle (the siege of Osaka). This may have seem like a good thing. However, Japan’s noble warrior samurai class made up of around 5%­6% of the population,8 and these nobles were supposed to be paid rice in return for his service in fighting for his lord. This long period of peace, caused the samurai class to become an idle class that takes rice stipends for doing nothing9 . When these stipends were cut, many became rōnin, a masterless samurai, and settled in cities and studied Western languages and science10. Because of their knowledge, as well as their hatred towards the feudal system, these later became crucial in toppling the Towaguska Shogunate and starting the Meiji Reformation. ​
Jansen, Marius B. ​
The Making of Modern Japan​
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106 ​
Norman, E. Herbert. ​
Japan's Emergence as a Modern State; Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period​
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16 10
ibid​
.​
17 8
9
5 A noble class that does nothing but receive rice stipends puts on a heavier burden on the peasant class to make food for an useless group. Thus, farmers got everything taxed. These taxes include taxes on doors, taxes on windows, taxes on girls of a certain age, and taxes on rooms11. These taxes were so severe that the farmers could “neither live nor die12.” Under these circumstances, the peasants rebelled. Some practiced infanticide, or fled to cities. Others actively revolted to overthrow the taxing system but none of them succeeded. However, these constant riots and revolts taxed the Feudal system and lead to its eventual toppling. The Merchants and Artisans, who were supposedly at the bottom of the hierarchical pyramid, also contributed to the toppling of the Feudal system. Many samurai got their income in rice stipends, so they were dependent on the merchant class to change rice into money. This dependence was further shown when samurais and feudal lords started to take out loans from the merchant class. If a lender could not repay a loan, then they sometimes adopted the merchant as a samurai to repay them, which basically meant upgrade in class ranking for the merchants. This adoption lead to the merchants, now with the samurai status, buying samurai ship. To top it all off, many merchants were pro­restoration. Many of them saw that opening up to the world will help them make more money by trading elsewhere. These acts weakened the Shogunate and lead to its eventual destruction. On 1868, young samurais, who were fed up with the broken social system and the threat of foreign invasion, took matters into their own hands. In January of that year, 11
12
ibid 23 ibid 21 6 they drove out Shogun Yoshinobu and installed the Emperor in his place13 . Their goal was to “Enrich the country, Strengthen the Army” (​
Fukoku kyōhei) ​
and “Revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians!14 15” (​
Sonno Joi!​
). Their aim was to create a nation which was on par with the Westerners16 . Then on April of the same year, an early government plan, called the Five Charter Oath was formed. This oath set the sights and goal of the new government. Then, during 1971­1972, Japan went through a series of reforms. The feudal system was abolished, a universal education system was introduced, and a new army, as well as a new conscription law was put into place. These reforms helped Japan go towards modernization New Era and opening to the rest of the world The Meiji restoration was indeed achieved through constant exploration, encounter, and exchange. After the revolution, many Japanese were traveling abroad to study Western culture. Japan issued around 11,150 passports to study abroad with a majority (around ⅓) of all passports going to the US.17 There were also several embassies to foreign lands. The prime example of the exploration is, however, the Iwakura mission of 1871­1873. The reason for these missions were threefold, 1) To get recognition for the newly formed Imperial Japan, 2) to discuss the “Unequal Treaties” 13
Before this. Japan’s Shogun had all the power and the Emperor was mostly a figurehead. ​
Norman, E. Herbert. ​
Japan's Emergence as a Modern State; Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period​
.​
228 15
The barbarians in this case are the westerners. 16
​
ibid​
194 17
Between 1868 and 1902, 11,148 passports were issued for study overseas. Within five years of the Restoration private efforts to promote study abroad were beginning to compete with public, and students headed overseas in large numbers. In the first decade of Meiji one­third of these (293) headed for the United States, one­tenth (178) for England, and another 69 for Germany. (Making of Modern Japan 361) 14
7 and 3) to take a look at Western civilization and adopting them into the new Japanese society18. The Embassy left from Yokohama in 1871 and visited 12 countries in the space of 22 months. Along the way, they encountered and explored many Western ideas and cultures. These new western ideas included the American Constitution, the British Navy, and the Prussian army. The Japanese then analyzed the information that they gathered on the trip and took parts of their old government and exchanged them with the new information that they got. These adoptions of Western ideas included America’s education system, France’s legal system, Britain’s industry19. The missions and the resolution to change show how the Meiji Reformation was a period of exploration, exchange, and encounter. It seems that Perry’s visit happened in just right moment in Japan’s history when they were ready to absorb new knowledge and modernize Japan. Japan’s encounter with the Western world is like aliens coming to Earth. Aliens, like the Western world, are far more advanced than us.20 However, if we do what Japan did, learning alien culture, exploring alien technology, and even sending people to learn with the aliens, then adopting, exchanging and combining the best parts of alien culture and technology with the best parts of human culture and technology, we can be be on par with, or even greater than the aliens in a short period, just like the Japanese. All we need is the will to explore, encounter, and exchange, just like the Japanese did all those years ago. ​
