Kshetra Naamaavali
Tracing Sanskrit Names of Countries using Etymology
Sai Venkatesh Balasubramanian
SASTRA University, Thanjavur-613401, TamilNadu, India; [email protected], +91-9940784994
ABSTRACT
Etymology, as the flagship study of linguistics, relates phonetic aspects of words in different languages
through the connected meanings. The present paper provides a listing of names of countries and
continents (modern and ancient included) and through the etymologies in the source languages,
reconstructs the Sanskrit names for such countries. The ability to reconstruct Sanskrit etymologies of
country names with etymological roots in a diverse collection of languages with reasonable phonetic
closeness suggests at a common link between diverse language families of the world, and forms the
highlight of the present paper.
KEYWORDS:
Sanskrit names, Etymological Studies, Country Names.
MOTIVATION
Among the various disciplines of linguistic research, etymological studies emerge as the icing on the
cake [Sweetser 1991]. This is partially due to the fact that etymology based studies, despite their
vulnerability to error and controversy, have influenced our perception of history on an interdisciplinary
scale – spanning archaeology, anthropology, linguistics and acoustics, to name a few [Sweetser 1991].
Most commonly used as a tool to connect the dots between various languages of a single language
family, etymological connections between such languages, coupled with their dating, enable us to build
a language family tree [Matthews 2007]. However, over the last few years, the unification of languages
into families has taken on a whole new level – from language families to macrofamilies, examples of
which include Austric, Nostratic and Eurasiatic [Campbell and Lyle 2004].
On a related note, the attempt to solve some of the linguistic ‘mysteries’ such as the decipherment of
the Indus Script in the Indian subcontinent has propelled etymological research in a new direction;
specifically, the connection between ancient Indian languages such as old versions of Sanskrit and Tamil
and various other languages around the world, old and new, such as Japanese, Elamite, Chukchi,
Australian Aboriginal Languages and Semitic Languages have been explored and published [McAlphin
1975, Toth 2007, Victor 2007, Ohnu 1984, Butcher 2006].
Apart from the etymological research mentioned above, another interesting development in the field of
Indian language research has Sanskrit as the highlight. While studies conducted by the NASA portray the
‘perfection’ of the Sanskrit Grammar [Briggs and Ricks 1985], studies and experiments conducted by
Travis et al. prove that listening to the mere sounds of Sanskrit has a similar effect on physiological
conditions such as heart beat rate, skin conductance and EEG to that of transcendental meditation
[Travis et al 2001].
DIRECTION
Taking cue from the results mentioned above, the present paper is a result of a small exercise trying to
answer the following question – “If Sanskrit had Etymological Connections to the major world languages,
with an attempt to preserve the etymological connections, how would the names of countries sound in
Sanskrit and how close would the name be to its modern name?”. To answer this, various country
names, modern and some ancient are taken and their etymologies are investigated. From the meanings
of etymologies obtained, equivalent Sanskrit words are constructed.
At this juncture, a few points are noteworthy:
1. In cases where there are competing etymologies for a country’s name, any one of the
contenders is arbitrarily chosen to ‘reconstruct’ the Sanskrit name.
2. The Sanskrit names reconstructed are clearly not the only ones possible. In other words,
different approaches to selecting the Sanskrit words would lead to different names. The
criterion for choosing any Sanskrit word for reconstruction is merely qualitative closeness to the
present name of the country.
3. It can be seen that the source etymologies for the countries of the world arise from a wide
variety of languages including indigenous ones such as Taino, Ngola and Tswana, along with
widely spoken international languages such as Spanish, Greek and Arabic. Thus a mapping of the
country names to Sanskrit versions would clearly imply a universal connection between all
languages of the world.
LISTING
Based on the Motivation and Direction elaborated above, this section gives a listing of various country
names, modern and ancient, their source etymologies and languages with the meanings, and Sanskrit
reconstructions of the same.
