Chapter 2. Culture, Race, and the Contexts for Multicultural Teaching
Major Areas of Learning
This chapter is designed to help students
1. Clarify the concept of culture as a foundation for clearer thinking and discussion about
one’s own cultural assumptions as well as mainstream culture.
2. Think about their own cultural identity and basic assumptions that influence their
perceptions and interactions with others.
3. See how cultural conflicts can occur in schools through examples of miscommunication
between teachers and refugee and/or immigrant parents and students who are now
about 20 percent of our school age population.
4. Examine the continuum of high and low context culture as a tool to clarify the underlying
assumptions of mainstream culture, especially as it is manifested in school (called
scholastic ethnicity).
5. Understand why the concept of race in a dangerous myth and how it has become part
of our cultural assumptions and practices.
6. Consider the benefits and drawbacks of how the U.S. Census Bureau classifies the
American population according to five races, as well as the newly added multiracial
identity category.
7. Explain the similarities and differences in conceptions of culture, race, ethnic group, and
minority group.
8. Contrast theories of cultural assimilation and cultural pluralism and think about their
implications for teaching and learning.
9. Examine three new theories related to cultural assimilation and pluralism that may
better explain the immigrant experience in the twenty-first century (i.e., symbolic
ethnicity, segmented assimilation, and racialized ethnicity).
10. Learn about practical guidelines to understand cultural differences and avoid culture
clash and conflict in the classroom.
11. Locate resources for further reflection, activity, and follow-up inquiry.
Compare and Contrast
1. Culture and race
2. Cultural assimilation and cultural pluralism
3. Ethnic group and minority group
4. High-context and low-context culture
5. U.S. census categories and multiracial identity
6. Aspects of ethnicity and cultural conflict in the classroom*
Sample Answers*
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Definitions
Aspects of ethnicity is a conceptual framework rooted in anthropological research
that focuses on cultural styles revealed in verbal communication (e.g., how words
are used and what they mean, rhythms in speech, and preferred ways of
participating); nonverbal communication (e.g., body language, personal space
preferences, and meanings associated with signs and symbols such as clothing,
jewelry, flags, and other cultural artifacts); orientation modes (e.g., how time and
space are used); social values (e.g., ideal goals and behaviors); and intellectual
modes (e.g., preferred ways of knowing as well as the types of knowledge and skill
that are most valued.) Cultural conflict in the classroom is the disruption of student
learning, feelings of acceptance and overall well-being due to misunderstanding,
and/or ignorance on the part of students and/or teachers in culturally diverse
classrooms.
Similarities
These concepts are similar in that cultural conflict in the classroom is usually
rooted in misinterpretation of behaviors related to one or more aspects of ethnicity.
Cultural conflict occurs in classrooms when teachers and/or students have learned
different modes of verbal and nonverbal speech, different time and space usage,
hold different social value preferences, and/or different intellectual modes; and
they are unaware of where they are coming from culturally. To reduce cultural
conflict teachers and students must be cognizant of these aspects of ethnicity, as
used by themselves and the culturally different others they interact with. These
concepts are also similar in that they can change: individuals can become
bicultural and even multicultural, and cultural conflict in classrooms can be reduced
and eventually eliminated.
Differences
These concepts are also dissimilar in that, while cultural conflict is usually a
negative experience, aspects of ethnicity can be viewed positively in that all
humans develop these modes of being based on the cultural milieu they grow up
in, and it is a survival mechanism in the home setting. An individual’s aspects of
ethnicity becomes a negative when he or she is unaware of his or her cultural
ways of being and then interacts unkindly or inappropriately with culturally different
others, thinks less of or fears these others, or uses personal power to oppress
them in some way. While knowledge of aspects of ethnicity should be expanded
and appreciated, cultural conflict is a classroom phenomenon we seek to
eliminate.
