Neanderthal Extinction and Modern Human Behaviour: The Role of Climate Change and
Clothing
Author(s): Ian Gilligan
Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 39, No. 4, Debates in "World Archaeology" (Dec., 2007), pp.
499-514
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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Neanderthal extinction and modern
human behaviour: the role of climate
change and clothing
Ian Gilligan
Abstract
can helpresolvetwoofthemostchallenging
in laterPalaeolithic
Thermal
considerations
problems
the
demise
of
Neanderthals
and
the
of
modern
human
behaviour.
Bothcan
emergence
archaeology
betweenbiologicaland behavioural
be viewedas reflecting
interactions
cold adaptations,
in the
context
ofextreme
climatic
fluctuations
theUpperPleistocene.
Recentstudies
drawattention
during
tothespecialdifficulties
theseconditions
totheneed
posedforhumansbutfewgivesufficient
regard
foradequatepre-adaptations,
for
namely
technologies manufacturing
complex
clothing
assemblages.
It is arguedherethatpre-existing
of such
biologicalcold adaptations
delayedthedevelopment
intheir
In contrast,
extinction.
the
technological
capacities
amongNeanderthals,
resulting
ultimately
of fullymodernhumanspromoteda precociousappearanceof
greaterbiologicalvulnerability
behavioural
visiblein thevariousarchaeological
adaptations
amongsome(thoughnotall) groups,
markers
ofmodern
humanbehaviour.
Keywords
coldadaptations;
modernhumanbehaviour.
Neanderthals;
Clothing;
Two big problems
Thisexploratory
paperis prompted
by a recentreviewin thisjournalof Neanderthal
survival
skills(White2006)andthefindings
oftheStage3 Projectrelating
to Neanderthal
extinction
Andel
and
Davies
The
is
on
ideas
rather
thandata.The
(van
2003).
emphasis
ideasrelatetohowthedevelopment
ofclothing
forthermal
reasonscanbe rendered
visible
and howthismayilluminate
twoof themostcontentious
in
archaeologically
problems
- Neanderthal
Palaeolithic
extinction
and theemergence
ofmodernhuman
archaeology
13 Routledqe
l\ Tayior&Franciscroup
WorldArchaeology Vol. 39(4): 499-514 Debates in WorldArchaeology
© 2007 Taylor & Francis ISSN 0043-8243 print/
1470-1375 online
DOI: 10.1080/00438240701680492
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500 Ian Gilligan
behaviour.
The focusis on fundamentals
and patterns
in thebigpicture,
rather
thanon
variability
amongindividual
pixels(thedata) thatcomposethepicture.In lookingat
trendsand relationships
betweendifferent
data domains,theaim is not to
large-scale
demonstrate
the validityof this thermalinterpretation
so muchas to illustrate
its
explanatory
potential.
Neanderthal
extinction
Despiteintenseresearchand debate,the questionof whyNeanderthals
disappeared
remainsessentially
unresolved
thedebatehas raisedconcerns
(Straus2005).Moreover,
thatdubiouspreconceptions
havebiasedourinterpretations
oftheircapacities
compared
to thoseoffully
modern
humans.As Speth(2004)pointsout,thepositedreasonsfortheir
demisearebasedon absenceofevidenceand inferred
on theirpart.In fact,
inadequacies
theavailableevidence
indicates
thattheadaptivestrategies
ofNeanderthals
(and oftheir
immediate
were
successful
for
a
a number
of
forebears)
verylongperiod,encompassing
Neither
do
data
much
for
glacial/interglacial
cycles.
existing provide
support thelongcherished
idea thatNeanderthals
werepushedto extinction
fromfully
by competition
modernhumans.
Themostextensive
recent
examination
ofNeanderthal
extinction
is theStage3 Project
Andel
and
Davies
Its
indicate
that
the
extreme
environmental
(van
2003). findings
sudden,
fluctuations
late in MIS3 somehowbrought
Neanderthals
unstuck.Also,Neanderthals
werecold-adapted
butonlyup to a point- theyfavoured
mildcold and avoidedmore
severecold.However,
basedon physiological
considerations
and on theirownwindchill
these
researchers
were
reluctant
to
blame
the
cold
itselffortheextinction
of
estimates,
Neanderthals.
Modernhumanbehaviour
The conceptofmodernhumanbehaviour
has problems
ofitsown,notleastofwhichis
thatitsmorereadilyidentifiable
markers
lithicsand
archaeological
(notablyblade-based
bonetechnologies)
havebecomelessreliable(e.g.Bar-Yosef2002).Insteadtherehasbeen
a shifttowardsmoreambiguousmarkerssuchas thedevelopment
of novelcognitive,
or
for
is weak (e.g.
which
the
evidence
linguistic symbolic
capacities
archaeological
et al. 2004: 535-8).Furthermore,
it has yetto be shownthatmodernhuman
Wolpoff
behaviour
in terms,
offoodprocurement
bestowedanytangiblesuperiority
forinstance,
at
least
not
the
critical
to
BP
50,000
30,000
strategies
during
period orwhytheinferred
lack of suchcapacitieswoulddisadvantage
at thattime(e.g. Adleret al.