Modern name
Afghanistan
Africa
Albania
Algeria
Andorra
Angola
Antarctica
Source words
Afgan/stan
Afar
Alba
Ziri
Ad-darra
Ngola
Anti arktikos
Source language
Pashtun/persian
Phoenician
Latin
Berber
Arabic
Mbundu
Greek
Meaning
Horse raising place
Dusty
White
Moonlight
Forest
Protector/king
Anti/bear
Sanskrit ‘name’
Ashvakaayana
Paraaga
Amala
Shashih
Aranya
Go-paala
A riksha
Aotearoa
Aram
Armenia
Asia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Barbuda
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia
Botswana
Brazil
Britain
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina faso
Burma
Burundi
Caledonia
Cambodia
Cambria
Cameroon
Canada
Cape verde
Chad
Chile
China
Comoros
Congo
Costa rica
Cote d’ivoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cundinamarca
Cuzcatlan
Czech
Denmark
Aotearoa
Arame
Armnaia
Asu
Australis
Oster riche
Adharbayagan
Baja mar
Bah-rayn
Bangla desha
As barbadas
Barbadas
Bel - rus
Belg
Beliz
Ile ibinu
Bod
Bolu ibar
P. Indo european
Tshwana
Ibirapitanga
Prydain
Varunai
Bulgha
Burkina/faso
Brahma
Rundi
Caled
Kamboja
Kom-brogos
Rio de camaroes
Kanada
Cabo verde
Tsade
Chiri
Cheena
Al qamar
Nkongo
Costa rica
Cote d’ivoire
Harahuvati
Cubao
Cundinamarca
Kozkatl
Ceta
Dhen - mereg
Maori
Ugaritic
Urartic
Semitic
Latin
High german
Persian
Spanish
Arabic
Bengali
Portuguese
Portuguese
Belarusian/slavic
Celtic
Mayan
Yoruba
Tibetan
Basque
Bos/bogh
Tswana
Tupi
Welsh
Sanskrit
Turkic
More/dioula
Sanskrit
Rundi
Welsh
Sanskrit
Brythonic
Portuguese
Iroquoian
Portuguese
Kanuri
Quechua
Sanskrit
Arabic
Bakongo
Spanish
French
Persian
Taino
Quechua
Nahuatl
Bohemian
P. Indo european
White cloud land
Highlands
Assemble/create
Rising/light
Southern
Eastern march
Fire-protected
Shallow sea
Two seas
Bengal country
White figs
Bearded ones
White/rowers
To swell
Muddy water
Vexation
Tibet
Windmill valley
Running water
Alike/group
Red wood
Painted ones
Seafarers
To mix/stir
Honest/fatherland
Brahma
Related group
Hard
Unshaken
Compatriot
Shrimp river
Village
Green cape
Lake
Cold
Cheena
Moon
Hunters
Rich coast
Ivory coast
Saraswati
Abundant fertile
Condor’s nest
Diamond jewels
Military unit
Boundary forest
Shvetaadri
Udaaram
Grahya
Aindra
Anuttara
Aindra raajya
Aashara paalaka
Gaadha samudra
Bhaaru
Vanga desha
Shveta radana
Smashruna
Amala aritu
Proccha
Prankin jalam
Bhoopa
Bhauta
Khalla vapra
Aapaga
Gava
Brusee
Chitrita
Varunai
Mishraka
Bhadra pitrbhoo
Brahma
Runa
Kathina
Kamboja
Sammodaka
Ganaalin
Karvata
Tata harita
Tataaka
Shishira
Cheena
Amati
Khattika
Kaksha raivata
Kaksha rajata
Saraswati
Bahusu
Garuda jalaka
Kulisha kshetra
Sainika
Nata maarga
Deutsch
Dominica
Ecuador
Egypt
Emirate
England
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Europe
Fiji
Finland
France
Gabon
Gambia
Gaul
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guyana
Haiti
Hayastan
Hellas
Helvetia
Herzegovina
Honduras
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Korea
Kosovo
Tewteh
Dominicus
Ecuador
Hwt ka pth
Amir
Angh
Erythra
Austam
Aithiopa
Eurys ops
Fisi
Finne
Frankon
Qaba
Kaabu
Gallia
Warucan
Gairm
Ghana
Grauj
Gharnatah
Cuauhtemallan
Ghinawen
Guyana
Haiti
Hayastan
Selloi
Elv il
Herzog-ovina
Honduras