Examples
Miss Maple is a first year teacher who grew up in an ethnically encapsulated
predominately White middle class suburb in the Midwest. When she moves to
California she is shocked and unhappy with her Latino students who are English
Language Learners. She believes that they are not ready for first grade and is
angry with their parents who do not come to school meetings or respond to the
written notes she sends home (written in English). She assumes the basic problem
is that neither the parents nor their children are interested in education and is
unaware that the family speaks little English and there is no one at home to
translate her messages. Miss Maple is unaware of her cultural assumptions and
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her lack of cultural competence results in a misinterpretation of her students’ and
parents’ behavior; they are looking forward to first grade and assume the teacher
is the authority.
Questions and Activities
1. Experience Bafá Bafá, a cross-cultural simulation. (In general, sixteen to forty
participants are required.) The simulation creates a situation that allows participants to
explore the idea of culture, creates feelings similar to those one would encounter when
exposed to a different culture, gives participants experience in observing and interacting
within a different cultural milieu, and provides numerous insights that can be applied to
culturally pluralistic classrooms.
2. Conduct international student interviews on perceptions of the dominant culture. Work
with another class member, or partner, to interview an international student on campus
or a visitor in the community. Each partner should interview a different individual,
preferably from different families, to discover their perceptions of the dominant culture.
Overall, an attempt should be made to interview people from different world regions as
well as several from the same nation. The interviews can be discussed in small groups
organized by geographic areas of the world, and results compiled prior to reporting
these data to the large group as a whole. Comparisons of perceptions about the
dominant culture can be displayed and discussed. (See PowerPoint 2.2 for interview
guidelines.)
3. Complete the following chart:
4. What similarities and differences do you see in these three different sources? Can you
find evidence of how the perceptions of each were shaped by the person or group’s
original culture (Chinese, Navajo, and your own)?
Perceptions of Major Social Values in the Dominant Culture
Hsu’s Perceptions
Your Perceptions
Navajo Perceptions
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
2.
3.
3.
3.
4.
4.
4.
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5. Using the examples of Fred Young, Jésus Martinez, and any other students you know
about, including yourself, give one or more examples of transitional trauma due to
cultural conflict between home and school for each category:
Types of Transitional Trauma
Nonverbal
Students
Language Communication Social Values
Other?
Fred Young
Jésus Martinez
Myself
Other(s)
6. Consider the journal entry on page 37 that was written by a pre-service teacher in a
multicultural education class. What are some of the points you agree with (if any)? List
as many as you can. What major assumptions does the student make? What points do
you disagree with (if any)? List as many as you can and briefly explain why.
7. Read the book Black Elk Speaks, by John G. Neihardt. What inferences can you make
about Lakota culture based on Black Elk’s story? (For example, significance of the
circle; how historical events are noted; the naming of people, places, events, and
celebrations; and the concept of private property.) What contrast do you see between
the Lakota worldview (especially social values) and that of the dominant culture? What
similarities? How might North American history be written differently from the Lakota
perspective?
8. Read The Doll Maker, a novel by Harriet Arnow, which portrays the life of an
Appalachian family that migrates to Detroit after World War II. What does the book
reveal about the culture of many of the geographically isolated Appalachian families?
Specifically, what did you learn about verbal and nonverbal communication, social
values, and approaches to learning? What are some of the cultural strengths, which
many teachers might overlook, that Gertie’s children bring to the classroom? What are
some possible sources of transitional trauma her children could face when they enter an
urban school?
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Test Items
Instructions: For the multiple choice questions circle the one best answer.
201.
The concept of culture does NOT include
a. concrete artifacts, such as manufactured goods and architecture.
b. language and nonverbal communication styles.
c. customs and values.
d. genetic or biological attributes shared by members of a society.
e. prejudices and stereotypes.
Answer: d
202.
Ethnicity is
a. associated with racial and/or cultural characteristics that set a group apart within a
larger society.
b. not related to geographic location.
c. an attribute of minorities but not the majority group in a society.
d. all of the above.
e. two of the above.
Answer: a
203.
The Navajo way is similar to mainstream culture in that in traditional Navajo culture
a. the exactness of time is of high importance.
b. quick action is valued more than patience.
c. material wealth is to be collected and saved.
d. there is a constant search for new ways to control and master nature.
e. none of the above.