Neanderthals
with
2006). As the Stage 3 Projectshows,the archaeological
pictureis consistent
in numbers,
then
Neanderthals
southwards
intowarmer
anddwindling
retreating
refugia
moreorlessdisappearing.
humanbehaviour
humansequippedwithmodern
Fullymodern
movedintopartsof Europethathad alreadybeenessentially
vacatedbyNeanderthals,
withstratigraphic
is
of
a
few
millennia
or
at
sites
wherethechangeover
more)
gaps(often
wellattested.
lastedin southern
Iberiauntilaround30,000BP,long
Indeed,Neanderthals
afterfullymodernhumanshad movedinto northern
Spain by around40,000 BP
Hublin
et
al.
(e.g.
1995).
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Neanderthalextinction
and modernhumanbehaviour 501
Though discountedby the Stage 3 Project,cold adaptationsmay have played a direct
role,mainlyin termsof thedevelopmentof clothingforthermalreasons.This argument
circumventsmany of the difficultiesinherentin current approaches, and offers
comparatively
pragmaticexplanationsforbothNeanderthalextinctionand theemergence
of modernhumanbehaviour.
Originof clothing
an underlying
assertionin thisthermalapproachmustbe made
Beforeproceedingfurther,
This
is
that
has
its
explicit.
clothing
prehistoricoriginsin protectionfromcold. The
in
favour
of
thermal
argument
originsis coveredelsewhere(Gilliganin pressa; Gilligan
submitted).In essence,a thermalmodelis themostlogicaland parsimonious,and alone is
consistentwith all available lines of evidence. Additionally,it opens up promising
possibilities (using physiological and palaeoenvironmentalsciences) for rendering
Palaeolithicclothingmorevisibleand forre-interpreting
major trendsin prehistory.
Anotherarea to be summarizedbriefly
at thispointis thethermalphysiologyof human
cold toleranceand clothing.This formsthebasis formakinga distinction
between'simple'
and 'complex'clothing,whichhas archaeologicalramifications.
Thermalphysiology
and clothing
The principlesand experimental
findingsrelatingto humanresponsesto varyingthermal
conditions(e.g. Jessen2001; Parsons2003: 293-325) can be summarizedonlybriefly
here.
In termsof physiologicaldanger,thewindchilltemperature
(Quayle and Steadman1998)
is a morerealisticmeasureof thecold exposurerisksthanair temperature
alone. Modern
humanscan becomeacclimatizedto cold, but onlydown to a 'criticallevel' (Hensel 1981:
220), belowwhichhypothermia
beginswithinhoursand can lead rapidlyto death,literally
overnight.
Clothingphysiology
The thermalinsulatingpropertiesofclothingare detailedin studiesof clothingphysiology
(e.g. Siple 1945;Burtonand Edholm 1955:58; Hensel 1981).Clothingfunctionsas thermal
insulationby trappingair close to theskinsurface,reducingthethermalgradientbetween
the body and the externalenvironment.
The thermalresistanceof clothingis indicated
the
'clo'
unit
et
al.
1941:
by
(Gagge
429); generally,each layer adds nearly 1 clo
1979:
(Sloan
17).
The crucial point to be made is the principleof thresholds.
The various biological
defencescan cope across quite a wide rangeof temperatures,
and clothingrequirements
smallfallin
(ifany) mayvaryonlymarginally.Beyonda certainpoint,however,a further
can
create
a
situation
where
the
need foradditionalprotectionsoon becomes
temperature
criticalfor survival.Discomfortescalates rapidlyinto danger,and the suddennesswith
whichthisoccurscan be deceptive.
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502 Ian Gilligan
Simplevs. complexclothing
A distinction
is drawnherebetween'simple'and 'complex'clothing(Table 1). The
distinction
is based on physiological
but,as shownbelow,it has important
principles
The physiological
distinction
arisesfromtwo aspectsthat
archaeological
implications.
determine
thethermal
effectiveness
ofclothing:
whether
is properly
a garment
first,
largely
i.e. shapedto fitcloselyaroundthebody,including
thelimbs,as opposedto being
'fitted',
looselydrapedoverthebody.The secondaspectis thenumberof layers,withmultiple
thatat leasttheinnerlayer(s)arefitted.
can
layersrequiring
Draped,single-layer
clothing
provideonlylimitedprotection,
up to around1-2 clo, whereasfitted,
multi-layered
can provideup to 4-5 clo, sufficient
forsurvival
in polarand subclothing
assemblages
environments.