Cobbing, Andrew. ​
THE IWAKURA MISSION IN BRITAIN, 1872 ​
2 Jansen, Marius B. ​
The Making of Modern Japan​
.​
360 20
Or at least that’s what most people think 18
19
8 Primary Sources Einosuke, Moriyama. "Japanese Reply to President Fillmore’s Letter." Letter to Millard Filmore. N.d. MS. N.p. This was the Japanese reply to the letter that president Fillmore gave to the Japanese. Told me what the Japanese were thinking when they meet perry and what they wanted to do. Primary source. Fillmore, Millard. "President Millard Fillmore’s Letter to the Emperor of Japan." Letter to His Imperial Majesty. 14 July 1853. MS. N.p. Gave me info on why Perry decided go to Japan in the first place. Primary source because it was written during the time period of my event. Harris, Townsend. "Townsend Harris' Letter to Lewis Cass." Letter to Lewis Cass. 7 Sept. 1858. MS. N.p. Told me a little about what Japan was like after the Harris Treaty and what was going on at that time. Primary source Japan. ​
Treaty between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan Amity and Commerce ..​
Washington, D.C.?: G.P.O.?, 1860. Print. This showed me the effect of Perry's mission. I cited this as a primary source because it was signed during the time of the event I was researching. Japan. ​
Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854)​
. By Matthew Calbraith Perry. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. Told me what Perry was trying to do in Japan and how the Japanese gave into Perry's 9 demands. Cited as a primary source because it was written at the time period where my event took place. Perry, Matthew Calbraith, Lambert Lilly, and Sidney Wallach. ​
Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, under the Command of Commodore M.C. Perry, United States Navy​
. New York: Coward­McCann, 1952. Print. This book told me a lot about what Matthew C. Perry saw and did in Japan. I mostly used this as a cause and effect kind of thing. See what Perry thought when he first came and compare it to the accounts of other people after Japan modernized. I cited it as a primary source because it was written by Matthew C. Perry himself Secondary Sources Blumberg, Rhoda. ​
Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun​
. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1985. Print. This gave me some general background knowledge on Japan and Commodore Perry. Who knew that a book for kids could be so useful for finding information! Buruma, Ian. ​
Inventing Japan: From Empire to Economic Miracle​
. London: Phoenix, 2005. Print. 10 This book taught me a lot about the Meiji Revolution such as what happened and how Japan modernized so fast. It also gave some good facts on the Russo­Japanese and the Sino­Japanese wars. Cobbing, Andrew. ​
THE IWAKURA MISSION IN BRITAIN, 1872​
(n.d.): n. pag. The Suntory Centre Suntory and Toyota International Centres for Economics and Related Disciplines London School of Economics and Political Science, Mar. 1998. Web. 8 Feb. 2016. <http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/dps/is/IS349.pdf>. Information on the Iwakura mission. Learned about the reasons behind the mission and the things that the Japanese learned from being in Britain. These things include industrialization and their navy Encyclopedia Britannica, "Meiji Restoration | Japanese History." ​
Encyclopedia Britannica Online​
. Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 Dec. 2015. Web. 08 Feb. 2016. Gave me a bit of background information for my paper. I was a bit confused on all the events around the Meiji Constitution and this cleared it up for me. Jansen, Marius B. ​
The Making of Modern Japan​
. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 2000. Print. This book told me about the history of Japan and its modernization. It was a bit of a hard because it was really dense but I pulled off what I could. Kokan,, Shiba. ""Dutch Learning"" (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 1 Feb. 2016. <​
http://www.columbia.edu/~wtd1/w4030/sjt/Ch29.pdf​
>. Gave me some general background information on Rangaku. The PDF was an excerpt from a bigger book from pages 524­563. The first few pages were the most helpful. 11 Lanman, Charles, and Arinori Mori. ​
The Japanese in America​
. New York: U Pub., 1872. Print. Told me a lot about Japanese exploration of America. I found the first two sections the most useful because they talk about Japanese missions and students in America. Miyoshi, Masao. ​
As We Saw Them: The First Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860)​
. Berkeley: U of California, 1979. Print. This book was more specific on Japan reaching out to learn the "Western way." Focuses a lot on the First Japanese mission to the US. Nish, Ian. ​
The Iwakura Mission in America and Europe: A New Assessment​
. Richmond, Surrey: Japan Library, 1998. Print. This book told me a lot about the Iwakura mission and the things that the Japanese learned and adopted from the mission. Norman, E. Herbert. ​
Japan's Emergence as a Modern State; Political and Economic Problems of the Meiji Period​
. New York: International Secretariat, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1940. Print. This book also gave me a lot of information on Japan and the Meiji period. 12