On-gur
Island
Hindu
Indonesia
Aryan
Ur
Aryan
Isra’el
Wet
Xaymaca
Ri ben
Yrd
Qazak
Kere nyaga
Go guru
Kos ovo
P. Indo european
Latin
Spanish
Egyptian
Arabic
P. Indo european
Greek
Proto germanic
Greek
Greek
Tongan
Germanic
Germanic
Arabic
Mandinkan
Latin
Persian
Celtic
Mande
Greek
Arabic
Nahuatl
Berber
Guyanan
Arawak
Armenian
Greek
Welsh
German-croatian
Spanish
Turkish
Old norse
Persian
Greek
P. Indo european
Ugaritic
P. Indo european
Hebrew
P. Indo european
Arawak
Shanghainese
Canaanite
Kazakh
Kikuyu
Goguryeo
Serbian
People
Lord
Equator
Opener
Commander
Tight
Red
Eastern
Burnt
Wide faced
Look out
Wanderers
Spear, free
Cloak
Black river
Strong
Wolf land
Neighbour
Warrior king
Grow old
Jewish suburb
Many trees
Black
Land of many water
Mountainous land
Haya land
Sacrificers
Many profit
Duke land
Depths
Ten arrows
Land of ice
Indus river
Indian islands
Noble, free
City
Noble, free
Struggled with god
Year
Wood and water
Sun origin
Descend
Nomad/free
Black mountain
Lofty walled city
Blackbird field
Purusha
Devakah
Ekadoorah
Sphuta
Amara
Amha
Rakta
Aindra
Sthithi
Vistruta pratika
Uddrishti
Utana
Prahelaya
Khadva
Kala nadi
Bala
Vrikaana
Anti gruha
Senagana
Jraya
Ghara naata
Ketumala
Nirdagdha
Goyaanam
Aharya sthithi
Haya
Hotri
Bahula vithi
Raja bhumi
Bahu doora
Dasha karnin
Sheena nilaya
Sindhu
Sindhu dveepa
Arya
Pura
Arya
Sangharsha
Varsha
Kaashta paana
Surya bhumi
Avatarna
Kauta
Karka naaga
Thuna vilagna
Kaka vapatra
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Mauritania
Mexico
Moldova
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
Nevis
Niger
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua
Paraguay
Persia
Peru
Pindorama
Poland
Portugal
Quebec
Russia
Rwanda
Sahrawi
Kout
Kyrk iz
Lava
Let gale
Lbn
Motho
Liber
Liechtenstein
Liyati
Lucilem borg
Makednos
Maqad i shah
Malawi
Malai naadu
Maala dweepa
Mali
Melita
Mauri
Metztli xictli
Mulda
Monoikos
Mongkhetengrigal
Monte negro
Mur akush
Namib
Anaoero
Nipalaya
Neder land
Nieves
Nigre
Nordr vegr
Amoun
Pakistan
Aidebelau
Panama
Papuah
Para gua i
Persi
Biru
Pindorama
Pole
Portus galle
Kebec
Rods
Kwanda
As sahra
Arabic
East turkic
Sanskrit
Baltic
Semitic
Sesotho
Latin
German
Slavic
Celtic/germanic
Greek
Persian
Chichewa
Tamil
Sanskrit
Malinke
Greek
Berber
Nahuatl
Gothic
Greek
Mongolian
Italian
Berber
Nama
Nauru
Sanskrit
Dutch/english
Spanish
Latin
Norse
Arabic
Urdu/persian
Palauan
Cueva
Malay
Guarani
Persian
Peruvan
Guarani
Polish
Portuguese
Algonquian
Norse
Kinyarwanda
Arabic
Fortress
Forty tribes
Lava
Water land
White
Human being
Free
Light stone
Pour
Small castle
High ones
Seat of the shah
Flaming water
Hilly land
Chain of islands
Hippopotamus
Honey
Moor tribe
Moon navel
Dust, mud
Single dwelling
Eternal sky fire
Black mountain
Land of god
Nothing area
Beach
Foothill abode
Lower lands
Snow
Black
Northern way
Settled
Land of the pure
Indirect replies
Abundance of fish
Frizzy hair
River from water
City
River
Palm tree land
Open field
City of gaul
Narrow river
Rower
Expand
Desert
Kota
Chatvarimshat
Lava
Jala sthala
Amala
Jantu
Lokya
Laghu shila
Liyanati
Laghu shila
Maha tattva
Peetika sreshta
Jala dee
Shaila pura
Maala deeva
Kariyaada
Madaa
Maruta