The
former
be
termed
and
the
latter'complex'.
polar
may
'simple'clothing,
Unlikesimpleclothing,
theregular
useofcomplex
hasnon-thermal
clothing
consequences
and,forvariousreasons,itsuse tendsto becomehabitual.
Pleistoceneclothing
Thefactthatthereareno surviving
remains
ofclothing
fromthePleistocene
is a
physical
but
not
an
insurmountable
one
of
human
behaviour
have
problem,
manyaspects past
leftno direct,tangibleevidencebutare nonetheless
of interest
to prehistorians.
Certain
itemssurvivesuchas buttonsand eyedneedlesand also a fewartistic
clothing-related
in theLGM (e.g.Bader
depictions,
corresponding
mainlyto theuse ofcomplexclothing
and Bader2000:29). The thermal
modeloutlinedherenot onlyoffers
theprospectof
when
and
where
humans
it
to
need
but
also becomes
clothes,
specifying
early
began
Table1 Featuresdistinguishing
simpleand complexclothes
Simpleclothes
Structure
Numberoflayers
Fitted(or 'tailored')
Thermal
physiology
Levelofprotection
Technology
(Palaeolithic)
Scraping
implements
Piercing
implements
Cutting
implements
mode
Technological
Repercussions
Impairscoldtolerance
role
Acquiresdecorative
Acquiressocialfunctions
Promotes
modesty/shame
Becomeshabitual
clothes
Complex
1
No
>1
Yes
1-2clo
2-5 clo
Yes
No (generally)
No
3
No
No
No
No
No
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Yes
Yes
Yes
4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Neanderthalextinction
and modernhumanbehaviour 503
feasibleto stipulateenvironmental
conditionsthatwould favourtheuse of simpleclothing
and, in particular,promotea transitionfromsimple to complex clothing.Pleistocene
clothingmay be renderedmorevisibleby combiningtwo strategies:
1. Given its likelythermalorigins,physiologicaland palaeoenvironmental
evidence
can be utilizedto determineminimumclothingrequirements.
2. Technological prerequisitesfor manufacturingthe necessarykind of clothing
(simpleor complex)may alreadybe visiblein the archaeologicalrecord,and their
developmentand distributionsin place and time should correspond with
predictionsderivedfrom1.
It is thissecond strategythatcan open up new ways of interpreting
major technological
trendsand transitionsin prehistory(e.g., Gilligan in press b). In other words, the
Pleistocenearchaeological record probably contains considerablymore evidence for
clothingthan beads, buttonsand eyed needles,as Hayden (1990) and others(e.g. Soffer
et al. 1998) have intimated.
Archaeologicalsignaturesof clothing
Simple and complex clothinghave different
technologicalcorrelates.Simple garments
made fromanimal hides requirebasic skin-preparation
techniques,mainlycleaningand
scraping,which can be achieved with scrapertools of various descriptions.Complex
garmentsdemandthattheskinsbe carefullyshaped by cutting,especiallyfortheseparate
rectangularpieces that formcylindersto cover the limbs,and these need to be joined
togetherin some way, usually by sewing.Where multiplelayers are used, the inner
garmentsmust be carefullyprepared,with finercuttingand sewing to achieve the
necessaryclose fit.Complex clothes,in otherwords, tend to be associated with more
The adventof laminaror Mode 4
specializedscraping,cuttingand piercingimplements.
a
technologies(Clark 1977) signified greateremphasison cuttingand piercingactivities
and similarlybone pointsforpiercing
(blade tools beingideal ifcuttingedge is a priority,
hides),hencea greatercapacityto manufacture
complexclothing.In a Pleistocenecontext,
humans with Mode 4 technocomplexeswere betterplaced to manufacturecomplex
suchclothingwere
clothing,whilethosewithoutthetechnologicalcapacityto manufacture
restricted
in termsof theirpotentialenvironmental
ranges.
Neanderthalsand clothing
It is now widelyacknowledgedthat the body formof Neanderthalsindicatestheywere
biologicallycold-adapted.However,as the Stage 3 Project showed,thisprovidedthem
withonlylimitedprotection.Whethertheyhad a thickercoveringof body hairmaynever
be known,but thiswould have added at mostonlyanother1 clo or so of insulation.They
are also likelyto have developed maximal - and possibly,for hominins,unusual physiologicalcold defences(e.g. Steegmannet al. 2002). Nonetheless,given the likely
minimumwintertemperaturesto which theywere exposed, they would have needed
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504 Ian Gilligan
additionalportableprotectionto survivewhenand wheretheydid (White2006: 558). The
requiredlevelof such protectioncorrespondsbroadlyto simpleclothing,i.e. single-layer,
and thearchaeologicalevidenceis consistentwithan absenceofcomplex
drapedgarments,
Kuhn
and Stiner2006: 958). The recentworkof Trinkaus(2005) suggestsa
clothing(e.g.
