Non-metallic Resources:
Washington's most important minerals
Crushed stone
Sand and gravel
(per person per year)
Aggregate:
7905 crushed stone
6658 lbs sand and gravel
659 lbs cement
375 lbs clay
383 lbs salt
365 lbs phosphate
Clay
Rock types: Igneous
Rock types: Igneous
• Form from the solidification and crystallization of
-magma (molten rock below ground)
-lava (molten rock above ground)
Mafic minerals
Felsic minerals
Contain iron and magnesium
No iron or magnesium
• Most common examples
-Basalt
-Granite
(1000 °C)
Bowen’s
reaction
series:
arranged by
temperature
of formation
(600° C)
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Loose, unconsolidated accumulation of minerals or rocks
• Clastic rocks: compounds weather, do not dissolve in water
• Sedimentary processes
-weathering
-transportation/sorting
-deposition
-compaction and cementation into solid rock
Clay minerals
Iron oxides
Na, Ca ions
Sand
http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
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Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Clastic rocks: compounds weather, do not dissolve in water
• Classified by
1. Grain size
2. Composition
- Quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments,
fine-grained matrix
• Clastic rocks: compounds weather, do not dissolve in water
• Classified by
1. Grain size
2. Composition
- Quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments,
fine-grained matrix
Sandstone
(quartz sand)
(angular particles)
Breccia
Shale
(clay)
(rounded particles)
Conglomerate
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in water form:
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in water form:
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Biochemical rocks
Plant or animal derived
Biochemical rocks
Plant or animal derived
Clay minerals
Iron oxides
Na, Ca ions
Sand
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in water form:
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in water form:
• Carbonates (CaCO3 )
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Biochemical rocks
Plant or animal derived
Oolitic limestone (CaCO3)
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Dolomite crystals: CaMg(CO3)2
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
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Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in seawater will
eventually form: Silicate
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in seawater will
eventually form: Salts
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Chert (SiO2)
Chemical rocks
Precipitate directly from seawater
Halite (NaCl)
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Gypsum (CaSO4 H 2O)
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Rock types: Sedimentary
Rock types: Sedimentary
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in seawater will
eventually form: Carbonates (CaCO3)
• Compounds that weather and dissolve in seawater will
eventually form: Accumulation of plant material
Peat
Biochemical rocks
Plant or animal derived
Fossiliferous rock (coquina)
Chalk
Coal
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Sedimentary environments
Biochemical rocks
Plant or animal derived
http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/IgnRx/Introigrx.html
Sedimentary environments
Alluvial fans
http://pages.uoregon.edu/millerm/fan.html
http://explanet.info/Chapter02.htm
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Sedimentary environments
Sedimentary environments
Eolian
Beach
Wind sorted sand and dust
Typically well-sorted sand at
beaches along calm coasts
http://members.cox.net/theuniverse/landscape/so_cal_sand_dunes.html
http://www.aloha.com/~lifeguards/bech_dir.html
Sedimentary environments
Sedimentary environments
Tidal flats
Glacial
Typically fine silt and mud
Poorly sorted angular
boulders, gravel, sand, silt
http://www.ask.com/wiki/Coastline_of_the_North_Sea
Sedimentary environments
http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1216/tz/tz.html
Sedimentary environments
Fluvial (rivers)
Delta
Great deal of deposition
Sand along river beds
Clay within swamps
http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/mudturtlemanagement.shtml
Accumulation of sediment at the
mouth of a river
Typically a thick accumulation of
silt, mud and sand
http://www.solarviews.com/cap/earth/sediment.htm
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Sedimentary environments
Sedimentary environments
Reef
Solid structure of shells/coral
Highly fossilierous limestone
Shallow marine
Well-sorted sand, clay and limestone
Often in layers based on sea level changes
Deep marine
Fine grained sediments eroded from land
http://www.wallpaperpimper.com
Sedimentary rock samples
Non-metallic Resources:
(per person per year)
Aggregate:
7905 crushed stone
6658 lbs sand and gravel
tons per home
} ~300
25,000 tons per mile of road
659 lbs cement
375 lbs clay
383 lbs salt
365 lbs phosphate
Sedimentary rocks: sand
Sedimentary rocks: cement
• Weather resistant minerals
-Quartz (SiO2 )
-Garnet (X3Y2Si3O12)
-Pyrope
(Mg3 Al2 Si3O12)
-Almandine (Fe3Al2Si3O 12)
-Spessartine (Mn3 Al2 Si3 O12)
-Andradite (Ca3Fe2Si3O12)
-Grossular (Ca3Al2Si3O12)
-Uvarovite (Ca3Cr2Si3O12)
-Rutile (TiO2)
-Ruby (Al2O3 with chromium)
-Sapphire (Al2O3)
-Zircon (ZrSiO4 )
• Cement raw materials
-85% limestone (CaCO3)
-15% clay
• Heated
• Ground into a powder
http://www.lanemt.com/golf.htm, http://www.urlesque.com/2009/08/20/animal-shaped-sand-sculptures-are-just-beachy/
• Concrete
-70% aggregates (sand, gravel)
-15% cement
-15% water, sand and gravel to make concrete
Paul Schroeder
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Sedimentary rocks: sand and gravel uses
Sedimentary rocks: sand and gravel uses
• Construction
• Concrete
• Road construction
• Railroad ballast
• Mixing with asphalt
• Construction fill
• Bricks
• Pipes
• Roof shingles
• Glass & refractory materials
• Foundry sand (metal casting)
• Abrasive
-Sandblasting
-Traction on icy roads and railways
• Erosion control and water filtration
• Computer chips
• Day-to-day sand and gravel uses?
http://www.foundry101.com/, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt, http://www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_concretebasics.asp
Sedimentary rocks: clay uses
Sedimentary rocks: clay
• Day-to-day clay uses?