Answer: e
204.
An ethnic group is a minority group when
a. it is less than 50 percent of the total population.
b. it experiences discrimination by the dominant group.
c. membership in the group is determined in adulthood.
d. the group takes on the mainstream identity.
e. intermarriage outside the group is most common.
Answer: b
205.
Race and culture are similar in that
a. both determine a person’s behavior.
b. there is great human diversity within racial groups and cultural groups.
c. there are pure races and pure cultures.
d. all of the above.
e. two of the above.
Answer: b
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206.
Matching. For each of the following situations, decide if it is best viewed as:
a-ultural assimilation, b-Cultural pluralism, or c-Neither
Members of an ethnic group give up their original culture and are
absorbed into the predominant core culture.
Public schools in the United States were expected to socialize European
immigrants into the Anglo-American way of life.
An alternative to the “melting pot,” this societal ideal allows immigrants to
retain their culture even if social harmony and survival of society as a
whole might be threatened.
Federal legislation that permits separate facilities as long as they are
equal.
Religious groups such as the Amish are free to worship as they choose.
American Indians who maintain cultural traditions often serve heroically in
the U.S. armed services.
Answers: a, a, c, c, b, b
207. Edward T. Hall envisions a continuum of sociocultural tightness to distinguish between
high and low context cultures. For each cultural characteristic listed below, decide whether it is
more typical of high context cultures (circle H) or of low context cultures (circle L).
H L
polychronic time
H L
less stringent social role expectations and unpredictable behavior
H L
group needs are a higher priority than individual needs
H L
personalized law and authority wherein oral agreements are binding
H L
“shorthand speech” patterns and reliance on nonverbal cues
H L
linear logic
H L
imprecise or underdeveloped social rhythm, and harmony with nature is less
evident
H L
less openness to strangers, despite warm hospitality toward foreigners who are
guests
Answers: H, L, H, H, H, L, L, H
208.
According to Longstreet, which of the following is NOT true about ethnicity?
a. It refers to culture learned prior to the child's ability to think abstractly.
b. It refers to verbal and nonverbal communication, time and space orientations, social
values, and learning styles.
c. It may come in conflict with scholastic ethnicity, the culture of the school.
d. It is determined by racial identity.
e. None of the above; all are true.
Answer: d
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209.
Worldview does NOT include
a. the similar way a culture group perceives reality.
b. shared values and assumptions.
c. stereotypes and ethnocentric interpretations of evidence.
d. the idiosyncratic views of individuals in a cultural group.
e. two of the above are true.
Answer: d
210.
The predominant worldview in the United States does NOT emphasize
a. harmony with nature and the importance of reflection before action.
b. "rugged individualism" and emphasis on personal energy and initiative.
c. pragmatism, technological superiority, and efficiency.
d. concern about human welfare.
e. the importance of freedom and democracy.
Answer: a
211.
Which of the following statements about ethnic groups in the United States is true?
a. Over 20 percent of our school children are from refugee or immigrant families or are
themselves immigrants or refugees.
b. The U.S. Census Bureau divides our population into five “races” and has added a
new “multiracial” category.
c. The U.S. Census Bureau defines Asians as a racial group, but not Hispanics who
can be “of any racial group.”
d. Whites, excluding Latinos, are now about 65 percent of our population.
e. All of the above.
Answer: e
212.
Which of the following statements about ethnic identity, or ethnicity, is true?
a. People in the same ethnic group differ in the degree to which they identify with or
feel connected with their racial or cultural group.
b. Language spoken at home, ethnic composition of their neighborhood, and ethnic mix
of their friends all influence one’s sense of ethnic identity.
c. Some White Americans maintain “symbolic ethnicity” or a strong sense of loyalty to
their ethnic group even though their family has lived in the United States for
generations.
d. Ethnicity is not an important aspect of identity for many White Americans who see
themselves as “just” American.
e. All of the above.
Answer: e
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