similarsituationforfootwear,withtheirpedal morphologyindicatingthat,unlikeamong
fullymodernhumansin late PleistoceneEurope,theuse of shoesamongNeanderthalswas
limited.Indeed,the cold-adaptedNeanderthalbody shape itselfsuggeststhe use of only
warmer
simpleclothing,as regularuse of complexgarmentswould resultin a consistently
microenvironment
forthebody and hencea less cold-adaptedphysique.The heavierpelts
fromsome animal specieswould providemorethan 1-2 clo protection(White2006: 559)
even as single-layered,
draped garments,since the clo unit is based on lightermodern
made
from
woven
textiles- although wind penetrationwould still expose
garments
Neanderthalsto riskat moreextremewindchilllevels.The technologicalprerequisites
for
Neanderthalclothingwerethoseof Mode 3, i.e. scrapersand also basic boringimplements
to pierceholes in the hides so theycould be held in place withstringsor cords. Their
Mousteriantechnocomplexes,
comprisingtechniquesforreliablygeneratingwell-formed
were
well
suitedto themanufactureof simpleclothing.
scrapertools,
The northern
limit
One intriguing
featureof the archaeologicalrecordforNeanderthalsis thattherewas a
clear geographicallimitto theiroccupation of Ice Age Europe (Fig. 1), and the most
northerlysites date to milder climatic phases (Hublin 1998: 305). No confirmed
Neanderthalsites are found northof approximatelylatitude55°N, and the boundary
of
Eurasiashowingtheapproximate
limitto Neanderthal
Figure1 Map of western
penetration
colderregions
clo
of
insulation
hence
3+
requiring
(and
complexclothing).
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Neanderthalextinction
and modernhumanbehaviour 505
southin continentalzones wherewinterminimumswerelower.Yet, as the
retreatsfurther
subsequentexpansionof fullymodernhumansmakesclear,colderregionsunoccupiedby
Neanderthalswereoftenrichin resources,and, in termsof extractingfood, should have
been readilyexploitablewith Mousterian toolkits.The most plausible explanationis
the Neanderthals'northerngeographicallimitmarksthe limitof
simplythat,thermally,
theiradaptationto cold.
MIS3 cold spikesand windchill
If the Neanderthals'successfuladaptation to moderate cold allowed them and their
cycles,whymightthey
precursorsin theregionto survivea numberof glacial/interglacial
havecome to griefforthermalreasonslatein MIS3? Lookingat a generalizedtemperature
curve for the last few glacial cycles(Fig. 2a), MIS3 does not appear much different
milderon average,and at itsworstno colder,thanMIS4 (a 'miniLGM' c. 75,000-70,000
there
BP),MIS6 (thepenultimateglaciation)or MIS2 (theLGM). Yet, on closerscrutiny,
is somethingunusual: a series of 'abrupt, whiplash' fluctuationsof great magnitude
(Macdougall 2006: 205). These sudden, severe environmentalupheavals would be
challengingfor many reasons,as the Stage 3 Project emphasized.However,theirtrue
lies in theirspecial implicationforcold stress.
significance
but the othermain componentof cold
Oxygenisotope graphsrelateto temperature,
stressis wind velocity.Alas, thereexistno good palaeoenvironmental
proxiesforwind
The best available wind proxyis dust comparableto isotope proxiesfortemperature.
strongerwinds resultin more atmosphericdust (loess being the classic example), but
Figure2 Schematic
curve,b) possiblewindvelocity
graphshowinga) generalized
temperature
windchilllevelsspanning
thelast60,000years.
averagesandc) hypothetical
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506 Ian Gilligan
dustanalysis(covering
to thedustrecord.One long-term
ariditycan also contribute
740,000to 0 BP)is fromDome C in EastAntarctica
(EPICA 2004).Thisshowsa marked
difference
forthelastIce Age:moredustthanpreceding
witha peakin late
glaciations,
and
it
is
thatall thisextradustis attributable
to greater
MIS3-MIS2,
unlikely
aridity.
thereis reasonto expectstronger
windslatein MIS3.
Moreover,
A fundamental
factoraffecting
averageglobal wind velocityis the temperature
difference
between
theequatorialand polarzones.Duringice ages,thepolescool more
thanthetropics,
so thetemperature
difference
is greater
andiceagesaregenerally
windier,
in themiddlelatitudes,
so to speak.However,
especially
beingthemeatin thesandwich,
oneotherfactoris relevant
in MIS3: therapidity
ofthetemperature
changes.Morerapid
cause
when
the
are
of
whichis
winds,
changes
stronger
especially
changes
highmagnitude,
what
these
cold
precisely pertained
during
spikes.
