PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING
OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN AS SEEN
IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
Student Number: 071214040
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2011
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING
OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN AS SEEN
IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
Student Number: 071214040
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2011
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
This thesis is dedicated to:
Jesus Christ
Mother Mary
My Beloved Dad
My Wonderful Mom
My Sisters: Ima, Ela, Dita
And My Alma Mater
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
Life is an opportunity, benefit from it
Life is beauty, admire it
Life is bliss, taste it
Life is a dream, realize it
Life is a challenge, meet it
Life is a duty, complete it
Life is a game, play it
Life is a promise, fulfill it
Life is sorrow, overcome it
Life is a song, sing it
Life is a struggle, accept it
Life is a tragedy, confront it
Life is an adventure, dare it
Life is luck, make it
Life is too precious, do not destroy it
Life is life, fight for it
(Mother Teresa)
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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 22 August 2011
The Writer
Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
071214040
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswi Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama
: Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
Nomor Mahasiswa
: 07 1214 040
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
MALE DOMINATION IN THE FOOTBINDING AND SECRET WRITING
OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINESE WOMEN
AS SEEN IN LISA SEE’S SNOW FLOWER AND THE SECRET FAN
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikannya secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet
atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin ataupun
memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai
penulis.
Dengan pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta,
Pada tanggal: 27 July 2011
Yang menyatakan,
Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
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ABSTRACT
Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and
Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: English Language Education
Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is a historical fiction which
tells about the lives of Chinese women in the nineteenth century which was still in
the era of pre-modern China where women’s position was inferior to men’s
position. During that period, Chinese women had been bearing lots of
expectations from the society. There was a tradition which obliged them to bind
their feet and forced them to endure the agony of footbinding. Besides, Chinese
women were not allowed an education like that of men. This situation encouraged
them to communicate with their friends and their natal families by using women’s
secret writing or commonly called as nu shu. Therefore, the writer intends to
discover male domination in the footbinding and nu shu of nineteenth-century
Chinese women.
There are two problems formulated in this study. The first problem is how
footbinding and nu shu are depicted in the novel. The second problem is how
male domination relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu.
Library research was conducted in this study. The primary source was
taken from the novel Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, while the
second source was derived from several books, articles found through the internet,
and in encyclopedias which dealt with the topic discussed and supported the idea
of the study. Furthermore, the approach applied in this study was sociological
approach.
There were two results of the study. The first result showed that
footbinding and nu shu were clearly depicted in the novel. Both had some social
functions for Chinese women. The second results showed that male domination
closely relates to the practice of footbinding and nu shu. Chinese women were the
prisoners of tradition based on gender discrimination. This gender problem was
the impact of Chinese society which used Confucian ideals as the guidance of
their lives. The ideals demanded the women to obey their fathers, their husbands,
and later their sons. Thus, Chinese women lived as the second-class citizens.
Footbinding was an obligation for Chinese women because it could bring them to
the life’s perfection. Footbinding dealt with being marriageable and the
improvement of social status and the bright future as well. Furthermore, the bound
feet became sexual fetish for men to achieve sexual pleasure. Then, the ideal that
Chinese women were not allowed being outside the house caused them to be very
far from having equal opportunities with men. Their right to education was not
recognized. To escape from this situation, they wrote nu shu to communicate with
their friends and their natal families and to express their feelings and creativities.
Keywords: footbinding, nu shu, nineteenth-century Chinese women, male
domination
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRAK
Paskalin, Agatha Piscesia. 2011. Male Domination in the Footbinding and
Secret Writing of Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women as Seen in Lisa See’s
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa
Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan karya Lisa See merupakan novel fiksi
sejarah yang menceritakan kehidupan perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas
yang masih belum moderen dimana posisi perempuan lebih rendah dari pada lakilaki. Di masa itu, para perempuan Cina dituntut banyak harapan dari masyarakat.
Adalah sebuah tradisi yang mengharuskan mereka mengikat kaki dan memaksa
mereka untuk menahan sakit tak tertahankan karena pengikatan tersebut. Selain
itu, mereka tidak diijinkan untuk mendapatkan pendidikan layaknya kaum lakilaki. Situasi ini mendorong mereka menulis dalam bahasa rahasia yang disebut nu
shu untuk berkomunikasi dengan sahabat dan keluarga asal mereka. Oleh karena
itu, penulis ingin mencari tahu tentang dominasi laki-laki dalam pengikatan kaki
dan nu shu pada perempuan-perempuan Cina di abad kesembilan belas.
Ada dua rumusan masalah dalam studi ini. Rumusan masalah pertama
adalah bagaimana pengikatan kaki dan nu shu digambarkan dalam novel.
Rumusan masalah yang kedua ialah bagaimana hubungan dominasi laki-laki
dengan praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu.
Studi ini menggunakan studi kepustakaan. Sumber utama diambil dari
novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan sedangkan sumber-sumber sekunder
berasal dari beberapa buku, ensiklopedia, dan artikel-artikel dari internet yang
menunjang topik diskusi. Selain itu, pendekatan yang digunakan dalam studi ini
adalah pendekatan sosiologikal.
Hasil dari studi ini menunjukkan bahwa pengikatan kaki dan nu shu
digambarkan dengan jelas di dalam novel. Keduanya memiliki beberapa fungsi
sosial bagi para perempuan Cina. Lalu, dominasi laki-laki ada kaitannya dengan
praktik pengikatan kaki dan nu shu. Para perempuan Cina terpenjara dalam tradisi
yang berdasarkan pada diskriminasi gender ini. Masalah gender ini merupakan
dampak dari penggunaan ajaran Confucian sebagai pedoman hidup. Ajaran ini
menuntut para perempuan untuk mematuhi laki-laki: ayah, suami, dan nantinya
anak laki-laki mereka. Maka dari itu, para perempuan Cina hidup sebagai rakyat
kelas kedua. Pengikatan kaki adalah sebuah keharusan bagi mereka supaya
mereka mendapatkan kesempurnaan hidup. Dengan mengikat kaki mereka dapat
menikah dan memperbaiki status sosial serta membawa mereka ke kehidupan
yang lebih baik. Selain itu, kaki yang diikat menjadi kesenangan seksual bagi
kaum laki-laki untuk mencapai kepuasan seksual. Kemudian, ajaran yang tidak
memperbolehkan mereka ke luar rumah semakin menjauhkan mereka untuk
mendapatkan kesempatan yang sama seperti laki-laki. Mereka tak punya hak akan
pendidikan. Untuk keluar dari situasi ini, mereka menulis nu shu untuk
berkomunikasi serta untuk mengekspresikan perasaan dan kreatifitas mereka.
Kata kunci: pengikatan kaki, nu shu, perempuan Cina abad kesembilan belas,
dominasi laki-laki
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my deepest praise and gratitude to
Jesus Christ and Mother Mary for their countless blessings. Thanks for giving me
strength, health, and guidance so that I am able to finish my thesis.
Second, I would like to thank my advisor, Father L. Suharjanto, S.J., S.S.,
B.S.T., M.A. for willingly giving his time to read and correct my thesis. Without
his guidance, advice, and criticism, I surely cannot finish this thesis on time. My
sincere gratitude is also addressed to Sr. Rachel, FCJ who kindly helped me in
checking my grammar. Furthermore, I would like to thank Ms. Adesti
Komalasari, S.Pd., M.A. for her help, advice, and discussion.
Then, my greatest thanks go to all PBI’s lecturers for the guidance for me
during these four years. I also thank to PBI’s secretariat: Mbak Daniek and Mbak
Tari for facilitating me during my study in USD.
I would like to give special acknowledgement to my parents: Drs. Ignatius
Sukasworo and Dra. Caecilia Sartini for their unending support, love, and pray; to
my sisters: Melania Chrisma Widyawarantini, S.Pd., Marsela Lotjita Parahita, and
Theresia Galuh Wandita for the wonderful sisterhood; and to my great uncles:
Robertus Sukasnowo, Yohanes Saroyo, Titus Sarjono, and Laurentius Saptono for
sincerely supporting and facilitating me. I love you all.
I am grateful to Yonathan Sostenes Grace Hadi who has gallantly
encouraged me when I fretted and worried. I thank him for his love, humor,
patience, and lots of support so I can keep moving forward. Thanks a lot.
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A bunch of thanks goes to my beloved friends: Wichan, Pipit, Rieta, Nana,
Bertha, Pendi, Oda, Gobhe, Wiwid, Anti, Noti, Katrok, Deny, Celli, Trek, Nissa,
Ayaz, and Dhuwai for their great supports for me during the completion of this
thesis. I also thank to my Surya 6 family, especially Memey for sharing her book
and thesis, C Linda, Mira, and my cousin Cintya.
My final thanks must go to my Stece friends: Itin, DiQta, Debo, Poezhy,
and Chezy. Thanks for spending the precious time together. I will miss it.
May God bless them all.
Agatha Piscesia Paskalin
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ....................................................................................................
i
APPROVAL PAGES ........................................................................................
ii
DEDICATION PAGE .......................................................................................
iv
MOTTO PAGE .................................................................................................
v
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY .................................................
vi
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK ........................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRAK ..........................................................................................................
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..............................................................................
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................. xii
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................
1
A. Background of the Study .....................................................
1
B. Problem Formulation ..........................................................
5
C. Objectives of the Study .......................................................
5
D. Benefits of the Study ...........................................................
5
E. Definition of Terms .............................................................
6
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .........................
9
A. Review of Related Studies ..................................................
9
B. Review of Related Theories ................................................ 11
1. Male Concepts of Manhood .......................................... 11
2. Concepts of Living in a Society .................................... 13
3. Sociological Description of Chinese Society
in the Nineteenth Century ............................................. 15
4. Sociological Review of Footbinding in China .............. 18
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5. Sociological Review of Chinese Women’s Secret
Writing (Nu Shu) ........................................................... 21
C. Theoretical Framework ....................................................... 23
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 24
A. Object of the Study ............................................................. 24
B. Approach of the Study ........................................................ 27
C. Method of the Study ............................................................ 29
CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 30
A. The Depiction of Footbinding and Women’s Secret
Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan ...... 30
1. The Practice of Footbinding and Women’s Secret
Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret
Fan ................................................................................ 30
a. Footbinding in the Novel ........................................ 31
b. Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel .................... 36
2. The Development of Footbinding and Women’s
Secret Writing ............................................................... 40
3. The Importance of Footbinding and Women’s
Secret Writing om the Nineteenth Century ................... 43
a. Beauty ..................................................................... 44
b. Pride ........................................................................ 45
c. Knowledge .............................................................. 47
d. Identity .................................................................... 48
B. Male Domination in Footbinding and Women’s Secret
Writing ............................................................................... 50
1. The Male Idea of Beauty ............................................... 51
2. The Concept of Pleasure ............................................... 53
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3. The Concept of Manhood ............................................. 55
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
SUGGESTIONS ................................................................... 57
A. Conclusions ......................................................................... 57
B. Implications ......................................................................... 60
C. Suggestions ......................................................................... 63
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 64
APPENDICES ................................................................................................. 67
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LIST OF APPENDICES
A. Summary of Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan .......................... 68
B. Biography of Lisa See ................................................................................. 71
C. Pictures of Footbinding ............................................................................... 78
1. Sources of Footbinding Pictures ........................................................... 82
D. Pictures of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu) ........................................... 83
1. Sources of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu) Pictures ...................... 86
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the background information for the study. It
introduces and describes the nature and content of the proposed study. It consists
of six parts: the background of the study that introduces the topic and the reason
for choosing the topic, problem formulation that presents the questions to be
answered in this study, problem limitation, objectives of the study, benefits of the
study, and definition of terms.
A.
Background of the Study
In literary works such as fiction, poetry, and drama, the authors usually
create awareness of a certain background to help them explain the situation they
build. It can be the cultural, social, political and historical background. The
background helps the readers to both understand the situation and be informed
about particular issues and events.
In this study, the cultural background is highly significant. One of the
cultures that is going to be emphasized or underlined is Chinese culture. Chinese
culture is one of the famous cultures that is still very much alive. It is famous
throughout the world since China is successful in preserving their old and great
culture through Chinese descendants all over the world. The culture has been
preserved until now thanks to China’s great and world-famous civilization. Gallin
in his research China: People and Way of Life (1978) wrote that “China has the
oldest continuous surviving civilization in the world although it is not the first to
1 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
2 have developed” (p. 496). Not only rich in culture, China’s ancient civilization
also has outstanding achievements in the political, economic, demographic, and
social spheres as well.
In Chinese culture, men are considered more powerful than women.
Nanquin and Rawski (1987) in their book Chinese Society in the Eighteenth
Century state that the woman in China is inferior to man (p. 80). Since ancient
times, Chinese women had been second-class citizens, very far from having equal
opportunities with men. Their right to education was not recognized. They were
prisoners of traditions based on gender discrimination.