• Ball clay
-Pottery
-Floor and wall tiles
• Bentonite
-Pet litter
•Common clay
-Bricks, cement
Kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
•Fire clay
- Refractory products (heat resistant)
•Fuller’s earth
-Absorbent material
-Pesticides
•Kaolin
-Paper coating
-Porcelain
http://www.purapet.com/premium-clumping-cat-litter.htm
Sand mining
Sand mining
• Where do you find sand & gravel?
• Where do you find sand & gravel?
-River channels
-River flood plains
-Glacial deposits
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mapdata/
http://www.geo.msu.edu/geogmich/sand.html
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Sand mining
Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
• Where do you find sand & gravel?
-River channels
-River flood plains
-Glacial deposits
• Sand
- Mined in all 50 states
- 1 billion tons annually
- US is the world’s leading exporter of sand
- 52% : CA, TX, MI, OH, AZ, CO, WA, UT
- 600 active facilities in WA state
• Cement (limestone and clay)
- Mined in 2/3 of US states
- US produces 90 million tons/year
- 50% : CA, TX, PN, MI, MO, AL
- 20% imported
http://quarriesandbeyond.org/articles_and_books/orewashstruct/orewashstruct.html
Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
Surface mine
Washing
Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
Surface mine:
GA kaolin mines
Mine dewatering
http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-1178
Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
Crushed stone quarry, granitic material
Raleigh, NC
Lane Mountain Company 3119 Highway 231, valley, WA
(50 miles north of Spokane)
Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
drill is preparing holes to
hold explosives
conveyer assembly
carries rock to the
sizing plant
water truck sprays
water on rock that
was recently broken
by the explosives.
The water spray
helps reduce dust.
40 foot
mining
bench
diesel-powered 50-toncapacity haul trucks
http://www.geology.enr.state.nc.us
Crushing
Feed opening of the 48 inch
by 60 inch jaw crusher
Primary crusher -- rocks up to 5 feet by 4 feet by
4 feet are crushed to 8 inches in diameter or less.
Water spray reduces dust.
http://www.geology.enr.state.nc.us
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Mining: sand, cement, clay and crushed stone
King Creek Pit
Environmental impacts?
Kapowsin Quarry
Sorting
http://www.wa-rock.com/
Environmental impacts
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
Environmental impacts
• High pH in concrete wash water
- discharge limits between 6.5-8.5
• Turbidity
• limited to 50 NTU
• Erosion and sedimentation (total suspended solids)
• limit for sand mines 25 mg/l
• limit for crushed stone 40 mg/l
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
Environmental impacts
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
Environmental impacts
• Temperature
• over 300 WA rivers have increased temperatures
• often not from sand and gravel mines…
• local waters monitored for temperature changes
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
• Oil and grease from equipment in water runoff
• limited to “no visible sheen”
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
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Environmental impacts
Environmental impacts: Maury Island
• Federal regulation
• Clean Water Act (1972)
• National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
• WA State Dept. of Ecology regulation
• Sand and Gravel general permit
• State Waste Discharge Permit
• Gravel mine 1968-1978
• Four gravel mines on the southeast shore of Maury Island
• Barges loaded to supply regional construction projects
•1.5 – 2 million tons sand & gravel extracted per year
• Process animation:
http://mauryislandmine.com/Process.aspx
Source: http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/sand/sghearing2010.pdf
Environmental impacts
http://mauryislandmine.com/Process.aspx
Salt
• US and China are largest salt producers
• Production at 50 million metric tons/yr
• Worth $1 billion in sales revenue
• Potential issues
•Disruptions of land
•Arsenic on site and in eelgrass beds from Tacoma smelter
•Dock would shade eelgrass
•Disruption of juvenile chinook salmon in eelgrass
• Protection of site funded by ASARCO settlement
•$111 million to WA to clean up Tacoma smelter
Salt formation
Salt: production methods
• Bedded deposits
-dry lakes, marine
• Salt domes
1. Solar evaporation “sea salt”
-shallow ponds
-1-5 years
Cargill solar evaporation, San Francisco Bay
Artificial ponds cover some 43,000 acres
on the shores of the Great Salt Lake
Sea salt harvesting in Thailand
http://web.ead.anl.gov/saltcaverns/usdeposit/index.htm
http://www.virtualweberbullet.com/salt.html, http://wapedia.mobi/en/Salt, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10118848
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Salt: production methods
2. Solution mining “vacuum pan salt” or “refined salt”
-500-5000’ below ground
-Solution mining
-Freshwater forced down shafts, dissolving salt
-Brine is pumped to surface
-Water evaporated at high pressure
http://www.saltinstitute.org/Production-industry/Production-technologies/Evaporated-salt-refined-salt/Vacuum-pan-refining
Salt: production methods
3. Shaft mining “rock salt”
-Miles underground
-Explosives create fractures in mine face
-Salt is crushed and brought to surface
https://www.americanrocksalt.com/about.asp
Salt: mines
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