The likelyscenariois thatthesecoldspikescorresponded
to windspikes(Fig.2b),and
theimplications
forthecorresponding
windchillspikesaredramatic
of
(Fig.2c).In terms
windchill,it is quitepossiblethatthermal
conditions
in thesespikeswereat timesmore
forhumansthanat anyothertimeinthelastIce Age,including
theLGM. The
dangerous
coldestwindchillconditions
in MIS3 mayhavebeenbriefbut,in termsof therisksto
humansurvival,
a periodas shortas a fewweeksor evenlesscouldbe catastrophic
for
sufficient
groupswithout
portableprotection.
as thecause of Neanderthalextinction
Hypothermia
- hypothermia
- implicated
To whatextent
is coldstress
as a direct
causeofNeanderthal
extinction?
Is thereanydirectevidence?
The shortansweris no. Strangely
enough,thatis
whatshouldbe expected.
Likean ice daggerthatsoon dissolves,
it leavesno traceof a
The victimcan appearperfectly
weapon,at leastnotoftheosteological
variety.
healthy
(aside,thatis, frombeingdead). What about otherkindsof cold injury,especially
frostbite?
This can leave osteologicalevidence- X-raysof the TyroleanIceman,for
revealed
in one of his toes(Murphyet al. 2003:623) - but
instance,
signsof frostbite
resistance
to frostbite
is a prominent
feature
ofbiologicalcoldadaptation.
We shouldnot
theirlikelylack of
expectto findmuchevidenceforfrostbite
amongNeanderthals;
substantial
footwear
thepoint.
underlines
merely
Is thereanyindirect
evidence?
recordfor
Theshortansweris yes.Thewholesettlement
Neanderthals
forlate
demonstrates
theirsensitivity
to modestlevelsofcold.The picture
inthisregard,
MIS3 ismosttelling
as theStage3 Projectmadeclear:'IfNeanderthals
only
of
1
hada limited
to
the
modest
level
cultural
of
even
clo,
themselves,
capability insulating
half
of
had
conditions
of
the
latter
would
have
under
the
harsh
they
difficulty
increasingly
ifNeanderthals
did nothavecomplex
OIS-3' (Aielloand Wheeler2003: 156).In effect,
evidence
thattheyhad only'a limited
Is therearchaeological
clothing,
theywerefinished.
cultural
ofinsulating
themselves'
Yes,thereis,andit's
capability
(i.e.onlysimpleclothes)?
calledtheMousterian.
needto pushclothing
Withouthavinghad muchphysiological
tothenextlevel,theywereinsufficiently
forthelateMIS3 windchill
technologies
prepared
ratherthan
and severity
of the spikes,/?re-adaptation
spikes.Giventhe suddenness
was required.
adaptation
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Neanderthalextinction
and modernhumanbehaviour 507
Stage 3 Projectfindings
oftheStage3 Projectare,as arguedhere,consistent
withhypothermia
Ifthefindings
(and
the
cause
of
Neanderthal
as
team
extinction,
whydid theresearch
inadequateclothing)
it- inmoredetailthanprevious
thecolddirectly?
Theydidconsider
stopshortofblaming
factor.
Therearea number
ofreasons
analyses andincludeitas a possiblecontributory
their
bets.
One
is
their
use
of
multi-millennia
time-slices
to
whytheyhedged
averaged
thermal
conditions
rather
than
at
the
estimate
shorter
For
the
average
looking
spikes.
whichis probablyreasonableforminimum
coldestspikes,theyused theLGM figure,
- hencea likelyunderestimate
butnotnecessarily
forwindvelocities
forthe
temperatures
wind
chill
of
the
late
MIS3
Another
drawback
is
their
use
of
a
wind
chill
severity
spikes.
Wheeler
formula
and
2003:
that
sub-zero
wind
chill
estimates
(Aiello
151)
mayexaggerate
forgivenwindvelocities,
forcalculatedtolerance
levels.The
leadingto unreliable
figures
mainshortcomings,
are a failureto distinguish
however,
simplefromcomplexclothing
and to recognize
thetechnological
connections
withMousterian
and UpperPalaeolithic
industries
respectively.
Otherthermal
factors
Whilecoldstress(hypothermia
due to insufficient
is alonesufficient
to account
clothing)
forNeanderthal
insulation
has
additionalramifications
extinction,
inadequateportable
forNeanderthal
survival
intheopenwouldbe compromised,
prospects.