Mati siraamula
Palitha
Bhala eka
Maha akasha dipa
Parvatha neela
Maruta akasha
Na kimapi
Tata
Nipaalaya
Neecha sthala
Neehara
Neela
Uttara veethi
Nirmaya
Pavitra sthala
Pratijalpa
Bahu matsya
Paritapa
Parvataja aapa
Pura
Prerthwari
Patrim ajira
Vapatra
Pattana bala
Suchimukha
Aritu
Prakeerna
Jhasha
Sakartvelo
Salvador
Samoa
Saudi arabia
Shqiperi
Siam
Sierra leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Somalia
Soviet
Spain
Sri lanka
Sudan
Suomi
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanganyika
Thailand
Timor
Tobago
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Vatican
Venezuela
Vietnam
Wadadli
Wai’tu kubu’i
Wales
Wallachia
Yemen
Karta
Salvador
Sa moa
Sa’ud ar rabi
Shqip
Shyama
Serra leoa
Simhapura
Slav
Slav enia
Sac maal
Soviet
I sepanim
Sri lanka
As sudan
Zeme
Swazi
Suos
Suittes
Syria
Tai wan
Tag dzig
Tou tanganyka
Tai
Timur
Tobago
To go
Tonga
Trinidad
Ens
Turk
Turk men
Tuvalu
Baganda
Krajna
Urugua i
Uz bek
Vanuatu
Vaticinari
Venezia
Viet nam
Walladi
Wai’tu kubu’i
Welisc
Walh
Yumn
Mingrelian
Spanish
Samoan
Semitic
Albanian
Sanskrit
Portuguese
Sanskrit
Slavic
Slavic
Somalian
Russian
Punic
Sanskrit
Arabic
Baltic
Seswati
P. Indo european
Alemannic
Greek
Chinese
Tibetan
Swahili
Tai
Malay
Spanish
Ewe
Samoan
Spanish
Berber
Turkish
Turkish
Tuvaluan
Buganda
Slavic
Guarani
Turkish/sogdian
Vanuatuan
Latin
Latin
Vietnamese
Mulatto
Carib
Old english
Gothic
Semitic
Cattle pen
Saviour
Sacred centre
Arabic centre
Understanding
Dark
Lion mountains
Lion city
Word
Word/land
Cattle herders
Council
Rabbits
Lanka land
Black land
Land
Pure/white
Our own
Bright
Assyria
Terraced bay
Tiger land
To join
People
Eastern
Tobacco
Water shore
Southern
Holy trinity
To lie down/rest
Created
Pure turk
Eight islands
Bundle people
Land, country
Shellfish water
Self master
Our land
Prophesize
Little venice
Pacified south
Our own
Tall body
Foreigner
Celts
Happiness
Govraja
Avaspartru
Su madhya
Sthithi arvan
Sakhya
Shyamala
Shaila vaala
Simhapura
Shabda
Shabda ayana
Rumali
Sabha
Shasha
Sri lanka
Kshamavat
Medina
Shveta sthala
Svajana
Jvajvaluh
Sura
Vailana
Vyaaghra sthala
Ayojanam
Athithi
Taamra
Sarika
Tataaka
Dakshina
Trinaatha
Anushethe
Sarga
Sargamahaa
Ashta dveepa
Baandhava
Kshetra
Kumi jalaja
Sva pati
Sva nilaya
Saakuute
Laghushete
Kshuri yaamya
Svah
Unnata rogabhoo
Nirdeshya
Videshya
Samyamcha
Yugoslavia
Zaire
Zambia
Zanzibar
Zimbabwe
Jugo slavija
Nzere
Zambia
Zangi bar
Dzimbaze mabwe
Slavic
Kongo
Latin
Persian
Shona
Southern slav
River
Zambezi land
Black coast
House of stones
Yaamya shabda
Nadee
Swami
Shyaamapura
Sthali paashya
CONCLUSION
The listing given above attempted a reconstruction of the names of various countries in Sanskrit, tracing
an etymological connection in the process. At this point, it is re-emphasized that the reconstructed
etymologies are just one out of many alternatives possible, and that, in cases of competing etymologies,
one of them are arbitrarily chosen. Nevertheless, the listing and he study behind the reconstructions
does yield some valuable take-home points:
1. The listing includes modern names of countries and continents, as well as some of the older
names for some countries.