For women, especially in the southern China, they had been bearing lots of
expectation from the society. There was a tradition that obliged them to bind their
feet as small as three inches. This footbinding brought and forced them to the
suffering and the survival. In addition, there was the women’s secret writing or
commonly called as nu shu that Chinese women used in order to communicate
with their friends and the natal family after they were married. Nu shu is kept
away from the men’s sightseeing so that the women wrote it to the fans or
handkerchiefs. They use this secret writing because they were not allowed
education at that time. Besides, the Chinese cultural idea kept isolating the women
in the inner apartment as much as possible.
Chinese cultural idea is related to how Chinese people live in the society.
Bloomfield (1991) in The Book of Chinese Belief insists that Chinese people
traditionally have a very role-oriented society. Everybody has the role to play
rightly. Children should obey their parents and respect their teacher; women
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3 should obey their husband; and widows should obey their sons (p. xvi). This
arrangement is a part of the Confucian filial piety demands that creates an orderly
but restricted society.
Meanwhile, the demand of the women in the society is closely defined by
Jackson in her book Splendid Slippers: A Thousand Years of an Erotic Tradition
that Chinese society’s life was derived from Confucian dictum. Confucianism was
prevalent at that time, or even till now. The girls who stray from these principles
will not grow into virtuous women. Jackson (1997) mentioned the principles that
Chinese girls must conform to.
Learned scholars, both Chinese and Western, basically have agreed that
women’s rights were taken away from them by the Confucian dictum of
“Thrice Following” from Book of Rites. In simple terms, Thrice Following
stated that the woman must obey her father and elder brothers in her youth,
her husband after marriage, and her son after the death of her husband. (p.
16)
However, from the quotation above, it can be seen that the Confucian
ideals keep the women being considered inferior to men. This unequal gender
between men and women in Chinese culture is overall picture of confinement and
subjugation.
In this study, the writer is going to use one of Lisa See’s novels, that is
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan as the subject of the study. It portrays Chinese
women’s life in the nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. Then, the
portrait of Chinese women’s footbinding and nu shu is depicted very closely.
Lisa See is the author of the bestselling books: Snow Flower and the
Secret Fan, Shanghai Girls, Peony in Love, On Gold Mountain, The Interior,
Dragon Bones, and the newest Dreams of Joy. All Lisa See’s literary works
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4 portray Chinese women lives in the past. She is actually a Chinese-American
woman who has a broad knowledge of China and also explores it as well. She
grew up with Chinese tradition surrounding her. She lived closely with the old
Chinese tradition. It became the reason why she was very interested in the
Chinese background.
In Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, the major characters, Lily and Snow
Flower are two girls who are living in the south China. In the place named Hunan
County, footbinding still remains and become the obligation for their girls to bind
their feet. It starts at the age of six or seven. Lily and Snow Flower obey it and
successfully shape their feet into the small size. Since both of them are a pair of
lao tong, which means friend forever, they keep communicating each other with
the nu shu. Footbinding exists as a kind of rule for women to fit into man’s desire.
Meanwhile, nu shu exists as a way that Chinese women do to keep interacting
with their natal family and friends to share their happiness and sadness since they
do not have someone to share with. It also has a relation to male domination in
Chinese society at that time. Based on this condition, the topic was chosen to see
the male domination in the footbinding and women’s secret writing of nineteenthcentury Chinese women as depicted by the author in the novel.
Discussing Chinese tradition is very interesting. By exploring and
observing through the novel, the reader will get a view of life of women at that
time. Seeing from the sociological point of view becomes a challenge as well. In
this study, the writer will deeply analyze how the social circumstance influenced
Chinese women in the nineteenth century.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
5 B.
Problem Formulation
This study addresses two problems which are formulated as follows.
1.
How are Chinese women’s footbinding and secret writing depicted in Lisa
See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan?
2.
How does male domination relate to Chinese women’s footbinding and secret
writing as revealed in Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan?
C.
Objectives of the Study
This study has two objectives in accordance with the questions formulated
in the Problem Formulation. The objectives are:
1. To see how women’s footbinding and secret writing are depicted in the novel
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan.
2. To find out how male domination relates to women’s footbinding and secret
writing revealed in the novel.
D.
Benefits of the Study
This section identifies who will benefit from the study in accordance with
the research objectives. The benefits of this study can be clarified as follows.
Chinese women in the nineteenth century lived at the end of the period of male
domination. The social factors affect how they behave and live at that time. This
study gives benefits for the writer as a researcher to understand and provide more
knowledge about the portrait of Chinese women in the nineteenth century by
footbinding and their secret writing; and also the relation of male domination to
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
6 footbinding and the secret writing. This study also gives benefits to the future
researchers who conduct studies on the sociological aspects which influenced
Chinese women’s life in the nineteenth century. Besides, this study provides the
open discussion about implications of the study to education.
E.
Definitions of Terms
Below are the list of terms which are used throughout the study and their
definitions.
1.
Footbinding
Naquin and Rawski (1987) state that footbinding is the tight painful
binding of the toes for Chinese girls and wrapping of the feet to keep them the
small size deemed desirable for wives as small as three inches (p. 90). It is begun
at the age of six or seven. Then, Fairbank (1986) in his book The Great Chinese
Revolution 1800-1985 defined the bound feet as the erogenous area and the source
of sexual fetish for men and become a guarantee of chastity for women (p. 70).
2.
Women’s Secret Writing (Nu shu)
According to the book Origins of Chinese Language (2009), nu shu is
women’s secret codes from Jiangyong County, Province Hunan, People’s
Republic of China. The characters of nu shu are phonetic and every word has its
spelling. Nu shu was developed a thousand years ago. It appears to be the only
written language in the world to have been created by women exclusively for their
own use. As it is secret for men, Chinese women keep this away from men.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7 3.
Male Domination
Jackson (1997) states that male domination of women is a condition in
which men create a situation to keep the women “…physically restricted was,
presumably, less likely to be mentally independent” (p. 15).
4.
Nineteenth-Century Chinese Women
Nineteenth-century China is the last period of dynasty’s might in China
before being overthrowing by revolutionists in the early twentieth century. It
belongs still to pre-modern China. According to Hook (1991) in The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of China, the status of women in the era of pre-modern China
“…asserted the superiority of men over women, supporting that perception with
its ethical justifications, legal codes and customary practices” (p. 95). The practice
of footbinding had crippled Chinese women since they were in early childhood.
Then, the unequal state of women still obviously remains. For instance, a woman
has a little choice in her life but to marry into the household of her spouse, leave
her natal family, face a potential conflict with her mother-in-law and gain the
security by giving birth a son as well.
Meanwhile, one module entitled Western Views of Chinese Women:
Introduction maintains that women in nineteenth-century China followed gender
norms based on Confucianism. The norms emphasize on the family as the primary
social unit and advocate the primacy of women in the domestic or inner realm.
Furthermore, daughters are expected to obey their parents’ authority, assist their
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8 mothers in domestic tasks, and, luckily in elite families, learn to read and write
(Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, 2004).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents theoretical writing and study. It provides relevant
theories which are going to support the study. This chapter consists of three
sections namely review of related studies, review of related theories, and
theoretical framework. The review of related studies contains the overview of
comments and previous studies on similar topics or related ones. The review of
related theories covers the elaboration of the theories which are directly relevant
to the study topic, namely theories on male concepts of manhood, theories on
sociological concepts in living in a society, review of Chinese society in the
nineteenth century, review of footbinding in China, and then review of Chinese
women’s secret writing. Besides, this chapter provides a theoretical framework
which covers the elaboration of the theories which are related to the study.
A.
Review of Related Studies
In this study, the writer presents some reviews and comments on Lisa
See’s fourth novel, Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. The writer did not find a
journal that discusses the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan specifically on
the topic of this study. All she found were some reviews of the book as a whole.
In her book review, Clea Simon discusses the contribution of Lily, the
narrator of the novel. Simon focuses on how Lily learned many life values during
the process of her life. Simon states that:
9 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
10
In Lily’s life, those connections—like the communication—are often
flawed. And for all that she learns from the refined Snow Flower, Lily
fails to spot some basic human weaknesses, or to recognize them for what
they are. People can communicate, she learns, but they can also deceive
(“Novel’s Powerful Prose Brings History to Life”, 2005).
Psychologically, Lily wants to show us that somehow people can make mistakes
by not believing any longer in her very best friend or lao tong, as she is called in
the novel. The misunderstanding led Lily and Snow Flower to be separated,
leaving regret in the end. Similar to Simon, Caroline Baker, the guest author in
her article, commented on the relationship between Lily and Snow Flower, which
was wonderful at the beginning but became progressively more sorrowful at the
end. The higher status of Lily made her act more powerfully than anyone else in
Tongkou village—where she lived after she got married. Lily’s betrayal of her
laotong left her with a great regret.
Unlike Simon and Baker, Ellen Emry Heltzel in her article points out that
the realm that Lisa See recreated in the novel really did exist in China about two
centuries ago. Heltzel discusses the phenomenon of “a society of women who
were paired for life and had their own secret language” (“Bound Women in
Charge”, 2005). She comments that the novel leads the reader to “see the world
from the inside out, through the window of someone who never transcends her
time and place yet serves as a compassionate and insightful witness”. Julie
Brickman’s article comments on the “stunning” culture the author describes in the
novel. Brickman notes that nineteenth-century China showed a culture in which
education was limited to men—the situation that motivated the women to create
their secret writing. Besides, the women at that time endured the agony of
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11
footbinding and had to walk on their tiny feet as well (“Unfolding Secrets: An Old
Woman’s Memoirs Reveal a Culture Wrapped in a Story”, 2005).
Meanwhile, Victoria A. Brownworth’s article talks about the strict
adherence to Confucian rules. This meant that their gender defined every aspect of
the lives of the Chinese women in the nineteenth century. Brownworth states that
at that time a Chinese woman’s life was “rigidly defined and programmed by her
gender: footbinding, arranged marriage, virtual imprisonment by both her family
of origin and her husband’s family” (“Secrets, Misery in a Chinese Woman’s
Tale”, 2005)
In this study, the writer is going to reveal how footbinding and the
women’s secret writing in nineteenth-century China are portrayed in the novel and
how male domination relates to footbinding and the women’s secret writing as
well. Both will be formulated in sociological scope. Furthermore, this study has
never been conducted by other writers.
B.
Review of Related Theories
The theories used in this study are male concepts of manhood, concepts of
living in a society, sociological review of Chinese society in the nineteenth
century, sociological review of footbinding in China, and then sociological review
of Chinese women’s secret writing.
1.
Male Concepts of Manhood
There are some interpretations about male ideology. Men seem destined to
fight with nature in which they should deal with society. According to Turner
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12
quoted by Dubbert in his book A Man’s Place: Masculinity in Transition (1979),
it is stated that,
He came from a civilization based on individual competition, and he
brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth of
resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope (p. 80).
From the quotation above, it can be seen that the spirit of competition
helped men develop the qualities of characters needed to survival. They have a
better chance of survival since they have these capabilities. Men have qualities of
courage, endurance, and muscular strength, which make them more adaptable than
women to a changing environment. Women, however, according to Patrick,
developed very different qualities: “such as good manners and good taste in
matters of etiquette” (as cited in Dubbert, 1979, p. 91).
The system in the society tends to agree if it is easier for men to dominate
a society than for women. Men have more power in controlling because they have
strong sense of conation—a mental process that makes someone wants or decides
to do something. They have the nature to think before act. Therefore, they are
more likely to lead a society.
According to E. A. Ross’ theory quoted by Sorokin in his book
Contemporary Sociological Theories (1928); men have desires which are derived
from social forces. Then, social force is classified into two parts. They are the
natural and the cultural. It can be seen in the following quotation:
The natural desires are: (a) appetitive (hunger, thirst, sex-appetite); (b)
hedonic (fear, aversion to pain, love of ease, warmth, sensuous pleasure);
(c) egotic (shame, envy, love of liberty, of glory, of power); (d) affective
(sympathy, sociability, love, hate, jealousy, anger, revenge); (e) recreative
(play impulses, love of self-expression). The cultural desires are: (a)
religious; (b) ethical; (c) aesthetic; (d) intellectual (p. 642).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
13
Furthermore, men can be separated according to their interests. The interests men
have according to Small in Sorokin include: health, wealth, sociability or prestige,
knowledge, beauty, and rightness (p. 644).
Talking about manhood means talking about gender. Even though gender
means social sex, it is also close to the difference between men and women.
According to Crawford in her book Talking Difference on Gender and Language
(1995), the different way of acting of men and women is influenced by a way of
creating differences. That is why the men confirm that they are different from the
women. It is supported by the following quotation.
When men and women are treated differently in ordinary daily
interactions, they may come to behave differently in return. Thus, gender
can be conceived as a self-fulfilling prophecy—a set of processes by
which gender difference is created, the observed differences are conflated
with sex, and belief in sex difference is confirmed (p.14).