Mobility
affecting
theirhunting
and gathering
and hencetheircapacitynotonlyto meethigher
activities,
caloricneedsbutalso to obtaintherawmaterials
forclothing.
rateswouldhave
Fertility
beenaffected,
notonlybyadultmortality
butespecially
infant
as the
byhigher
mortality,
markedly
greatersurfacearea to volumeratioof infants
(combinedwithan immature
renders
infants
moreproneto hypothermia.
thermoregulatory
system)
- too little,too late
The Chatelperronian
The obviousquestionis: whydid Neanderthals
notbeginto developcomplexclothing?
Theshortansweris: theydid.It is calledtheChatelperronian.
A longeransweris: theydid
notneedto,at leastnotuntillate(as it happened,
too late)in MIS3.
at thelongeranswer,
theverybiologicaladaptations
thatallowedthemto
Lookingfirst
also meanttheydid notneedto undertake
the
manageforso longwithsimpleclothing
morelabour-intensive
manufacture
of complexclothes.Up to a point,theywouldnot
havefeltthecoldas acutelyas didfullymodernhumans.Whether
anygreater
bodyhair
covermademoretightly
fitted
uncomfortable
is debatable,
itprobably
garments
although
wouldmakemulti-layered
almostsuperfluous
toolate).
clothing
(again,untilitwasrather
Anotheraspectis theirshortened
limbs,thereducedsurfacearea of whichreducedthe
needforthespecially
cutsleevesand legcoverings
offitted
garments.
Theshortanswer,
theChatelperronian,
is thesubjectofdebateinterms
ofNeanderthal
'cultural'
and whether
thenewskillswereacquiredfromfullymodernhumans
capacities
or werean independent
innovation
of Neanderthals
(Zilhao et al. 2006). The thermal
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508 Ian Gilligan
modelproposedhereneednotbuyintothedebate.It simply
pointsoutthatthereis no
reasonnotto expectthatNeanderthals
wouldbeginto developat leastsomeelements
of
evidenced
bone
once
their
were
narrowed
complex
clothing
(e.g.tailoring,
by
awls)
options
and especiallyas theirsituationbecamedesperate.In any case, the Chatelperronian
demonstrates
thattheyhad a capacityforsuchbehaviour,
and theneedforcomplex
reasonforwhysuchtechnologies
shouldsuddenly
become
clothing
providesa pragmatic
useful(or adaptive)forNeanderthals
latein MIS3.
Modernhumansand clothing
Justas the Neanderthals'biologicalcold adaptationsservedas disincentives
for
thereverse
was trueforfullymodernhumans.Biological
developing
complexclothing,
to heatwerecrucialto theirsurvival
inAfrica- summers
remained
hoteven
adaptations
wereretained,
out
duringice ages,so biologicalheatadaptations
ruling opposingcold
A
to
cold
meant
that
adaptations. heightened
vulnerability
fullymodernhumanswere
to
prompted begin developingcomplexclothingbeforeMIS3. Followingthe last
whichwas warmerthan the presentone, intensifying
selectionforheat
interglacial,
a seriesof cold spellsbetween118,000and 70,000BP(MIS5d,MIS5b and
adaptations,
theincentive
forbehavioural
coldadaptations.
Therelatively
particularly
MIS4) provided
limbs
of
modern
humans
to
heatloss) wouldfavouran
longer
fully
(suited maximizing
early adoption of fittedgarments.Thermalconsiderations
predictthat Mode 4
shouldmaketheirappearanceearlierin themorenorthern
and southern
technologies
of
and
more
so
these
colder
The
occurrence
ofperforated
Africa,
parts
during
episodes.
beadsin Africaand theLevantdatingto c. 72,000BP(MIS4) andperhapsfromthevery
of thelast Ice Age (MIS5d-5b)is pertinent,
beginning
beingcitedas keyevidencefor
behavioural
intheAfrican
MSA (MiddleStoneAge),
modernity
(and'symbolic
thinking')
to
the
Palaeolithic
et
al.
2004;Jacobset al. 2006;
prior
EuropeanUpper
(Henshilwood
Vanhaeren
etal. 2006).Therecent
useofgenetic
studieson humanbodylice(whichlives
- at least,theearliest
on clothing)
fordatingtheoriginofclothing
dateforitsregular
use
modern
humans to earlyinthelastglacialcycle(Kittler
etal. 2003,2004)is
amongfully
also consistent
withthisscenario,
withthis
althoughthereare methodological
problems
et
al.
and
the
biomolecular
date
based
on
lice
is
best
considered
approach(Reed
2004)
uncertain
(Reedpers.comm.).