2. The source languages for the etymologies cover a diverse range of languages and language
families including indigenous languages such as Taino, Arawak, Kikongo, Tswana, Samoan and
Maori, along with well known international languages such as Germanic, Greek, Spanish and
Arabic.
3. The ability to reconstruct Sanskrit names for such etymologies with a reasonably close phonetic
match to their original names suggests that the diverse collection of languages does have an
etymological connection. As a consequence, theories proposing language macro-families do
have credibility.
4. Last but not the least, Sanskrit based successful etymological reconstructions such as the ones
presented here, along with published literature on Indology combining the disciplines of
Genographics, Archaeology and Linguistics strongly suggest the notion that the Indian
Subcontinent has had an influence on the development of human civilization on a global scale
[McAlphin 1975, Toth 2007, Victor 2007, Ohnu 1984, Butcher 2006, Mahadevan 1970, Begley
1983, Allchin 1995, TallBear 2007].
In conclusion, it is noteworthy to note that the use of the etymological listing and Sanskrit
reconstructions as a basis for proving/disproving theories about human civilization will eventually have
to withstand the test of time.
REFERENCES
1. References for the Main Text
Allchin, Erdosy, The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States,
Cambridge, UK, 1995.
Begley, Arikamedu Reconsidered, American Journal of Archaeology, 87, 1983.
Briggs, Ricks, Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence–NASA, Knowledge representation in Sanskrit and
artificial Intelligence, California, 1985.
Butcher, Australian aboriginal languages: consonant-salient phonologies and the place-of-articulation
imperative, Psychology Press, USA, 2006.
Campbell, Lyle, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, Edinburgh University Press, 2004.
Mahadevan, Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions, State Department of Archaeology, 1970.
Matthews, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, 2007.
McAlphin, Elamite and Dravidian: Further Evidence of Relationship, Current Anthropology, 16, 1975.
Ohnu, Nihon-Dravida hikaku gol, nu-hamo, Iwanami, Tokyo, 1984.
Sweetser, From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure,
Cambridge, 1991.
TallBear, Narratives of Race and Indigeneity in the Genographic Project, Journal of Law, Medicine and
Ethics, 35, 2007.
Toth, Are all agglutinative languages related to one another?, Mikes International, Holland, 2007.
Travis, Olson, Egenes, Gupta, Physiological patterns during practice of the Transcendental Meditation
technique compared with patterns while reading Sanskrit and a modern language, International Journal
of Neuroscience, 109, 71-80, 2001.
Victor, The Babylonian Thamizh, Naller Publications, India, 2007.
2. References for the Listing and Etymologies
Most of the references (around 316 in number) for the country etymologies are adapted from the
Wikipedia article on ‘List of country-name etymologies’ available at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_country-name_etymologies. References for the Sanskrit Meanings
are obtained from the Spoken Dictionary of Sanskrit at http://spokensanskrit.de/.