2.
Concepts of Living in a Society
To live in a society, there are some norms that have to be accepted by the
people who live there. Social norms which regulate the society are divided into
two: formal norms and non formal norms. Formal norms include the norms which
come from formal institutions or the government. Formal norms are usually in the
written form. Meanwhile, non formal norms are not in written form and many
more than formal ones. Non formal norms include the usage, folkways, and
mores. (Maryati and Suryawati, 2001)
According to Suprapto quoted by Maryati and Suryawati (2001), there are
five major functions of social norms:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
14
1. to provide such a tool to standardize the social value of a society or a group,
2. to direct the society how to think and behave,
3. to motivate someone to fulfill his social role as an individual and a member of
a society,
4. to be a solidarity tool with the society in order to give security to all members
of a society,
5. to be a controller of the human behavior so that people behave in an
appropriate manner in the society they live in.
When people live in a society, they need an interaction with people who
live surrounding them. In that interaction, status and status role become the
important things. Empirically, status differentiation affects someone in the way
that he/she interacts with others. People with higher status behave differently from
the people with of lower status.
Social status is also commonly called as social stratification. Edgar and
Sedgwick (2002) explained that it can be called social stratification when the
separate groupings in a society can be seen as hierarchical. In sociology, there are
three major types of strata. Edgar and Sedgwick named them as a caste system, an
estate system, and industrial societies. The following is the explanation of those
types of strata in society by Edgar and Sedgwick (2002):
In a caste system, different strata are characterized in terms of ethnic
purity; with no movement between castes (so that a person lives his or her
entire life within the caste into which he or she is born). In an estate
system, typical of feudal societies, again there is little and no mobility
between strata. The estates are defined through land ownership and
bondage. In industrial societies, stratification is in terms of class, with
classes understood as economically defined (p. 366).
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15
Moreover, according to Ralph Linton in Maryati and Suryawati (2001),
there are three ways to have status in a society: ascribed status, achieved status,
and assigned status. Ascribed status is granted to people since they were born e.g.
a man of noble birth. This status can be found in feudal societies or extrovert
societies. Achieved status is the status which is achieved by people who have a try
at getting it. They are able to get it without the influence of others because it
depends on the individual himself. For example, to be a lawyer, someone must
learn and graduate from the Faculty of Law so that he gets the title of lawyer.
Then, assigned status is the status which is given by a particular party. Assigned
status is similar to achieved status in how this status is given to someone who has
struggled for something. However, assigned status is given by a person or a group
of higher status. For instance, in the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II gave the
musician Elton John the title of ‘Sir’ because of his commitment to music in Great
Britain.
3.
Sociological Review of Chinese Society in the Nineteenth Century
The setting of time in the novel is the nineteenth century. In China, the
nineteenth century was still the pre-modern era. The nineteenth century was the
end of traditional Chinese society era before entering the transitional era.
Nineteenth-century China was under the Qing Dynasty (Manchu Dynasty) which
was ended in 1912. By this time, in late imperial China, there were some growth
and changes which were influencing society. The rebellions were aroused,
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16
consolidating the imperial China. The dynasty was finally overthrown by
revolutions led by Sun Yat Sen (Lynn Pan, 1998, p. 367).
Traditional Chinese society was institutionalized according to Confucian
belief. The teachings of Confucianism had already become the determinants of
their life. International Encyclopedia of the Social Science mentions the five basic
Chinese relationships which were based on the ethos of legitimate authorities of
Confucian ideals. They were: “emperor-subject, father-son, elder brother-younger
brother, husband-wife, and friend-friend (only the last relationship expresses
egalitarian values) – (p. 410). This was called ‘Thrice Following’ which was taken
from the book of Confucian Book of Rites that can be seen in the next quotation.
Thrice Following stated that the woman must obey her father and elder
brothers in her youth, her husband after marriage and her son after the
death of her husband. (Jackson, 1997, p. 16)
In traditional Chinese society, the connection between state and social
system was dominated by a status group. The form of a status groups or gentry is
specifically one of the most important functions of a social system. The system
itself was already influenced by the colonial that started driving China to the
revolution towards the empire. Gentry have a higher position in society and then
determine the status.
The traditional Chinese designation of that group as “officials, landlords,
and notables” suggests that there were three different sources of status – in
effect, power, wealth, and prestige.
(International Encyclopedia of the Social Science, p. 411)
When the Emperor was overthrown to the Manchus (Qing Dynasty), the
rule was tightened. The result which was more repressive affected Chinese
women at that time. According to Richard J. Smith (1994), Chinese women were
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17
becoming “subject to standards of fidelity and female propriety more rigid that at
any previous time in Chinese history” (p. 245). Women were not permitted the
literary education though women and men possess the same abilities. The women
also had to remain at home and had no public voice. This point of view is related
to the Chinese ancient belief dealing with Yin and Yang. Men and women lived in
different realms. Fairbank (1986) stated that
Women were fitted into the social and cosmic order (which were a
continuum) by invoking the principles of Yang and Yin. All things bright,
warm, active, male, and dominant were Yang while all things dark, cold,
passive, female, and yielding were Yin (p. 68).
The inequality between men and women was the proof of male domination
in China before the transitional era. Woman held the secondary status in a
household and had no power at all. They were also considered as “a poor social
investment in traditional China, since after years of nurture the majority of them
would simply marry to become members of other households” (Smith, 1994, p.
248). After all the Chinese women faced in their live as worthless humans, they
had to endure the agony of footbinding which will be elaborated much clearer in
the next point.
To amuse themselves, Chinese women had a deep relationship with each
other. There are two kinds of this relationship. The first is sworn sisters. Sworn
sisters were for a group of four up to five women. They gathered in one place
called the women’s chamber in one of the households. They might visit each
other. In the visits, they were engaged in chatting, embroidering, waving, and
other women’s activities. Meanwhile, the second type is lao tong. It is different.
Lao tong was for two women only. It was much more exclusive because it was
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
18
determined by the time of year when they were born. Lao tong was also an
everlasting relationship.
To communicate with each other, they used a written language called nu
shu which was secretly practiced away from the influence of the men. By nu shu,
they wrote many things such as poems, prose, and even their life story on a fan,
shoes, or handkerchiefs.
4.
Sociological Review of Footbinding in China
The practice of footbinding had been in China since the twelfth century
under the Southern Song Dynasty (Pan, 1998, p. 364). Footbinding was practiced
formerly by women in the royal palaces as the symbol of royalty, the nobility and
the very rich. However, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, the practice
of footbinding started spreading throughout China (Jackson, 1997, p. 11).
The origin of footbinding is still unknown. Jackson said that there are
various opinions about its origin, based on historical evidence, local tradition, and
scholarly conjecture. Not all Chinese tribes did footbinding. There were only
Manchu, the conqueror of Ming Dynasty and the Hakka people who could avoid
binding their feet. Most footbinding was done by the Han Chinese women
(Fairbank, 1986, p. 69). Han people were more than 94 percent of China’s total
population (Jackson, p.18).
Footbinding was started, crippling the girls, when they were aged five to
seven. This practice was done with some specific aims. According to Naquin and
Rawski (1987, p. 80), their toes were tightly bound and the feet were wrapped to
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
19
keep them the small size which was considered desirable for wives. It means that
if a Chinese woman bound her feet, she had more chance to have a good marriage
arrangement.
Besides, Fairbank explained that small feet would lead them to have
respect from the community as well (p. 69). In short, this practice of footbinding
was obligatory for the Chinese girl so that she would be marriageable and
successful in her future life. Meanwhile, in Smith’s opinion, this deforming of the
feet was “…both a symptom and a cause of ever more rigid sexual segregation.
…brought both status and suffering to Chinese women” (1994, p. 249-50). Status
played the role of spreading the footbinding. Considering this practice was
formerly practiced in the imperial period by a beautiful dancer, other women in
the imperial period were envious and then also bound their feet in hopes of
finding a better position (Jackson, p.12). It was also followed by the poorest
outside the palaces. Then, there was a belief that a girl with the feet bound would
be accepted well in the afterlife.
Footbinding was apparently the commonest form of sexual fetish for men.
Fairbank said that these bound feet were erogenous areas (p.70). In addition,
Jackson stated that by “just thinking of the feet or calling them by one of their
special, erotically related names was adequate stimulus for many men to achieve
full arousal” (p. 109). Therefore, the bound feet are sexually more important than
face or body shape. The smell of the feet was also stimulating.
Many men were excited by the smell of the unwashed, perspiring feet.
Licking unbound feet, biting them, or taking the entire little foot into the
mouth were among sexually stimulating activities some men enjoyed. And
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20
for others there was a sexual satisfaction in the sound made when the feet
were manipulated between the hands. (Jackson, p.110-11)
Footbinding was also aimed to preserve the female chastity. Fairbank
stated that it was like a guarantee. By having the feet bound, women were kept
within the household so that they could not go far away from the household (p.
70). Meanwhile, Jackson said that it was a tenet of Confucianism that the woman
should not be heard outside her own home (p. 16).
Jackson quoted from Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio by P’u Sunghing as known as Liu-hsien translated by Herbert A. Giles (1880) the reasons why
this tradition could remain for a thousand years (p. 18-21). The reasons were as
follows.
1. If a girl’s feet are not bound, people say she is not like a woman but like a man
and they laugh at her, call her names, and her parents are ashamed of her.
2. Girls are like flowers. It is very important that their feet be bound short so that
they will walk beautifully, with mincing steps, swaying gracefully, thus
showing they are persons of respectability. People praise them.
3. One of good family does not wish to marry a woman with long feet.
4. One who has large feet will live in misery. She will do the rough work, does
not sit in a sedan chair, and does not eat the best food. She is also wetted by
the rain, tanned by the sun, blown upon by the wind.
5. Those with unbound feet are low and mean.
6. Girls are like gold, like gems. They should stay in their own house. If they do
not bind their feet, they go here and there with unfitting associates. They have
no good name. They are like gems that are rejected.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
21
7. Parents are covetous. They think small feet are pleasing and will command a
high price for a bride.
The practice of footbinding had already been banned by Manchus in the
beginning of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). They had threatened practitioners with
severe penalties. Fairbank stated “The Manchu emperors many times inveighed
against it in hortatory edicts, but to no avail.” (p. 69). The scholars, both Chinese
and Western also disagreed with the practice of footbinding. Though the women
had to obey the Confucian women’s rule, they did not have to bind their feet so
that they would be kept safely in the household. Then, anti-footbinding
movements showed up at the beginning of the twentieth century. Jackson noted
that after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, the Republic of China’s
government under the leader Sun Yat Sen increased the pressured to prohibit the
practice of footbinding. That was the end of the footbinding era in China.
5.
Sociological Review of Chinese Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu)
Like footbinding, women’s secret writing or commonly called nu shu was
Chinese women’s business. The book Origins of Chinese Language (2009, p. 52)
defines nu shu as the women’s secret writing from Jiangyong county in the Hunan
province of southern China created by the Yao people. Nu shu was developed a
thousand years ago. It appears to be the only written language in the world to have
been created by women exclusively for their own use. Nu shu was passed down
the generations from a woman to another woman. It was carefully guarded from
men.
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22
The creating of this women’s secret writing was still mysterious.
Nevertheless, it appeared in the feudal era before the twentieth century. Nu shu
was created because at that time, the separation of men and women deepered
gender difference in the society. Men had more chances to learn so there was no
need for them to create a new form of writing. They used the existing writing.
Local women in Jiangyong county created their own writing. They wrote it on
paper, handkerchiefs, and a fan. They even embroidered the characters in cloth. Its
purpose was as a communication tool between women to share their knowledge
and their lives with other women.
Nu shu reflect women’s joy and sorrow. In “Recording Women’s Feeling”,
it is stated that nu shu is used to record Chinese women’s beauty and ugliness in
their lives. Women were not allowed to both receive education and take part in
society. They did not have power or status as men in the home. Many Chinese
women were abused and exploited under strict control by their husbands and
mothers-in-law after marriage. That is why, nu shu helped them to stay in touch
with their female friends and discuss their feelings. Through the letters, they
complained about oppression and yearn of sexual liberation.
In “Nu Shu” which features writing systems and languages of the world,
there is some information about nu shu:
1. The Nu shu script consists of between 1000 and 1500 characters.
2. Nu shu is written in vertical columns running from top to bottom and
from right to left.
3. Many nu shu characters are based on Chinese characters, while some
are modelled on embroidery stitches and designs.
4. Nu shu characters represent pronunciation, unlike Chinese characters,
which represent pronunciation and meaning.
5. Nu shu was taught to women by their mothers or grandmothers.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
23
In addition, Nu shu faces extinction now. The last original writer, Yang
Guanyi, was died. She died in September, 2004. Today, most of the young women
in Jiangyong County do not want to learn nu shu because they regard it as useless.
C.
Theoretical Framework
This study would like to analyze the footbinding and the women’s secret
writing or nu shu. Besides, both are going to be related to the male domination
which prevailed in the nineteenth century as depicted in the novel Snow Flower
and the Secret Fan. Related theories must be used as the base for the analysis
later. Since this study uses the sociological approach, some sociological concepts
are needed to help the writer comprehend the matter sociologically.
To support the analysis the writer will use some theories. In order to
answer the first problem, the writer is going to apply the review on footbinding
practice in China as well as the review of women’s secret writing. The writer,
later in the analysis in Chapter IV, will compare and contrast the footbinding and
women’s secret writing in the reviewed books and what happen in the novel. The
description of Chinese society in the nineteenth century is also applied. It is also
helpful to describe the sociological context of the practice of footbinding and
women’s secret writing whether or not it is dealing with pride, beauty, knowledge,
identity, social stratification, and the social function.
Moreover, to answer the second problem, the writer is going to apply the
theories on manhood to reveal the factors or aspects which influence the practice
of footbinding and women’s secret writing.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The discussion in this chapter is about the methodology in conducting this
study. This chapter consists of three parts. The first part discusses the object
matter of the study and contains a brief description of what the work is generally
about. The second part presents the approach employed in the study. The third
part describes the method used and the steps taken in analyzing the work and
answering two questions formulated in Problems Formulation in Chapter I.
A.
Object of the Study
This study deals with the novel entitled Snow Flower and the Secret Fan,
written by a Chinese-American woman, Lisa See. From her appearance, See does
not look like an Asian-American woman. She has red hair and a freckled
complexion. However, See has a deep connection and roots in Chinese culture.
Her childhood was spent in the Chinatown section in Los Angeles, United States
of America. Due to her Chinese familial background, See always uses the Chinese
background in her writings though she is just one-eighth Chinese. In a note about
her by the publisher of the novel, Lisa See is the author of the New York Times
bestselling novels: Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, Shanghai Girls, Peony in
Love, Flower Net, The Interior, and Dragon Bones, as well as the widely
acclaimed memoir On Gold Mountain. She is named as the 2001 National Woman
24 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
25 of the Year by the Organization of Chinese American Women. In addition, this
novel had been cinematized in 2011.
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan consists of 340 pages. It was published in
2005 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, London. It is a work of historical fiction
whose story tells about Chinese women in the nineteenth century. The setting is
Yongming County (now Jiangyong County) in Province of Hunan, People’s
Republic of China. In addition, the author has followed the Chinese historical
background in the nineteenth century when the main character, Lily, was born in
1823. The novel ends in the very early twentieth century when Lily enters her
sitting quietly life course at the age of 80 in 1903.
The novel is divided into four chapters which represent a certain period of
time in the lives of the major characters, Lily and Snow Flower. The first chapter
contains six sub-chapters which talk about the major characters’ early childhood
including the process of footbinding and becoming laotong then sharing a fan for
stories using nu shu. The second chapter is divided into four sub-chapters. These
sub-chapters tell about the major characters’ training process of household tasks
and skills. Their marriages have already been arranged and they are ready to move
to their husbands’ households. It also tells about the truth behind Snow Flower’s
life. The third chapter is the climax of the whole story. It is divided into six subchapters. These sub-chapters tell about their marriages and the pressure they faced
to give birth to sons. Lily and Snow Flower share their joy and sorrow as well.
Furthermore, the misunderstanding by misreading nu shu induced Lily to send a
letter of vituperation to Snow Flower. This chapter ends with Snow Flower’s
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
26 death. The last chapter is not divided into any sub-chapters. It tells about Lily’s
regret for what she has done to Snow Flower.
When Lily was seven years old, she was paired with a laotong or ‘old
same’ named Snow Flower. “A laotong relationship is as significant as a good
marriage.” (See, 2005, p. 56). Choosing the laotong requires consultation with a
matchmaker so that a girl find an ‘old same’ who is like her in everyway. They are
born exactly at the same time under the sign of the horse. Laotong is an exclusive
lifetime relationship which includes emotional companionship and eternal loyalty.
Together Lily and Snow Flower both endured the agony of footbinding, which
according to the tradition in Yongming County they had to follow in order to
make them more marriageable. By binding their feet, they were also brought to
the perfection of being a woman—bearing a son.
To communicate with each other, Snow Flower firstly sent a message to
Lily to introduce herself. On that silk fan, Snow Flower wrote in nu shu, a secret
language which Chinese women created in order to communicate in secret,
unknown to the men. Later, both of them used the fan to send messages, compose
stories on handkerchiefs or weave into cloth. Nu shu was also used to recite the
stories and poems from the prior dynasties.
In nineteenth-century Chinese society which is still in the era of premodern China, women’s position was inferior to men’s position. The domination
of men was seen in every aspect of life. They lived under the Qing Dynasty during
which Confucian instruction still ruled well. A woman should obey her father, her
husband, and later her son. It was not considered appropriate for women to learn
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
27 to read and write. They were allowed to work only in the house. They could
engage in kitchen tasks, embroidery, chatting, chanting, and even only sitting in
the women’s chamber—the only place that men could not enter. In this situation,
Lily and Snow Flower lived. To be more marriageable their feet are bound. If they
had perfect feet, they would marry with a man of high status. Lily had perfect
feet—about three inches in length—so she married a man from the richest family
in Tongkou. Meanwhile, Snow Flower did not. They had different fortunes. She
married a butcher.
Due to not having right to education, they used women’s secret writing to
write letters, songs, prayers, popular stories, etc. By nu shu, Lily and Snow
Flower could share their hopes, dreams, and also accomplishments. They also
shared their sorrows and joys in their lives of being a wife and a mother.
B.
Approach of the Study
To analyze the problem, the writer employs the sociological approach as
the appropriate approach to deal with the relation of male domination to
footbinding and Chinese women’s secret writing in the nineteenth century.
According to X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia, sociological criticism examines the
literary work in the cultural, economic, and political context. It also explores the
relationship between the characters and the society. However, sociological
criticism also examines the author’s sociological status to check whether or not
the author’s particular background influences his/her literary work. Besides, the
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
28 social content can also promote what cultural, economic, and political values are
present, implicitly and explicitly, in a text (Kennedy and Gioia, 1998).
Sociology specifically explores on why and how a condition happens in a
society. Kammeyer, Ritzer, Yetman (1994) classified sociology into at least fifty
specializations. One of them is the sociology of culture. The sociology of culture
is based on the interrelationships within the complex unity (Raymond, 1977). It
means that one person will influence the other when they live in a society which
consists of people of many different races, religions, and cultures. The
classification ‘sociology of culture’ draws our attention to the usefulness of
sociology in culture studies.
One of cultural studies goals is to go beyond the limits or borders of a
specific discipline such as literary criticism or history (Guerin et al. 1996). Guerin
et al. describe that goal as “scrutinizing the cultural phenomena in a text and also
drawing conclusions about the changes in textual phenomena over time”. Cultural
studies looks at the cultural phenomenon of literary work. Footbinding and the
women’s secret writing are the cultural phenomena in the novel Snow Flower and
the Secret Fan. In this study, the writer would like to examine how the cultural
phenomena in the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan such as footbinding and
women’s secret writing influenced the women’s life in the nineteenth century. By
using this sociological approach, the analysis of the relation of male domination to
footbinding and Chinese women’s secret can be effectively done.
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29 C.
Method of the Study
In completing the analysis, the method conducted in doing the study was
library research. It means that data was gathered by reading and taking important
notes. The primary source and secondary sources were used to analyze the study.
The primary source was the novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan. The second
source used was derived from some other sources, such as books, articles found
through the internet and in encyclopedias which dealt with the topic discussed and
supported the idea of the study.
Moreover, there were some steps taken in analyzing the study. Firstly, the
novel was bought by online shopping. Then the writer read the novel several times
to understand what it generally and specifically was about. After that, the writer
took notes about some important things found in the novel about footbinding and
the women’s secret writing. It was needed so that all information about those two
things in the novel could be grasped so that the writer could describe it quite
clearly. It also helped to understand how the society influenced Chinese women’s
life in the nineteenth century. Secondly, by using some supporting references, the
writer made a critical analysis. Thirdly, the writer analyzed the social phenomena
in the novel which are footbinding and the women’s secret writing. Then she tried
to relate it to the sociological aspect of why those phenomena could exist in
nineteenth-century China by using some sociological concepts of living in a
society. Finally, she drew some conclusions from the study based on the results of
the analysis and gave some implications and suggestions for the benefit of further
researchers and educators.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
In this chapter, I would like to answer two questions which have been
proposed in problem formulation in Chapter I of this study. There are two major
parts that are analyzed in this chapter. The first part is footbinding and women’s
secret writing depicted in the novel. The second part presents male domination in
nineteenth-century Chinese women’s footbinding and secret writing.
A.
The Depiction of the Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the
Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
In this section, there are three points described. The first point is about the
practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the novel. The second point
is about whether the development of footbinding was together or along with
women’s secret writing. The last point discusses the importance of footbinding
and women’s secret writing for the Chinese women in the nineteenth century.
1.
The Practice of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
The practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing in the nineteenth
century China will be discussed in relation to their social function ruled in
Chinese society. As stated in Chapter II of this study, social function served to
standardize the social values of a society. Social function deals with how certain
30
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
31 traditional practices are created and how they serve to standardize how a person is
expected to live, think, and act/behave well in that society. The social function of
traditional practices is to motivate members of society to fulfill the social roles
expected by them (Maryati and Suryawati, 2001). The Chinese women in the
novel had already internalized very well the values of their society and knew how
they should respond towards the cultural phenomena of footbinding and lack of
access to education. The two main characters in the novel, Lily and Snow Flower,
obeyed all the rules in their society without confronting at all. Both of them
realized, as Chinese women, they were obliged to obey their father, their husband,
and their son. This was the reason why they obeyed when their feet were bound
and when they were not allowed to study like the boys.
a.
Footbinding in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
Footbinding itself was described in the novel not only as an obligation that
a girl had to submit to when she was about six years old but also as the
determination of the social status they would have if the binding was perfect. The
desire to improve social status was the main cause of the practice of footbinding
in China. The two main characters, Lily and Snow Flower, were bound at the
same time because they were lao tong which means they were sworn sisters until
the end of their life. Lily came from a poor family. Her father was a farmer. Snow
Flower, however, was introduced as coming from a wealthy family. Later, it is
revealed that Snow Flower lied. Her formerly wealth family was already bankrupt.
It means both of them came from poor families. By binding their feet, there was a
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
32 hope that their life could be changed. They went through the ordeal of footbinding
well. However, they had a different result in their footbinding. Lily had perfect
feet that caused her to marry to a man from a rich family in Tongkou, but Snow
Flower did not. This situation led her to marry a butcher.
The process of binding the feet was done very carefully by the girl’s
mother. One false step, it could result in death. There are seven things to achieve a
pair of perfectly bound feet. “They should be small, narrow, straight, pointed, and
arched, yet still fragrant and soft in texture” (See, 2005, p. 31). The time needed to
produce the desired effect was about two years. In these two years, the girls would
feel extreme physical and mental pain. However, it was never felt as a big deal
since there was a reward awaiting them. Its process is described by the narrator as
follows.
Mama washed my feet and rubbed them with alum, to contract the tissue
and limit the inevitable secretions of blood and pus. She cut my toenails as
short as possible. During this time, my bandages were soaked, so that
when they dried on my skin, they would tighten even more. Next, Mama
took one end of a bandage, placed it on my instep, then pulled it over my
four smallest toes to begin the process of rolling them underneath my foot.
From here, she wrapped the bandage back around my heel. Another loop
around the ankle was to get my toes and heel to meet, creating the cleft,
but leaving my big toe to walk on. (See, p. 32)
As the writer mentioned before, footbinding was the obligatory for most
Chinese women. Having a girl is already considered as a thing that a father cannot
be proud of. It will also be an embarrassing thing for a family if their girl cannot
find a husband. Jackson (2005) stated that “the worst thing that could happen to a
Chinese woman of the past was to be deemed unmarriageable” (p. 12). Therefore,
in order to be marriageable, a girl was forced to have tiny feet like a bud of a
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
33 lotus. This kind of thought was influenced by Confucian ideals which have two
main thoughts, Three Obediences and Four Virtues. Because they lived in the
Confucian society, the different realm of men and women was understood very
well. This standardized how a woman should live in the family and society. It was
no matter whether a woman came from a poor or a rich family. Every woman had
to obey the rules. To be clearer, See describes the Confucian ideal dealing with
the different realm of men and women as follows:
I also knew the difference between nei—the inner realm of the home—and
wai—the outer realm of men—lay at the very heart of Confucian society.
Whether you are rich or poor, emperor or slave, the domestic sphere is for
women and the outside sphere is for men. Women should not pass beyond
the inner chambers in their thoughts or in their actions. (See, p. 28-29)
The girls had to bind their feet in order to be able to marry and later have a
son. Footbinding became the most important phase that a woman had to go
through in her life. This is supported by the quotation by the narrator: “All I knew
was that footbinding would make me more marriageable and therefore bring me
closer to the greatest love and greatest joy in a woman’s life—a son” (See, p. 31).
If a girl does not marry, she will embarrass her family and be considered of no
values. A Chinese old saying states: “’If a daughter doesn’t marry out, she’s not
valuable; if fire doesn’t raze the mountain, the land will not be fertile.’” (See, p.
101)
So, the main function of footbinding for Chinese women was to determine
their fate later: when a Chinese woman had a pair of perfect feet, they would be
led to a bright future. Neither pretty face nor good body shape guaranteed them a
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
34 good marriage. The following quotation supports that having tiny feet is much
more important than having a pretty face.
“The girl is indeed very lovely, but golden lilies are far more important in
life than a pretty face. A lovely face is a gift from Heaven, but tiny feet
can improve social standing. … It is not such a bad thing to make a good
alliance for a daughter. A high family will bring you better connection, a
better bride-price, and long-term political and economic protection.” (See,
p. 25)
Then, Jackson (1997) stated that “The key attribute of the perfectly bound foot, of
course, was length. Three inches, or even less, was the ideal, and only a foot this
size earned the title of Golden Lily” (p. 24). From this quotation, it is clear that
foot size mattered a lot. Besides, the perfectly bound feet were in the shape of a
lotus bud. A good shape was a proof that a girl had passed successfully through
the agony of footbinding, and therefore she was both disciplined and patient. Lily
is able to show her discipline to pass it well. She is also patient to endure the pain
caused by her rotten feet. Unfortunately, her sister, Third Sister, cannot pass it
well because of her confrontation when her feet are bound. The infection led to
her death. Therefore, a pair of perfect feet something a woman could be proud of.
The fact that women actually felt pride in their small feet shows that
footbinding did indeed perform the social function of inducing women to accept
yhr role and the behavior which the male-dominated society demanded of them.
As stated above, a woman was expected to obey Confucian ideal: she belongs in
the home and is not allowed to interfere in the men’s realm, and her acceptance of
footbinding shows her acceptance of this ideal. Society for Chinese women is in
their own house. It is because the women are not allowed to be outside in
accordance with Confucian ideal. Confucius tells his follower that “’A woman
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35 should never be heard outside her own home.’” (Jackson, p. 16) To be obedient is
a manner she should do while to be a woman who never thinks interfering men’s
business is a thought they already have.
Another social function found in the novel is that footbinding is a
motivation for the women to fulfill themselves as members of their society. It is
called a motivation because footbinding led them to be accepted as a true lady. If
they have a pair of big feet, they are considered as similar to a maid or the lowestranked woman in the household. Of course, a mother wants good things for her
daughter so she binds her daughter’s feet. Meanwhile, a girl must also have a
dream of a good future and what she will look like then. Therefore, the mother
supports her daughter to succeed in enduring the pain of footbinding.
“A true lady lets no ugliness into her life,” she repeated again and again,
drilling the words to me. “Only through pain will you have beauty. Only
through suffering will you find peace. I wrap, I bind, but you will have the
reward.” (See, p. 38)
By the quotation above, Lily’s mother supports Lily to survive though she has to
suffer a lot. Lily’s mother gives her a view that she will have precious things if
she is able to pass it. Beauty, peace, and reward (having a good marriage and
having sons) are a dream offered by Lily’s mother. These things become a
motivation for Lily in reaching her future later. As an ordinary girl, she wants a
bright future. She wants to have a husband who comes from a good family, have
sons that will make her mother-in-law proud of her, and later she will be the lady
of the household. Not only in the household, may she also become the lady of the
village.
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36 b.
Women’s Secret Writing in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
Women’s secret writing is commonly called as nu shu. By having ability
in nu shu, women have a chance to be more educated. Although they will not get
education like men have, at least by nu shu they will be enriched with the past
stories, poems, and other literary works. When Lily is still little, she cannot see
the differences between nu shu and men’s writing. As time goes by, she can
differentiate it. Nu shu is actually difficult to recognize because it seems like only
scratches made by pen. Nu shu characters are described in the novel in the
following quotation:
But now I can say that men’s writing is bold, with each character easily
contained within a square, while our nu shu looks like mosquito legs or
bird prints in dust. Unlike men’s writing, a nu shu character does not
represent a specific word. Rather, our characters are phonetic in nature. As
a result, one character can represent every spoken word with that same
sound. So while a character might make a sound that creates the words for
“pare,” “pair,” or “pear,” context usually makes the meaning clear. Still,
much care has to be taken to make sure we do not misinterpret meaning.
(See, 2005, p. 29-30)
The quotation above shows that it surely not easy to learn nu shu. A specific
ability is needed to interpret it correctly. Nu shu itself has many advantages for
women. “It can be used to write letters, songs, autobiographies, lessons on
womanly duties, prayers to the goddess, and, of course, popular stories” (See, p.
30). The media to write on can be a paper or a fan which is written upon with
brush and ink. Another way is by embroidering onto a handkerchief or weaving
into cloth.
There are two important things about nu shu. They are “men must never
know that it exists and men must not touch it in any form” (See, p. 30). Therefore,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
37 the women are really careful to keep it a secret. There are actually some situations
that will save them so that men will not know it. Women usually wrote when they
are in women’s chamber. Because Confucianism tells them all to appreciate each
realm, men were not allowed to enter this room. In this room, women could do
anything, such as singing, embroidering, babysitting, weaving cloth, and of course
writing. In addition, they could write at noon when their husband or their brothers
went to work. This situation created a little possibility or chance to be caught by
men indeed. Still, they had to be careful especially when it was sent out.
Lily and Snow Flower are also careful in sending the fan to each other. It
has already been stated before that Lily and Snow Flower are a laotong. They
cannot be separated because this laotong match is about eternity. Once it is made,
it is not able to be broken. Even this laotong match has as deep a meaning and
heart as a marriage. This is supported by the following quotation.
“Like a marriage between a man and woman, the kind ones go with kind
ones, the pretty ones go with pretty ones, and the clever ones go with
clever ones. But unlike marriage, this relationship should remain
exclusive. … You understand my meaning, girls? This is a joining of two
hearts that cannot be torn apart by distance, disagreement, loneliness,
better marriage position, or by letting other girls—and later women—
come between you.” (See, p. 68)
Then, a laotong is made by choice and offers lasting companionship, while a
marriage is not and has only one purpose—to have sons.
Having a laotong is a special opportunity that a girl has. It is completely
different from a sworn sisterhood. Laotong involves two girls from different
villages and lasts till the end of their life, while a sworn sisterhood involves
several girls and ends at marriage (See, p. 26).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
38 Women’s secret writing is described in the novel as the media that Lily
and Snow Flower used to communicate with each other. Since they lived in
different villages, Lily in Puwei village and Snow Flower in Tongkou village,
they needed such a communication tool.
At first, Lily learns to write nu shu from Aunt. In her household, only
Aunt and Elder Sister are able to write nu shu. Meanwhile, Snow Flower also
learns nu shu in her own home. She is taught by her mother. Lily and Snow
Flower start their journey in writing nu shu on a fan. This fan journey starts when
Snow Flower sends Lily a silk fan to introduce herself to Lily. Through this first
nu shu, the relationship between both of them is truly started.
Snow Flower offers Lily a relationship of being a laotong. Here the first
words Snow Flower writes to Lily:
I understand there is a girl of good character and women’s learning in your
home. You and I are of the same year and the same day. Could we not be
sames together? (See, p. 56)
At first, Lily cannot recognize well all the words Snow Flower wrote. She only
recognizesthe words: girl, good, women, home, you, I. It shows that nu shu is not
an easy thing to study. Snow Flower’s ability in nu shu is already better than
Lily’s ability. Lily is helped by Aunt to understand the whole part. Snow Flower’s
words are unusual words. The words she uses shows that she is clever. Even the
words she uses make Lily and Aunt both frightened and excited. When Snow
Flower visits Lily’s house, Lily learns many new characters from her. Even Aunt
also learns from her. Many characters she got are coming from her brother’s
writing and also her mother.
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39 Some she got from sneaking peeks at her brother’s studies, since many nu
shu characters are only italicized of men’s characters, but others came
from Snow Flower’s mother, who was extremely well versed in our
women’s secret writing. (See, p. 87)
Moreover, Nu shu has a social function a tool for women to be able to
communicate with their natal family when they cannot reach them. It can be
described as a solidarity tool with the society, in this case the family. Nu shu is
used in order to give security to all the member of a society (Maryati and
Suryawati, 2001). Because they easily cannot be out of their realm, the existence
of nu shu is very helpful.
The condition that girls will be out of their home and live with their
husband’s family consciously becomes the consideration for the girls to learn nu
shu. They obviously do not know what will happen in their life after marrying.
The fear that the mother-in-law may be cruel, abusive, always complaining and
criticizing or their husbands may be rough and may not really appreciate them
well are haunting them.
Lily and Snow Flower are told that learning nu shu is important to keep in
touch with their natal family. They are afraid whether or not they will be treated
well by their in-laws. This is supported by this quotation: “…but this was nothing
compared to how I felt when she talked about my husband and my future in-laws”
(See, p. 92). It shows that Lily was worried about her new family, but Snow
Flower told her that her new family must treat well and asked her to be calm
instead of afraid and uncomfortable. Lily and Snow Flower understand it well so
they learn more characters.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
40 However, since one character may have several meanings, nu shu can
cause misinterpreting in meaning. One must look at the context to get the
meaning. See wrote that
Men’s writing takes a lifetime to learn and understand. Women’s writing
is something we pick up as girls, and we rely on context to coax meaning
(p. 201).
This becomes a crucial thing that affects the relationship between Lily and Snow
Flower. Lily misinterpreted what Snow Flower wanted to say in the fan. Due to
that, Lily embarrassed Snow Flower in front of many people. If it is said that nu
shu will secure them, it is not exactly right. Nu shu, the thing that makes them
become one, makes them apart. However, referring to the function, nu shu is the
connection tool to keep the users in with their family or their friends.
2.
The Development of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing as
Described in the Novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
In this section, the writer presents two points of the development of
footbinding and women’s secret writing in the novel. The first is to discover the
legendary development of those two things as told in the novel. The second is to
explore whether or not the development of footbinding and women’s secret
writing in the novel is described all along. It means that whether or not from the
beginning of the story, footbinding is described along with nu shu.
The history of footbinding is not clearly known. There are multiple
theories tried to explain the origin of footbinding. Nevertheless, footbinding in the
novel Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is explained as a tradition for girls in some
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
41 provinces. Hunan province, where Lily lived, obliged the girls to bind their feet. It
is also explained that the girls in cities bound their feet when they were three years
old, especially for girls from the high class—much earlier when girls from Lily’s
so-so county started binding their feet at age six or seven. Meanwhile, in some
provinces, girls only bound their feet temporarily to look more beautiful to their
future husbands. The bones were not broken and after marriage, their feet were set
free again so that they could help their husbands in the fields.
Unlike the footbinding, the legendary nu shu was clearer. See mentioned
in the novel that nu shu is invented by Yuxiu in Song dynasty. At that time, the
Emperor took her to be his new concubine because of her beauty, smartness, and
behavior. Sadly, living in the imperial palace was not as beautiful as she thought.
Although she was given many gifts from the Emperor, she was not allowed to
meet her family at all. Her life went to misery because she did not have someone
to talk to and share with.
Yuxiu was actually able to write men’s writing, she learned it from her
father. But Yuxiu did not want to send a letter to her natal family. It was too
dangerous. What she did was changing it into a better form. The characters were
narrower and more feminine. This becomes the secret code that she invented to
keep in touch with her natal family.
Footbinding is described from the beginning of the novel. Lily and Snow
Flower bind their feet when they are seven years old. Lily’s feet are bound on the
morning of the twenty-fourth day of the eighth lunar month. In another place,
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42 Snow Flower’s footbinding process is done on the same day as Lily’s. That is one
of several reasons why they are matched as a laotong.
Both Lily and Snow Flower are together to endure the great pain caused by
their footbinding. Although they are already given some things that will help them
to lessen the pain, it does not work. The one thing that makes them still able to
endure it is that the reward they will get later. The toes are broken a few days later
after the footbinding process. To break them, the girls have ten round-trips back
and forth across upstairs chamber. The toes’ breaking, of course, makes them
bleed.
Furthermore, footbinding is also described till the end of the novel. The
time goes by; both Lily and Snow Flower have daughters. As an ancient tradition
they had to perpetuate the tradition of footbinding. However, as mothers, they
expect a good future for their daughters.
Meanwhile, nu shu is acknowledged in the novel also of the beginning in
the novel. Lily begins to be taught nu shu before she got her footbinding. Aunt
teaches her very well. “Aunt instructed me in the special rules that govern nu shu”
(See, p. 30). From Aunt, Lily learns all about nu shu as both her mother and
grandmother are illiterate in nu shu. On the other hand, as mentioned before,
Snow Flower learns nu shu from her mother since they formerly are rich people
that let them to be literate.
Nu shu then becomes a communication tool between Lily and Snow
Flower. At first, Snow Flower introduces herself to Lily through a silk fan with nu
shu on it. Through nu shu they become one and by nu shu they are torn apart.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
43 Their silk fan, which notes down both the happy and sad stories, is retired when
Snow Flower dies. After Snow Flower died, Lily’s life is full of regret since she
has already hurt the one she loves most in the world. In her sitting quietly phase,
Lily is still teaching nu shu in her women’s chamber and reading nu shu for some
people who want to listen to her stories. Besides, till the end of the story, nu shu is
not known about by the men.
Thus, it is clear that footbinding is described throughout the novel just as
women’s secret is. Footbinding and nu shu are the ancient heritage that they
should be concerned about and perpetuate so that it will remain to their
descendents later. May no Chinese not fully understand with the tradition that
Chinese had. Chinese people maintained this just for the sake of marriage and
tradition.
3.
The Importance of Footbinding and Women’s Secret Writing for
Chinese Women in the Nineteenth Century
This section is going to figure out the importance of footbinding and
women’s secret writing for Chinese women in the nineteenth century. The writer
would like to see the importance of these things by relating it to women’s beauty,
women’s pride, women’s identity, and also women’s knowledge. Then, the
discussion continues to see the social stratification rules in Chinese women’s life
in the nineteenth century.
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44 a.
Beauty
Bullon in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines beauty as
a quality that people, places, or things have that makes them very attractive to
look at (Bullon, 2004, p. 117). For Chinese women, they would look more
attractive if they could have a pair of tiny feet. Although they have to endure the
unimaginable pain of the footbinding process and sacrifice forever the chance to
move freely and normally. All they think is that they will have a reward that
cannot be gained in any other way. This is supported by the following quotation:
The driving force behind this desire was complex: it had to do with
marriage; it had to do with sex; it had to do with status; it had to do with
beauty; it had to do with duty. (Jackson, 1997, p. 24)
The quotation shows that the footbinding process must be done in order to
reach a better life in the future. Their beliefs at that time in accordance with
having a pair of golden lilies are: first, to make them more marriageable and
second, to give them a chance to get a better position in the afterlife (Jackson, p.
15).
It is clear that for this beauty, Chinese women are required to obey the
custom to bind their feet. They do not have any choice. By this footbinding
process, every Chinese woman suffers from unimaginable pain. Lily and Snow
Flower also feel the same. Yet, when they suffer they remember what the mothers
always tell to the daughters.
“I have always told you that a true lady lets no ugliness into her life,” she
said, “and that only through pain will you find beauty.” (See, 2005: 138)
It is also supported by the following quotation.
When I knew I couldn’t suffer another moment of pain, and tears fell in
my bloody bindings, my mother spoke softly into my ear, encouraging me
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
45 to go one more hour, one more day, one more week, reminding me of the
rewards I would have if I carried on a little longer. In this way, she taught
me how to endure—not just the physical trials of footbinding and
childbearing but the more tortuous pain of the heart, mind, and soul. (See,
2005: 1-2)
By the quotation above, it can be seen that Chinese women are forced to
achieve their beauty and grace even though the pain is almost more than they can
bear. As truly Chinese women, they obey it without questioning. They understand
very well that their life is to obey, obey, and obey then they get the rewards. Their
filial piety will lead them to a bright future after all.
b.
Pride
According to Bullon, pride has two major meanings. The first is about the
feeling of pleasure. Pride is a feeling of pleasure in what has been achieved. The
second one is about respect. Pride is described as the feeling that someone
respects or likes herself and that she deserves to be respected by other people (p.
1298).
From the beginning, Lily had the pride in herself since the diviner told her
family that she was different from other girls.
“But your daughter has something besides smallness from famine. Her
foot has particularly high arch, which means that if the proper allowances
are made now, her feet could be the most perfect produced in our county.”
(See, p. 24)
Having the most perfect feet throughout the county must be a proud thing for her
and her family. The perfection of her feet also gives her a feeling that she has at
least a glance of chance of having a good life. If her feet develop as hoped, all the
village would hear of it. Then, it would be heard too by the neighboring villages.
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46 Thus, the good family of the village will consider having an arrangement for
marriage. For the good families, it is a proud thing having a daughter-in-law who
has beautiful feet. On the other hand, Lily is proud that by having a pair of perfect
golden lotuses, she can improve her status and her family status as well.
Moreover, all the arrangement fees will be the groom’s family’s responsibility. It
shows that having a pair of tiny feet can be so beneficial. The following quotation
supports this.
“Old Father,” Madame Wang responded smoothly, “if your daughter’s feet
end up as I imagine, I can rely on a generous fee being paid by the
groom’s family. You will also be receiving goods from them in the form
of bride-price. As you can see, you and I will both benefit this
arrangement.” (See, p. 25)
The prediction that Lily will be married into a good family is true. Her tiny
feet bring her to be engaged to a son of the best family in Tongkou.
Just as Madame Wang predicted, the perfection of my golden lilies led me
to a fortuitous betrothal. She arranged for me to be married into the best
Lu family in Tongkou. (See, 2005: 86)
Snow Flower, however, is not so fortunate. Her golden lilies are not as
perfect as Lily’s feet. If she had a pair of perfect tiny feet, her fortune would lead
her to the best family as well. Yet, she is arranged to be married to a butcher.
“I will be marrying out to nearby Jintian Village, just as Auntie Wang
said, but my husband’s family”—again she hesitated—“they are butchers.”
(See, p. 160)
Snow Flower feels embarrassed to tell Lily about her new husband’s condition.
Indeed, to be a butcher is considered as an improper occupation since what they
do is unclean and disgusting. However, Snow Flower must accept her situation for
she does not have something to be proud of, especially her feet.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
47 The ability of writing nu shu is also considered as something to be proud
of. In spite of the fact that nu shu is kept away from the influence of men, in the
Lu household it is not much of a secret. In the Lu household in which all men are
literate in men’s writing, nu shu becomes the common thing they encounter
everyday. This is supported by the quotation as follows.
They wore it on their embroidered shoes. They saw us weaving our
messages into cloth. They heard us singing our songs and showing off our
third-day wedding books. Men just considered our writing beneath them.
(See, 2005: 201)
The quotation above shows that as literate people, the men in the Lu
household are able to recognize nu shu though they do not object to. This is
different from what happens in Lily’s natal household in which all men are
illiterate. Therefore, Lily is a little bit surprised that nu shu is not something they
must hide from men. For men in the Lu household, it is a pride for their wives to
be literate in nu shu. The following quotation supports this:
The men in the Lu household were proud of their wives’ fluency in nu shu
and dexterity in embroidery, though these things had as much importance
to survival as a pig’s fart. (See, 2005: 201)
Both footbinding and women’s secret writing are important since they give
the positive impact for Chinese women to be proud of. In addition to the sense of
pride which relates to having a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction, they consider it
as the way they can respect themselves and be respected by others.
c.
Knowledge
Footbinding and women’s secret writing also reflect the knowledge that a
woman has. This can be said so because the rewards they achieve, as Hornby
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
48 defines in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, knowledge is dealt with are the
collaboration of the information, skills, and understanding they can gain through
learning experience (2005, p. 854).
Lily and Snow Flower are successfully passing their footbinding process
and very fluent in nu shu. It shows that they are knowledgeable about it. They
understand well through these things they will become the true lady. Snow Flower
does not become a lady, but she has become a true woman actually. Through pain
and hard work, they achieve it. At least, by having the knowledge, they have
already avoided being a servant and they are marriageable.
Binding the feet can be said to be a savior of their future life. No matter
who will become their husbands later, it makes them marriageable. They will not
embarrass their natal family. Meanwhile, if a woman is literate in nu shu, she is
considered as an educated woman.
d.
Identity
Identity is defined as the qualities and attitudes that a person or group of
people have, that make them different from other people (Bullon, 2004: 805).
Both footbinding and women’s secret writing give identity to those who bind their
feet and are able to write and read nu shu. This identity shows their identity as
women as well as making them different from other people who do not bind their
feet.
The identity that a woman had attached to has a relation to the social
stratification that they achieve in their new family and the society. As stated in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
49 Chapter II, social stratification is dealing with the differentiation of society that
forms a hierarchy in which people are organized into different levels of
importance from highest to lowest (Edgar and Sedgwick, 2002, p. 366).
By possessing a desirable golden lotus, Lily lifts up her status and her
family’s status into the higher level by marrying into a family which has a good
reputation throughout the village. Her husband’s family status is the highest in the
village since his family owns many fields and hires many servants. Still, Edgar
and Sedgwick explain that in feudal societies, the estate status is determined
through land ownership and bondage (2002: 366).
The symbolic status that Lily possesses is categorized as assigned status.
As mentioned in Chapter II, assigned status is a status that is given by a person
with higher status. Formerly, there must be an effort to achieve it. Lily improves
her status to a higher level since she faithfully survives and is an obedient girl.
Moreover, her faithfulness in obeying Confucian ideals and her perseverance in
learning women’s secret writing also lead her to reach upper-class status.
The obligation of binding the feet is “de rigueur, the only right-thinking
thing to do for a daughter” (Fairbank, 1986: 69). They will be careful to maintain
her bound feet. Similar to maintaining their bound feet, persevering in women’s
secret writing is also important as a way to gain prestige and to be considered as
educated women. Hence, perfect small feet and ability in women’s secret writing
are prestigious possessions that a woman has. Both are very valuable for Chinese
women since these are the mark of gentility and upper-class status.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
50 B.
Male Domination in Chinese Women’s Footbinding and Secret Writing
Talking about male domination, it is closely related to the gender issue.
Gender role is seen from a sociological perspective as, “The expectation for
behavior and attitudes that the culture defines as appropriate for men and women.
These roles are learned through the process of socialization.” (Andersen, 1997, p.
31). According to definition, gender roles are determined by the culture and
certainly this is what we see in life and in this novel. Even though different
cultures may have different gender roles in their societies, the focus of gender
roles is still the same. The main focus is the appropriate expectation regarding
men and women’s behavior and attitudes.
Chinese’s life is really influenced by Confucian ideals. In accordance with
the Confucian system, Gelber (2008) states: “the harmony would be displayed in
the behavior of the superior man” (p. 16). He means that men are regarded as the
superior one especially in the family. Men should be obeyed and prioritized to
create harmony as Confucius taught. As a father is the superior person in the
family, other family member are the subordinates that should obey the leader of
the family.
Hsu in Kitano (1985) states that the duty of woman is “…to please her
husband, his family, and to provide sons” (p. 223) which means the position of
women in China is infinitely weaker than that of men. The yin and yang also rule
in Chinese women life. Yin represents the men, whereas yang is the women. As
Fairbank (1986) states: “All things bright, warm, active, male, and dominant were
Yang while all things dark, cold, passive, female, and yielding were Yin” (p. 68).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
51 There are some concepts which cause the practice of footbinding and also
the spread of secret writing. They are the concepts of beauty, the concept of
pleasure, and also the concept of manhood. The following paragraphs will
elaborate how the Chinese men’s ideology influenced the women to bind their feet
and practiced the secret writing.
1. The Male Concepts of Beauty
Chinese women continued their ancient tradition of footbinding for a
thousand years. As mentioned earlier, footbinding was accepted by thousands of
daughters for the sake of tradition and marriage prospects.
Every family with sons wants daughters-in-law with bound feet. They are
not going to marry a big-footed girl. Big-footed girls are considered inappropriate
to have daughters’ rank in a household. For them, the rank should be that of
servants. This demand of having bound feet can be seen clearly in the novel,
Lily’s mother’s feet have been badly bound by her mother, but she is still
marriageable. Then, even though Aunt does not have perfect bound feet, still she
is able to get married.
Whoever has a pair of perfect golden lilies will be chosen by the good or
even best family. This is shown when the Lu family sees Lily’s feet. Since the Lu
family is the best family in Tongkou, they are excited about Lily’s perfect bound
feet. It is what they expected for their son’s wife. The following quotation
illustrates this, when Snow Flower told Lily that it seems that they are very happy
engaging her to be their daughter-in-law:
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
52 “And the way the whole Lu party examined your feet! Oh, Lily, I’m sure
everyone in my village is happy to know that one day you will be the new
Lady Lu. Now try to sleep. You have many long days ahead of you.” (See,
p. 140)
Chinese women well understand why they bind their feet. Their small feet
show that they are helpless. In China, helpless women are considered as a good
thing. Their helplessness means that they cannot help their husbands to earn
money and to feed all the members of the household. Indeed, if the man can afford
a helpless wife, he must be a successful man (Jackson, 1997, p.15). It is because
the smaller foot a woman has; the more difficult it is for her to move freely and do
everything easily. Here, the gender role is strictly determined. The men expect the
appropriate attitude from their women, which involves being helpless.
Furthermore, her small feet will be evidence to the mother-in-law that she can
obey, and be disciplined, because she was able to endure the unimaginable pain
caused by the footbinding process as can be seen in the following quotation.
My small feet would show the world my obedience to my natal family,
particularly to my mother, which would also make a good impression on
my future mother-in-law. (See, p. 43)
The quotation shows that the impression Lily makes through her bound
feet is to determine how marriageable she is. In addition, the shoes that she wears
are also to symbolize how good her ability in embroidering and house learning is.
The other desired result of footbinding is to keep Chinese women at home.
What they have to do is to obey, obey, and obey. This behavior is in accordance
with Confucian ideals that state: when you are a girl, obey your father; when you
are a wife, obey your husband; and when you are a widow, obey your son.
Certainly, the women have no right(s) to be themselves and no freedom to do
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
53 what they like. Since her feet are bound, Lily is not allowed to go outside the
home to work. All she does is only in the household, especially in the upstairs
chamber where she many do all the women’s works. This is fits in accordance
with the Confucian ideals about confinement and control, as illustrated by the
following quotation.
“We must stay in our upstairs rooms, be chaste, be modest, and perfect the
womanly arts. To be filial, we must leave home. This is our fate. When we
go to our husbands’ homes, new worlds unfold—sometimes better,
sometimes worse.” (See, p. 169)
The male concept of women’s beauty leads Chinese women to bind their
feet. A woman’s beauty is in her feet. Being marriageable relates to the fact that
footbinding has already begun the part of Chinese society system. Not
participating very well in the system causes a punishment or consequence.
Therefore, there is such a consequence that a woman would have if she does not
bind her feet. If they are not considered as beautiful, they will not be able to
marry. No one would take her as an in-law. Thus, they would be considered as
unworthy women and embarrass their father as well.
2. The Concept of Pleasure
Besides, Chinese women provide pleasure for their husbands. This is one
thing men expect from their wives. Men are sexually impressed by small feet.
There was a sexual satisfaction by just thinking of the small feet or even touching
it. The fragrance of the bound feet is the most stimulating thing for men to achieve
full arousal.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
54 As Lily is still a little girl, she has already known of such things. Her small
feet have the purpose to satisfy her future husband. Even though she does not
really understand it, she realizes it is all for the sake of pleasing men. This is
implied in the following quotation:
And, though I knew nothing of this at the time, my feet would be
something that would hold my husband’s fascination during the most
private and intimate moments between a man and a woman. His desire to
see them and hold them in his hands never diminished during our lives
together, not even after I had five children, not even after the rest of my
body was no longer an enticement to do bed business. (See, p. 44)
This quotation implies that small feet arouse the desire of men without
considering the wife’s age. It remains since all men to do are seeing and holding
the feet. Doing these things is the main enticement to do “bed business”.
Doing “bed business”, however, is considered important. The goal of
doing this is to have sons. Having sons is the greatest love and the greatest joy in a
woman’s life; while for men, having sons is to perpetuate the family line.
Therefore, sons are the most important thing of all. Snow Flower shows us the
importance of sons: “Because my husband says it is better to have a dog than a
daughter” (See, p. 214). This fact is actually hurtful, but it was not an uncommon
view in China in the nineteenth century.
Satisfying men’s desire is important. Otherwise, Chinese women’s
incapability to satisfy their husbands obliges them to accept the existence of
concubine(s). A concubine is a woman who lived with and had sex with a married
man but has socially less important than a wife. Even though Chinese society
practiced monogamy, the existence of concubine(s) was accepted.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
55 3. The Concept of Manhood
Men were considered to be superior human beings. As a superior one, they
dominate others by their power and dignity. Others are subordinates who must
obey and appreciate them. Formerly, Chinese women learned nu shu to maintain
communication in a secret way with their natal family when they had already been
away from home. Then, nu shu was also a communication tool with their friends,
especially laotong and sworn sisters.
There was also a hidden factor that caused the women to preserve and pass
on nu shu to their descendants. That hidden factor was their escape from being at
home all the time. There was no permission to be outside. Chinese women were
always in the inner realm. Chinese men, however, are in the outer realm since the
social system allows them to work, learn, and be socialized.
Unlike men who gain the knowledge from their education, women gain
their knowledge by being literate in nu shu. By nu shu, they know many things
that men may enjoy such as poems, stories, and songs. Therefore, nu shu is
preserved to keep the women knowing a lot of things. This is illustrated by the
following quotation:
It can be used to write letters, songs, autobiographies, lessons on womanly
issues, prayers to goddess, and, of course, popular stories. It can be written
with brush and ink on a paper or on a fan; it can be embroidered onto a
handkerchief or woven into cloth. It can and should be sung before an
audience of other women and girls, but it can also be something that is
read and treasured alone. (See, p. 30)
This quotation shows how nu shu reflects women’s efforts to improve
their qualities. It is also a proof that they can be as educated as men and can do
something else beside womanly duties.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
56 Women keep their nu shu away from the men. This attitude shows their
fear and anxiety to be caught by men. It is because there is a possibility of being
prohibited. They do not have any other way to be knowledgeable and keep in
contact with their natal families and friends. The influence of men was very great
at that time and women did not have the possibility of claiming their rights since
they lived in a feudal society which obeyed Confucian ideals very well.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter presents conclusions, implications, and suggestions of this
study. The conclusions wrap up the answer of the formulated problem. Then, the
implications are presented to provide some reflection on the results of the study
which may be relevant to education. Finally, the writer gives some suggestions
related to the study.
A.
Conclusions
Based on the analysis in Chapter IV, there are some conclusions that can
be drawn. The first concerns the depiction of Chinese women’s footbinding and
secret writing in the novel. The second is about how male domination relates to
the practice of footbinding and women’s secret writing.
The first result shows that footbinding and nu shu are clearly depicted in
the novel. Footbinding is not merely performed out of a sense of obligation but
also because it determines a woman’s social status. Footbinding is about the
obligation as it is dealing with the state of being marriageable. Being
unmarriageable for Chinese women is considered the worst thing. They embarrass
themselves as well as their family. This thought is influenced by Confucian ideals
since they lived in a Confucian society. Moreover, footbinding is to determine
their chance of a brighter future. By having a pair of perfect feet, the main
character, Lily, improved her life by marrying a scholar in a famous village,
57 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
58
Tongkou. Her laotong, Snow Flower however, had a different fate. Because she
did not have a pair of feet as perfect as Lily has, she married a butcher—an
occupation which was considered cruel. Furthermore, footbinding has several
social functions for women to think and act/behave well in a society and as the
motivation for women to fulfil themselves as the members of a society.
Meanwhile, women’s secret writing is described in the novel as the
communication tool both with laotong and the family. Lily and Snow Flower send
each other a silk fan that contains nu shu. Then, Lily used nu shu to communicate
with natal family when she had already been away to her husband’s family.
Besides, nu shu gives Chinese women an identity as educated women.
The development of the footbinding and secret writing is described
throughout the novel. As a laotong, Lily and Snow Flower were together to
endure the agony of footbinding. Later, they also bound their daughters’ feet in
perpetuation
of
the
Chinese
tradition.
Besides,
they
also
maintained
communication by sending a fan to each other. Nu shu was the first thing that
made them one and the last thing that made them separated.
The footbinding and women’s secret writing are described as the reflection
to women’s beauty, pride, knowledge, and also identity. Chinese women believed
they would look beautiful and more attractive if they could have a pair of tiny feet
even though they had to endure the unimaginable pain of the binding process.
They looked more exotic when they are walking by swaying like the dancers. The
perfectness of her feet makes Lily and her family proud. She could improve her
status and her family status. Literacy in nu shu became a source of pride.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
59
Although women were not educated like Chinese men, at least they were
considered educated among other women who were illiterate in nu shu. Moreover,
Lily and Snow Flower successfully passed their footbinding process and were
very fluent in nu shu. It shows that they are knowledgeable about it. Then, by
footbinding, women’s identity is associated with and enhanced by the
improvement of status Lily and her family achieved by marrying into a family
which had a good reputation throughout the village. Meanwhile, persevering in nu
shu gave a prestige as an educated woman. Both are very valuable for Chinese
women since these are a mark of gentility and upper-class status.
The second results shows male domination closely relates to the practice
of footbinding and the spread of secret writing. There are some ideas which relate
to it: the concept of beauty, the concept of pleasure, and the concept of manhood.
The male concept of women’s beauty is that a woman should have a pair of tiny
feet without considering either the face or body shape. It leads Chinese women to
bind their feet. If Chinese women were not considered beautiful, they would not
be able to marry. Thus, they would be considered unworthy women and embarrass
their father.
Besides, the Chinese male concept of pleasure was focused on the tiny
feet. Men were sexually impressed and stimulated by seeing and holding the tiny
feet. Therefore, Chinese women provided the pleasure for their husbands. If a
woman was not sexually incapable no more to satisfy her husband, she ought to
accept the existence of concubine(s) in the household.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
60
Meanwhile, the concept of manhood that shows the power of men also has
a relation to the existence of nu shu. To be a Chinese man at that time means to
have more power than women. As a result of male superiority which was
supported by Confucian ideals, Chinese women were not allowed to be outside
the home. Chinese women were living in the inner realm while men were in the
outer realm since the system allows them to work, learn, and be socialized. To
escape from this state, Chinese women used nu shu to share their stories, thoughts,
poems, and songs. This secret writing was passed on the Chinese descendants as
well.
B.
Implications
In this section, this study presents some implications of the study to
education. It is not merely for English education but also education in general.
The implications are about the importance of critical reflection on the role or bias
of male domination that is on the conclusions drawn.
Male domination had a lot of influence over Chinese women’s life in the
nineteenth century. At that time, Chinese women did not have rights to give their
opinions as well as the freedom to behave and choose. This male domination had
been the situation in China for a long time. The major reason is because of the
Confucian ideals that the majority of Chinese people believed in.
Nevertheless, the general education needs to be a mode of wider thoughts
about self concepts. Through education, hopefully, the teachers are able to direct
the students to the understanding of self concepts especially three concepts in
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
61
Chapter IV of this study: beauty, pleasure, and manhood. Unlike in the premodern China which physical beauty was oriented to the sexual pleasure, the
concept of beauty can be changed to be more positive now. In this modern era,
someone’s beauty is seen not only from the face and body shape but also from the
inner self. By having a good inner self, the chance to be more easily accepted in
the society is wide open. Besides, judging from physical appearance can be
misleading.
Social acceptance is important for most young people so that self
development should be done entirely. According to Driyarkara in Driyarkara
tentang Pendidikan (1980), the self development is started from the young age
with considering the concepts of humanization. It is derived from the famous
quote from Driyarkara: “memanusiakan manusia muda”. To maximize the self
potential, a person should develop both his/her physical and mental skills (p. 85).
Therefore, the concept of beauty needs to improve. Beauty is seen as in a whole.
For example, a young girl should be wiser in spending her money to avoid the
consumerism lifestyle. The development ought not to merely beautify the physical
appearance but also the personal characteristics.
Besides, the concept of pleasure also needs to improve. There are many
ways to have pleasure. Pleasure is not only achieved in a sexual way, but from
many other things such as hobbies, work, family, achievements, etc. Furthermore,
to be a man, male students do not need to feel superior to female students. Some
evidence shows that in the educational field, men and women are equal now
without any subordinating. For instance, Indonesia was ever led by a woman,
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
62
Megawati Soekarnoputri. Another example is the No. 1 final examination’s score
throughout Indonesia 2011 was achieved by a girl student from SMA Negeri 1
Bantul. Therefore, there is no reason for men to dominate women in any aspect of
life.
The practice of male domination is considered irrelevant at this time. In
Indonesia, women’s rights had already struggled for by R. A. Kartini in the late
nineteenth century. Even though still there are some gender-based cases, male
domination in Indonesia has not been a big matter. The equality between men and
women has already been achieved.
In education, men and women have equal opportunities. Both have the
same rights without any limitations of what to learn and do. In order to keep the
equality among students, the aspects of manhood and womanhood in every self
should be developed equally. The development relates to balancing the right and
left brain. According to Smalley and Trent, males are left-brained and females are
right-brained. They said,
“… The left brain houses more of the logical, analytical, factual, and
aggressive centers of thoughts. … On the other hand, most women spend
the majority of their days and nights camped out in the right side of the
brain. It’s the side that harbors the center of feelings as well as the primary
relational, language, and communication skills; enables them to do finedetail work; sparks imagination; and makes an afternoon devoted to art
and fine music actually enjoyable” (p. 36).
Therefore, the educators should direct the students to balance the right and left
brain. Educators can use some games provided a lot in the internet which train to
balance the right and left brain as well as the logic and feelings.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
63
Meanwhile, male domination does not add any positive points in
education—even in male school such as De Britto College. The habits in male
domination do not develop anything.
C.
Suggestions
Snow Flower and the Secret Fan is a fascinating novel. The novel tells
about the Chinese tradition which perpetuated for many generations and ending in
the early twentieth century. In this study, the writer mainly discusses male
domination in the footbinding, and secret writing seen from a sociological view
point. However, this novel is rich in issues that can still be explored. For further
studies, the writer suggests other topics to be analyzed. The topic on the
characterization of the major female characters is interesting to be studied. Then,
the topic of the response of the two major female characters towards the conflicts
which happened between them is also interesting to be deeply analyzed.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Globe. Retrieved March 30, 2011, from http://www.boston.com
Smalley, G. & Trent, J. (1992). The language of love. New York: Pocket Books.
Smith, R. J. (1994). China’s cultural heritage: The Qing dynasty 1644-1912 (2nd
ed.). Colorado: Westview Press, Inc.
Sorokin, P. (1928). Contemporary sociological theories. New York: Harper &
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APPENDICES
67
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Appendix A
Summary of Lisa See’s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan
The book Snow Flower and the Secret Fan by Lisa See is a novel about a
story of a character named Lily, who was born in the early 1823. Having been in
China during the 1800s and into the early 1900s, Lily has experienced a lot of
Chinese history, including transformations of many ancient Chinese dynasties.
Lily has a "best friend", who is considered her laotong as her relationship
with Snow Flower is different from the relationship Chinese people had when
they got married. Of course, both Snow Flower and Lily are females, but the point
is that at that time (and perhaps even still today), Chinese people would get
married in order to procreate children, hoping they would have sons.
The relationship between Lily and Snow Flower is based more on close
friendship, which is why it was referred to as a laotong. In the beginning and
middle of their close relationship, Lily and Snow Flower are very faithful to each
other, and trust each other deeply. An example of them looking out for each is
where they discuss how Lily allows Snow Flower to drink the water first, even
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though they had both been through a long tiring day, and could both use the
hydration. Another example found is how they allow each other to share their
clothing, along with other necessities. Lily and Snow Flower both really look out
for each other, knowing that they are both going through the same thing, and
realize how horrible it really is.
In the book, Lily and Snow Flower actually end up living quite different
lives, despite their close relationship. Lily, despite coming from a lower class
family, ends up marrying a man of high power, according to the book because of
her “beautiful feet”. She ends up marrying one of the most powerful men in the
region,
and
becomes
“the
most
influential
women
in
the
region”.
Unfortunately for Snow Flower, her life does not end up as promising.
Snow Flower ends up marrying a person of lower class in society, who turns out
to be a butcher. On top of her “unhappy marriage”, Snow Flower goes through a
series of most unfortunate events, including many beating that occurred because
of her husband, and the deaths of many of her children.
Lily and Snow Flower's relationship unfortunately does not remain so
close for long. As discussed in Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, their relationship
eventually takes a turn for the worse. There is a point in the book where Lily is
suspicious that Snow Flower has been betraying her trust. Because of this, Lily
ends up causing harm to many people, including Snow Flower.
Lily ends up sharing all of Snow Flower's confidential secrets that Snow
Flower has told Lily in private, which therefore damages Snow Flower's
reputation in the community. This therefore ruins Snow Flower's and Lily's
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relationship, although by the end of Snow Flower's life Lily is still there for her.
Throughout the time they have on this planet together (before Snow Flower's
death) they had written many letters to each other. This helps demonstrate how
close the two really were, and how they really relied on each other, even if it was
just for someone to talk to. When the book returns to the present, Lily has been
living over 40 years without her friend Snow Flower, and still feels that Snow
Flower was a good person overall and still misses her. Lily does feel bad about
what she did to Snow Flower all those years ago, damaging her reputation.
Lily says “I did all that in the most public way possible by showing my neighbors
that Snow Flower was a low and base woman who should not be part of our lives.
I had succeeded even as I destroyed my laotong”.
Throughout the book, the Chinese women begin to use a “secret language”
which is called nu shu. Nu shu is known as one of the only known languages that
is specifically for a gender, as opposed to different languages for different races or
cultures. It is known as a writing system, which was used exclusively among
women in the southern province of China during this time period.
Lisa See helps to spread the word of what life really was like, especially
for women in China during this time period. Through her excellent book and
detailed writing, she is able to spread the knowledge and history of this time
period.
Adapted from:
http://www.helium.com/items/1386603-snow-flower-and-the-secret-fan-reviewsummary
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Appendix B
Biography of Lisa See
Lisa See, author of the critically-acclaimed international bestseller, Snow
Flower and the Secret Fan (2005), has always been intrigued by stories that have
been lost, forgotten, or deliberately covered up, whether in the past or happening
right now in the world today. See was born in Paris but grew up in Los Angeles.
She lived with her mother, but spent a lot of time with her father’s family in
Chinatown. Her first book, On Gold Mountain: The One Hundred Year Odyssey
of My Chinese-American Family (1995), was a national bestseller and a New York
Times Notable Book. The book traces the journey of Lisa’s great-grandfather,
Fong See, who overcame obstacles at every step to become the 100-year-old
godfather of Los Angeles’s Chinatown and the patriarch of a sprawling family.
While collecting the details for On Gold Mountain, she developed the idea
for her first novel, Flower Net (1997), which was a national bestseller, a New
York Times Notable Book, and on the Los Angeles Times Best Books List for
1997. Flower Net was also nominated for an Edgar award for best first novel. This
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was followed by two more mystery-thrillers, The Interior (2000) and Dragon
Bones (2003), which once again featured the characters of Liu Hulan and David
Stark. This series inspired critics to compare Lisa See to Upton Sinclair, Dashiell
Hammett, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
In addition to writing books, See wrote the libretto for Los Angeles Opera
based on On Gold Mountain, which premiered in June 2000 at the Japan
American Theatre followed by the Irvine Barclay Theatre. She also served as
guest curator for an exhibit on the Chinese-American
experience for the Autry Museum of Western
Heritage, which then traveled to the Smithsonian
Institution in Washington, D.C., in 2001. See then
helped develop and curate the Family Discovery
Gallery at the Autry Museum, an interactive space for
children and their families that focuses on Lisa’s biracial, bi-cultural family as seen through the eyes of her father as a seven-year-old
boy living in 1930s Los Angeles.
See is probably best known for Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, for
which she travelled to a remote area of China—where she was told she was only
the second foreigner ever to visit—to research the secret writing invented, used,
and kept a secret by women for over a thousand years. Amy Tan called the novel
“achingly beautiful, a marvel of imagination.” Others agreed, and foreignlanguage rights for Snow Flower were sold to 38 countries. The novel also
became a New York Times bestseller, a Booksense Number One Pick, and won
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numerous awards domestically and internationally. MGM Studios acquired the
film rights.
Peony in Love (2007), which was an instant New York Times best seller,
takes place in 17th-century China in the Yangzi River delta. It’s based on the true
story of three “lovesick maidens,” who were married to the same man and who
together wrote the first book of its kind to have been
written and published anywhere in the world by women.
Ultimately, Peony in Love is about the bonds of female
friendship, the power of words, the desire that all women
have to be heard, and finally those emotions that are so
strong that they transcend time, place, and perhaps even
death. Foreign rights were sold to 27 countries, Twentieth-century Fox and Scott
Free Productions acquired the film rights, and the SCBA gave the book its award
for Best Novel of 2007.
See’s new novel, Shanghai Girls, once again delves into forgotten history.
Shanghai Girls is about two sisters, Pearl and May, who leave Shanghai in 1937
and go to Los Angeles in arranged marriages. It is a story of immigration, identity,
war, and love, but at its heart, Shanghai Girls is a story of sisters. Pearl and May
are inseparable best friends, who share hopes, dreams, and a deep connection. But
like sisters everywhere, they also harbor petty jealousies and rivalries. Publishers
Weekly calls Shanghai Girls “excellent…an accomplished and absorbing novel,”
while Booklist has written that it’s a “buoyant and lustrous paean to the bonds of
sisterhood.”
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In addition, she designed a walking tour of Los Angeles Chinatown and
wrote the companion guidebook for Angels Walk L.A. to celebrate the opening of
the MTA’s Chinatown metro station. She also curated the inaugural exhibition—a
retrospective of artist Tyrus Wong—for the grand opening of the Chinese
American Museum in Los Angeles. See serves as a Los Angeles City
Commissioner on the El Pueblo de Los Angeles Monument Authority. She was
honored as National Woman of the Year by the Organization of Chinese
American Women in 2001 and was the recipient of the Chinese American
Museum’s History Makers Award in Fall 2003. See lives in Los Angeles
Chinatown now.
Adapted from:
http://www.lisasee.com/Bio.htm
Lisa See’s booklist:
Publication Year
2011
Title
Dreams of Joy
Book Cover
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Publication Year
Title
2009
Shanghai Girls
2007
Peony in Love
2005
Snow Flower and the
Secret Fan
Book Cover
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Publication Year
Title 2003
Dragon Bones
1999
The Interior
1997
Flower Net
Book Cover
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Publication Year
1995
Title
On Gold Mountain
Book Cover
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Appendix C
Pictures of Footbinding
Picture 1 & 2 (Left and Right). The bound foot/feet of a woman.
Note the calloused heel and toes.
Picture 3 (Right). X-ray of a Chinese woman’s feet whose feet had been bound
Picture 4 (Left). A comparison of the bone’s structure between the normal foot and the
bound foot
Picture 5. An unwrapped pair of golden lilies
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Picturre 6. A Chineese woman wiith her feet boound
Picture 7. Pink silk
s slippers w
with length 4 inches
i
and heeight 1½ inchees
8 A whimsicaal black cat sttalks through a silken gardden of butterfllies and
Picture 8.
chrysanthem
mums. Length 2½ inches.
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Picture 9. A woman shows her broken toes.
Picture 10. A comparison between the bound feet and the normal feet.
Picture 11. A comparison between a slipper and a standard cigarette’s box
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Picture 12. An old Chinese woman needs a walking stick to support her.
Picture 13. Some Chinese women with their feet bound
Picture 14. Oprah Winfrey holds the slippers.
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Appendix C. 1.
Sources of Footbinding Pictures
Picture 1 & 2 were taken from
http://heyokamagazine.com/HEYOKA.6.FASHION.Foot-binding.htm
Picture 3 & 4 were taken from
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Foot_binding
Picture 5 & 11 were taken from
http://www.neatorama.com/2010/07/07/the-bygone-practice-of-foot-binding-inchina/
Picture 6 was taken from
http://www.flickr.com/photos/24443965@N08/3462158264/
Picture 7 was taken from
http://lifeandshoes.blogspot.com/2009/04/shoes-can-change-world.html
Picture 8 was taken from
http://library.thinkquest.org/J0111742/footbinding.htm
Picture 9 was taken from
http://world-unique.blogspot.com/2009/03/foot-binding.html
Picture 10 was taken from
http://www.anneofcarversville.com/fp/tag/foot-binding
Picture 12 was taken from
http://www.cuteandweird.com/2009/11/footbinding-photos-chinese-tradition/
Picture 13 was taken from
http://www.life.com/image/73779661
Picture 14 was taken from
http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Stories-Behind-the-Headlines/9
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Appendix D
Pictures of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu)
Picture 1
Picture 2
Picture 3
Picture 4
Picture 1-4. Nu shu on the fans
Picture 5. Nu shu on a wedding jacket
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Picture 6. Nu shu on the paper
Picture 7. Nu shu on the wood
Picture 8. An example of nu shu text and its Chinese transliteration
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Picture 9. Nu shu phonetic symbols
Picture 10. Yang Guanyi, the last surviving original nu shu
writer who passed away in September 2004
Picture 11. Some Chinese women read nu shu together
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Appendix D. 1.
Sources of Women’s Secret Writing (Nu Shu) Pictures
Picture 1, 4, & 5 were taken from
http://wovenletters.blogspot.com/2009/12/nu-shu.html
Picture 2 was taken from
http://digilander.libero.it/scuolaacolori/donne/nushu.htm
Picture 3 was taken from
http://www.colby.edu/news_events/news_article/index.cfm?month=April_2010
Picture 6 was taken from
http://www.lisasee.com/onwriting.htm
Picture 7 was taken from
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ezine/2007-08/29/content_6064177.htm
Picture 8 was taken from
http://www.ancientscripts.com/nushu.html
Picture 9 was taken from
http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue1/nushu2.html
Picture 10 was taken from
http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln270/Nushu-last1.htm
Picture 11 was taken from
http://kaleidoscope.cultural-china.com/en/10K5959K11796.html