Modernhumanbehaviourand complexclothing
The same thermalprinciples
thatconnectNeanderthals
withtheirMousterian(and
ofLSA/Upper
Palaeolithic
leadlogically
to theemergence
Chatelperronian)
technologies
and
human
modern
humans
modern
behaviour
(seeMcBrearty
technologies
amongfully
and Brooks(2000:491-2) fora listand discussion
of
of thearchaeological
'signatures'
modernhumanbehaviour).
of modernhumanbehaviourthatcan be linkedto thermal
Components
adaptations
includetechnologies
in
utilization
of
blade-based
lithics
and
bone
(particularly
implements
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Neanderthalextinction
and modernhumanbehaviour 509
of complexgarment
and also someless tangibleaspects
themanufacture
assemblages)
control
of
fire(e.g. morestructured
the
latter
are
greater
hearths),
(Table 2). Among
artificial
more
sedentism
shelters,
sophisticated
greaterresidential
specializedhunting,
useofpigment
ofdomestic
withhide
(connected
(andgreater
structuring
space),increased
and archaeological
as wellas decoration)
and
signsof personaladornment
preparation
in
b).
press
symbolism
(Gilligan
of modernbehaviourto purported
theemergence
Ratherthanattributing
cognitive
from
theemergence
that
are
of anatomicalmodernity,
the
strangely
decoupled
changes
variableand oftendelayedappearanceof its variouscomponents
regionally
may be
as adaptations
to changing
understood
environmental
conditions
(d'Errico2003: 199).
Discoveriesin partsof Africa- especiallysouthernAfrica,and duringMIS4 (e.g.
Henshilwood
etal. 2001;Sorianoetal. 2007)- pointto an African
originofdevelopments
traditionally
regardedas primarily
Europeanphenomena,
includingsignsof modern
human behaviour.Moreover,both the Africanoriginsand the later Eurasian
intensification
of thetrendsduringtheLGM are accommodated
in thisthermal
model,
as is theabsenceor verylate appearanceof manyarchaeological
in other
signatures
(warmer)
partsoftheworld,notablyin thetropicsand theAustralian
region.
The UpperPalaeolithic
The significance
of theUpperPalaeolithic
is thatit illustrates
howtheintensification
of
modernhumanbehaviour
in Ice Age Europecoincideswithincreased
to
more
exposure
intense
cold.In particular,
thepredominance
and elaboration
ofMode 4 technologies
in
Palaeolithic
toolkits
bone
awls
and
formass-producing
Upper
(e.g.
techniques
blades)
to a greater
useand refinement
ofcomplexclothing.
Humansequippedwith
corresponds
thesetechnologies
wereable to exploitwiderterritorial
rangesdespitecolderconditions
Table2 Archaeological
of behavioural
thatcan be associatedwithcomplex
signatures
modernity
andrelatedthermally
clothing
adaptivedevelopments
Archaeologicalsignatureof behaviouralmodernity
to previously
environments
Rangeextension
unoccupied
(cold)
Newlithictechnologies
(blades)
Toolsin novelmaterials
(bone)
Greater
controloffire(e.g.stone-lined
hearths)
Sitereoccupation
andmodification
use ofsheltered
(greater
sites)
Specialized
(formeatandhides/furs)
hunting
Personaladornment
(beadsand ornaments)
Increased
use ofpigment
Grindstones
(ochre-grinding)
Parietalart(and otherexternal
imagesandrepresentations)
Increased
artefact
and standardization
diversity
(functional
variation)
in formal
variation
toolcategories
Geographic/temporal
Mining(forpigments)
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510 Ian Gilligan
orfully
Neanderthals
andenternorthern
zonesthathad beenoff-limits
to those(whether
modernhumans)without
suchtechnologies
Pavlov
et
al.
2004).
(e.g.
One pragmatic
ofcomplexclothing
is thattheroutine
andmorecomplete
repercussion
of
covering the skin surfacewith clothingmeans that decorativeand symbolic
modification
of the humanbody is displacedelsewhere,
onto garmentsand even
ontothephysical
Adornment
oftheuncladbodytypically
leaves
externally
surroundings.
littletracein thearchaeological
but
once
these
decorative
and
functions
record,
symbolic
are transferred
ontoclothing
and ontoothermediaexternal
to thebody,theybecome
morevisiblein thearchaeological
record.Ratherthanreflecting
mental
anyheightened
an increased
of parietalartreflects
a shiftfrom
capacityforsuchbehaviour,
frequency
artificial
modification
of theexposedskinsurfaceontoalternative
surfaces
suchas cave
wallsand also intoothermaterialforms(suchas figurines),
onceaccessto theskinis
restricted
concealment
withcomplexclothes.Thisis
byitsroutineand almostcomplete
thananylackofcognitive,
or othercapacities,
why,rather
linguistic
archaeological
signs
ofsuchcapacitiesarelargely
absentamongNeanderthals.
