Chapter 12
Work Motivation
INP3004/MAN3360
Dr. Steve
Motivation
Performance = Ability x Opportunity x Motivation
• Ability –
• Opportunity –
• Motivation –
What motivates you?
•
•
•
•
•
Money
Praise
Sense of accomplishment
Power
Affiliation
Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
• Behavior is determined by the lowest unmet need
• Spend our lives trying reach Self-Actualization
SA
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Critique
•
•
•
•
•
Self-Actualization is poorly defined (measure?)
Others proposed fewer levels of need
Question whether needs must be met in order
Little if any empirical support
More descriptive of life than theory of motivation
in the workplace
Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory (Adams)
• Equity Theory –
• Inputs –
• Outcomes –
Equity Theory
Self
Other
Comparison
20 / 20
20 / 20
Fair – no inequity
20 / 10
40 / 20
Fair – no inequity
20 / 20
20 / 40
Unfair – underpaid
20 / 40
20 / 20
Unfair – overpaid
Equity Theory
How do you fix inequity? (How does inequity motivate
us?)
• If overpaid hourly rate –
•If overpaid on piecemeal rate –
• If underpaid on hourly rate –
• If underpaid on piecemeal rate –
Equity Theory
Critique
• Some empirical evidence – individuals found to
reduce effort when believed they were underpaid
• Other ways to fix inequity when perceive
underpayment:
• Problems:
Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
• Effort  Performance  Reward  Goals
• Five Part model
1. Job Outcomes (O) –
2. Valence (V)–
•
Example: Promotion = +10, Fired = -10, Transfer = -5
3. Instrumentality (I) –
4. Expectancy (E) –
5. Force (F) –
•
Force = E ( V I)
Expectancy Theory
Example
Outcomes Valence Instrumentality Expectancy Force
Promotion
Raise
Transfer
10
.5
8
.1
-5
.5
0
Force = .5 [(10 x .5) + (8 x .1) + (-5 x 0)] = 2.9
Expectancy Theory
Validation
• Force = 2.9, So What?
• Correlate force score with other measure of effort to
validate theory (e.g., hrs spent on job, peer ratings, etc.).
• Validate
– Between Subjects experiment –
– Within Subjects experiment –
• Results:
Expectancy Theory
Implications
•
Placement vs. Selection
– Theory better predicts what tasks a person is most
motivated to perform than who is most motivated
•
•
•
Placement validities: .5 to .6
Selection validities: .3 to .4
How to make theory work for you (as a Mgr.):
Theories of Motivation
Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
• Based on Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” –
• Skinner suggests not a theory at all, but a
description of the cause of behaviors
– MOTIVATION?
•
•
•
•
SD--- R  Sr+
SD = Discriminative Stimulus – A
R = Response – B
Sr+ = Reinforcing Stimulus – C
Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed Interval –
– Scalloping response pattern
– Example –
• Fixed Ratio –
– Post-reinforcement pauses
– Example –
• Variable Interval –
• Fairly steady responding
– Example –
• Variable Ratio –
– Continuous, rapid responding
Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio
400
Fixed Ratio
300
Variable Interval
Fixed Interval
200
100
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
Time (Minutes)
30
35
40
Reinforcement Theory
Which Schedules Work Best?
• Continuous reinforcement to acquire new skill
• Intermittent reinforcement to maintain skill
– Ratio better than Interval (more rapid responding)
– Variable better than fixed (higher resistance to
extinction)
Theories of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
•
Goal Setting Theory –
• Goals help tell how much effort must be exerted
• Goals are most motivating when they are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Goal Setting Theory
Experimental Results
Percent of possible
performance
100
90
80
70
Do your best
60
Specific hard goal
50
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Blocks of four weeks
From Latham & Baldes (1975), “The Practical Significance of Locke’s Theory of Goal Setting,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, p.123
Job Characteristics Model
Five core job dimensions (Hackman & Oldham)
1. Skill Variety –
2. Task Identity –
3. Task Significance –
4. Autonomy –
5. Feedback –
Job Characteristics Model
Core Job
Dimensions
Critical
Psychological
States
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Experienced
meaningfulness of work
Autonomy
Experienced
responsibility for
outcomes of work
Feedback
Knowledge of actual
results of work activities
Employee Growth Need Strength
Personal and
Work Outcomes
High internal
work motivation
High quality work
performance
High satisfaction
with work
Low absenteeism
and turnover
Job Characteristics Model
Formula to determine motivating potential of job
Motivating
Potential Score =
(MPS)
Skill
Task
Task
+
+
Variety
Identity Significance
3
x Autonomy x Feedback
Comparison of Motivation Theories
Theory
Source of Motivation
Empirical Support
Industrial Applicability
Need Theory
Unconscious, innate needs
Weak: Little support for
proposed relationships among
needs
Very limited: Theory lacks
sufficient specificity to guide
behavior
Equity Theory
Drive to reduce feelings of
tension caused by
perceived inequity
Mixed: Good support for
underpayment inequity, weak
support for overpayment
inequity
Limited: Social comparisons
are made, but feelings of
inequity can be reduced
through means other than
increased motivation
Expectancy
Theory
Relationship among
desired outcomes,
performance-reward, and
effort-performance
variables
Moderate-strong: More
strongly supported in withinsubject (placement) than
between-subject (selection)
experiments
Strong: Theory provides a
rational basis for why people
expend effort, although not all
behavior is as consciously
determined as postulated
Reinforcement
Theory
Schedule of reinforcement
used to reward people for
their performance
Moderate: Ratio reinforcement
schedules evoke superior
performance compared to
interval schedules, but little
difference exists among
various ratio schedules
Moderate: Contingent
payment for performance is
possible in some jobs,
although ethical problems can
be present in an organization’s
attempt to shape employee
behavior
Goal Setting
Theory
Intention to direct behavior
in pursuit of acceptable
goals
Moderate-strong: Performance
under goal-setting conditions
usually superior to conditions
under which no goals are set
Strong: Ability to set goals is
not restricted to certain types
of people or jobs
7 Things Needed to Motivate
Employees
1. Ensure worker’s motives are appropriate for job
2. Make jobs attractive and consistent with worker’s
motives
3. Define clear, challenging goals (goal setting)
4. Provide necessary resources to do job (opportunity)
5. Create social support systems (respectful environment)
6. Use positive reinforcement for good performance
7. Combine previous 6 into one system
Katzell and Thompson