Modernhumanbehaviourin AboriginalAustralia
Thatabsenceofarchaeological
evidence
formodern
behavioural
cannotbe taken
capacity
as evidencefortheabsenceof suchcapacityis madeclearby theexampleofAustralia
andMoore2005:169;O'ConnellandAlleninpress).Furthermore,
thereis little
(Brumm
thatcorresponds
to the LSA/UpperPalaeolithicin late Pleistocene
Australiaand, in
Eurasia, only modest developmentof MSA/Middle
comparisonto mid-latitude
Palaeolithictechnologies.
One plausiblereasonis simplythatthe use of clothingin
- evensimpleclothing
- waslargely
Australia
absentfromtheoutset.Humans
Aboriginal
who movedout of Africaand eventually
intoAustraliaby 45,000BP probablydid so
without
to venture
faroutsidethetropics(Oppenheimer
2004;Bulbeckinpress),
needing
and wouldhavehad littleifanythermal
needforclothes.
A thermal
viewofmodern
humanbehaviour
nonetheless
thatitsarchaeological
predicts
signsshouldbeginto appearin Australiaif and whenwindchilllevelsapproached
limits.Indeed,giventhegeneralpaucityof thearchaeological
in
markers
physiological
this
in
is
an
excellent
The
is
that
evidence
test
case.
Australia, region
any
expectation
Australiashouldbe foundin thecoolersouthern
duringthecoldest
regions,
especially
period,theLGM - and thatis exactlywhathas beenfound.
Clothingsignaturesin Ice Age Tasmania
ThelatePleistocene
inTasmaniabearstriking
developments
parallelsto thoseseeninthe
northern
and stand in starkcontrastto the rest of Australia.The
mid-latitudes
forprotection
recorddocuments
archaeological
greateruse of cavesand rockshelters
distinct
fromwindchill(especially
in winter),
a focuson manufacturing
typologically
stonescrapertoolsforpreparing
hides,theuse of bonepoints(thoughnotperforated
thehidesandtargeted
ofthemajorlocalfur-bearing
needles)forpiercing
species,
hunting
thered-necked
in
wallaby(Gilligan2007;Gilligan pressb). Cave arttoo makesa brief
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Neanderthal
extinction
andmodern
humanbehaviour511
conditions
appearance(e.g. Cosgroveand Jones1989).However,thermal
requiredonly
to
and
Mode
3.
With
technological
requirements
correspond
simpleclothing
respectto
bonepointsor awls,theneedarosebecausesmallwallabyhideshad to bejoinedtogether
ofcomplex
tomakeadequatecloaks.Othertypical
signatures
(suchas bladetools
clothing
and eyedneedles)remained
absent.The otherstriking
conspicuously
aspectis thatthese
recordwiththeonsetof warmer
signatures
beginto disappearfromthearchaeological
climatesin theearlyHolocene,sincetheTasmanianswerefreelargelyto dispensewith
aftertheIce Age.
simpleclothing
Two problems,
one solution
Theaimherehas beento demonstrate,
in principle,
howthePalaeolithic
of
development
- andwhythismatters.
can be rendered
morevisiblearchaeologically
It canhelp
clothing
resolveboththeparadoxicaldemiseof cold-adapted
Neanderthals
duringseverecold
the
with
the
otherwise
spikespreceding LGM, along
problematical
delaysin theearly
the
ofbehavioural
infullymodernhumans.
appearance
(and unevenpresence)
modernity
Unlikeexisting
issues(bothphysiological
and technological)
approaches,
clothing-related
directlyaddressfundamental
aspectsof the big pictureand make no unfounded
about nebulouscognitive,
or othercapacities,the evidencefor
assumptions
linguistic
relevance
which
is
more
substantive
than are physicalremainsof
of)
(and
hardly
Pleistoceneclothing.Likewise,it negates any need to attributethe enigmatic
to contactbetweenNeanderthals
and fullymodernhumans,and
Chatelperronian
betweenthesetwo humangroups.It does,
similarly
any need to invokecompetition
uncoverpragmatic
reasonsfortheemergence
of behavioural
however,
and
modernity
reasonswhyitconferred
notall) groups
equallypragmatic
advantages
uponmany(though
offullymodernhumansin thecontext
oflatePleistocene
climatic
changes.
Acknowledgements
I wouldliketo thankDavid Bulbeck,Colin Grovesand PeterWhitefortheiruseful
comments
and Bob Steadmanforhis correspondence
on windchill.Unlessotherwise
the
and
are
stated, opinions interpretations solelythoseoftheauthor.
SchoolofArchaeology
& Anthropology,
TheAustralian
NationalUniversity
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Ian Gilligan
has trained
inmedicine,
andprehistoric
andholdsa
psychology
archaeology
at
the
Australian
National
His
main
interest
is the
postgraduate
scholarship
University.
and
of clothing.His doctoralresearchexamineshumancold
prehistory repercussions
in thelatePleistocene
and thedevelopment
ofclothing
adaptations
technologies.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions