Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN BENIN
Country Information
The Republic of Benin (formerly known as Dahomey) is
located on a thin strip of land extending to the north of
the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. The main ethnic
groups are the Fon (30 percent of the population), Yoruba (12 percent), Adja (11 percent), Bariba (9 percent),
Somba, Yom and Aïzo (9 percent). The Beninese are followers of different traditional African religions (62 percent), Christianity (23 percent) and Islam (12 percent).
Approximately two-thirds of the country's seven million
inhabitants live in rural areas. A little over a third of the
population have access to modern health services. The
maternal mortality rate is 474.4 for 100,000 live births and
the synthetic fertility index is 6.3. Adult women have
lower levels of literacy, education and employment than
men (26 percent of women are literate compared to 49
percent of men). Under the traditional law in force and
according to ancestral traditions, women are victims of
discrimination in matters relating to inheritance, marriage
and divorce, among others.
Prevalence
Estimates differ widely on the prevalence of Female
Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Benin. Nevertheless, the
current rates reported are between 17 and 50 percent of
women. Further, a great regional disparity is observed,
with incidence in the north being higher than in the centre and southeast of the country. FGM, which is virtually
non-existent in the departments of Atlantique and Mono,
is little practised in Ouémé and Plateau, but is common in
Atakora, Donga, Borgou, Alibori and Collines. The main
ethnic groups that practise FGM are the Bariba, Boko,
Nago, Peul, Wama/Birwé, Yom/Tanéka, Lokpa/Sorwé
and Kotocoli.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
The most common kind of FGM practised in Benin is
Type II. The age of mutilation varies enormously from
one ethnic group to another, starting from five to ten
years of age up to adulthood. Wama women and some
Nago women, for example, are not excised ritually until
after having given birth many times. Surveys show that
the incidence of FGM is on a slight decline and that this
practice tends to be discouraged. In one small-scale study
by the Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices
Affecting the Health of Women and Children (IAC), twothirds of those interviewed stated that they wanted the
FGM practices to end, 19 percent had no opinion and 4
percent wanted it to continue. Despite the law prohibiting
FGM in Benin since March 2003, a study carried out by
the GTZ Health project at the end of 2004, Etat des lieux
de l’excision dans l’Atacora Donga (Conditions at the sites of excision in Atacora Donga), not only showed the persistence of
the phenomenon, but also and above all, its great complexity and diversity. Indeed, this is a phenomenon that
manifests itself in various forms, from the secular to institutionalised religious rites.
The main reason given in favour of this practice (as shown by another study carried out by IAC) is respect for local culture or tradition. In contrast to other countries where this practice is also widespread, no direct correlation is observed here between the incidence of
FGM and monotheistic religious groups. An elderly Moslem asked
to comment on this issue replied, “Excision is part of our customs,
but the Koran does not prescribe it as an obligation.” Social pressure
from peers, members of the family and potential husbands seem to be
important reasons explaining the perpetuation of FGM. A young
women remarked, “A woman not excised before marriage has no
value.”
In Atacora and Donga, excision still has social functions
and sociological foundations that are deeply rooted in the
collective and individual conscience of the social groups
that practise it. Excision in the Wama area, for example,
has important therapeutic functions, ranging from simple
ailments to female infertility/ sterility.
FGM is practised as a general rule by traditional excisors, usually women, but in the Wama community, this is
carried out uniquely by men. Indeed, for this Wama
group, excision and circumcision are part of the same institutionalised religious rites.
The role of the excisor is inherited. The excisors receive
money or gifts as payment, but for many of them, this is
only a secondary job, practised in addition to agriculture,
trade and crafts, etc. The operation is usually carried out
in unsterile conditions without anaesthesia. Despite serious risks to health, excision is wrongly regarded in some
communities as having positive medical effects.
Approaches
The government, various non-governmental organisations
and women’s groups are conducting an increasingly active
battle against FGM. Since March 2003, there has been a
law that cracks down on this practice in Benin. It has already entered into force.
Law No. 2003 of March 2003 on FGM
This law provides for jail sentences of six months to three years for
persons practising FGM, as well as fines up to 2 million CFA
francs (US$2,858). When the operation results in the death of victims, the penalty increases to 5-20 years’ imprisonment and fines of
3,000,000–6,000,000 CFA francs (US$4,286 to 8,574. Nonreporting is punished by a fine of 50,000-100,000 CFA francs
(US$72 - 144).
Benin has also ratified most of the international conventions and treaties against discrimination of women and
for child protection. Nevertheless, a certain number of
contradictions remain with regard to traditional law, especially traditional practices that are detrimental to the
health of girls. The international bodies strongly recommend the government to adopt an unequivocal national
policy and to take concrete measures to abolish FGM.
These measures should include education campaigns and
awareness-raising programmes for practitioners and the
public in general in order to bring about a change in attitude and support for ending FGM. The Ministry of Family, Social Protection and Solidarity (MPFSS) already supports information campaigns of the national branches of
NGOs on the health effects of FGM. It is also active on
the field through its Centres of Social Promotion, which
gradually set up sentinel reporting sites. Finally, the Ministry benefits from financial support from the World
Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and UNICEF.
their rights. It should be noted that this is not well known
in the country.
The German NGO (I)NTACT supports the following action groups in their efforts to combat FGM: Association
pour la Protection de l’Enfance Malheureuse (Association
for the Protection of Troubled Children) (APEM) in Borgou, Mouvement régional des initiatives des travailleuses
en zone rurale (Regional Female Workers’ Movement for
Initiatives in Rural Areas) (MORITZ), cultural NGOs of
Wama (TIWINTI) and Peul (POTALMEN) in Atakoa
and Donga, and the NGO Dignité Féminine based in
Cotonou for Kouandé.
GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) has implemented
the Promotion of Initiatives to End Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) project on behalf of the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ). This project supports innovative activities in several East and West African countries, encourages the
creation of cooperation networks and evaluates approaches adopted to deal with FGM. In Benin, it aims at
assisting several projects supported by GTZ in different
fields, including health, microfinance, decentralisation and
agriculture. BMZ has identified rural development as a pilot sector to broach the problem of gender inequality
(Gender Mainstreaming). However, since May 2004, the
Technical Adviser on Reproductive Health and Organisational Development of the GTZ Health project has been
assigned to Natitingou in order to establish an appropriate, broad-ranging, community-based and coordinated
strategy. This project has already set up a Forum with a
functioning consultation framework and carried out a descriptive and analytical study of excision in AtacoraDonga. The component Mainstreaming Plus Health
(HIV/AIDS, FGM, malaria and hygiene-related illness) is
currently being implemented in GTZ's focal area in Benin
(Atacora-Donga).
Consequently, GTZ projects for sector development, the
advancement of women, and combating FGM, as well as
Mainstreaming Plus, are preparing to closely cooperate
and combine their efforts. These aim at creating favourable and sustainable conditions for Beninese women that
enable them to effectively participate in global social development and in changing harmful behaviour in their
lives. In addition, the regional coordination of Natitingou
– the focal area for GTZ's sector projects in Benin – constitutes a framework for action to efficiently implement
integrated global development.
Furthermore, a telephone assistance service has already
been set up to allow young people to express themselves
and to record their complaints concerning violations of
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION
IN BURKINA FASO
Country Information
tween 15 and 49 years of age had undergone FGM. The
practice is found in all religious denominations and in
most ethnic groups. The regions most affected are the
central Mossi plateau where the incidence exceeds 80%,
the west where the Senufo reside, the southwest with the
Lobi and the Dagara, and the east with the Fulani and a
part of the Gurma. However, several Gurunsi and Gurma
subgroups do not practice FGM. The most common type
of FGM is excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora (type II), followed by excision
of the clitoris (type I). Infibulation (type III) is not practised.
The literacy rate for adult women is as low as 9 % nationwide (compared to 30 % for men). One in three girls
between 6 and 10 years of age are enrolled in primary
education; the total rate of primary enrolment is 41 %.
These socio-economic indicators – in the context of a patriarchal society – combined with limited decision-making
power, work overload, and various traditional practices
harming their health and social status, represent an environment little favourable to women.
The operation is performed by traditional practitioners,
usually with an unsterilised knife or razor blade. Although
circumcision was formerly accompanied by initiation rites,
today it has become a family affair without rites, where
the mother organises the operation with the father's consent. The average age at which the mutilation is performed is 6, but may vary from seven days after birth to
18 years. In most cases the practice is justified by cultural
heritage, religious obligation (completely unfounded), and
sometimes by hygienic or medical reasons based on mistaken beliefs. Suppression of female sexuality is the most
important reason, whether mentioned or not. The myths
concerning circumcision are therefore maintained by a
blend of religion, superstitions and prejudices sprung
from ancestral traditions, reinforced by illiteracy and insufficient knowledge of the problems caused by the practice.
Burkina Faso is home to over 11 million people, half of
whom are Mossi. Other ethnic groups include the Mandé,
Peuls, Lobi, and Bobo. The overwhelming majority of the
population is engaged in agriculture. The Gross National
Product per capita is 230 US$. Some 45 % of the people
are Muslim, the remainder are Christians and Animists.
Nearly half of the population is under 15 years old, and
the average life expectancy is estimated at 47 years. The
total fertility rate is 6.9. Less than one in ten women aged
between 15 and 29 years use “modern” methods of contraception.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Prevalence
According to the demographic and health survey (DHS)
conducted in 2003 (Enquête Démographique et de Santé
- EDS), 77% of the women in all of Burkina Faso be-
FGM has been illegal since the adoption of articles 380382 of the Penal Code in 1996. This law took effect immediately, and today there have been close to 200 convictions. The number of anonymous telephone tip-offs is increasing as well.
Recent studies show a trend toward a visible decrease in
the practice in girls of age 0 to 10. Nationally, the prevalence has dropped from 36% in 1996 to 20% in 2003
(EDS-III), and from 36.1% in 2001 to 7.2% in 2005 in
the Yatenga region. Another sign of hope is that young
mothers have fewer circumcised daughters than their
mothers did. Also note that the higher the mothers' level
of education, the lower the percentage of circumcised
daughters.
But enforcement of the law also results in a clandestine
element. In areas near the border, parents take their girls
for circumcision outside of Burkina Faso, to nearby countries where there is no law against FGM (Mali and
Ghana), or where the law is not enforced (Côte d’Ivoire).
FGM still performed is occurring at an earlier age, and
this statistic is on the rise. The damage from FGM and
the consequences can be much more serious in very
young girls. Unfortunately, its prevalence in girls under
age 5 is increasing.
According to the EDS-III, awareness-raising sessions
which stress the medical complications and the absence
of a religious foundation, and the enforcement of the law,
have led 83% of men and 87% of women to say that they
no longer approve of circumcision. But the actual decrease in FGM remains to be determined, as fear of legal
repercussions sometimes leads to false statements by
those surveyed (Population Council, 2005). FGM continues in pockets of resistance such as in the east and
southwest, where certain traditional leaders openly declare
their defiance of the Republic's law, which to them carries
much less weight than their own heritage.
Approaches
The Government of Burkina Faso, together with various
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and women’s
groups, began to address the issue of FGM already in
1985, and took an increasingly affirmative position. In
1990, the National Committee to Fight against FGM
(CNLPE) was created, consisting of 45 members from
ministerial departments, NGOs and associations, religious
and traditional authorities, and resource people.
Pursuing the objectives of the Action Plan 1992-95 (extended to 1997), and that of 1999-2003, the CNLPE engaged in training, lobbying, evaluation, research, and
damage limitation measures, with a particular focus on
awareness-raising. A third program is currently in the
works: "Zero Tolerance to FGM by 2010", a regional initiative of the Inter-African Committee on Harmful Traditional Practices (IAC). In 2006, the CNLPE began a
process of evaluating the strategies applied since its incep-
tion, analysing the impact of activities in the field, and an
organisational and institutional analysis.
The CNLPE, as well as NGOs and various associations,
are raising awareness with the backing of partners, both
technical and financial. Their efforts include group discussions, conferences, interactive theatre, film/debate,
and other media campaigns targeting various groups such
as women, opinion leaders, health workers, teachers,
youth, FGM practitioners, police, lawyers, etc. Another
part of their strategy is repairing FGM complications: 266
cases of such complications were surgically repaired between 1990 and 2004, then 412 cases during 2004 alone
and close to 500 cases in 2005.
Since 2000, the supraregional project entitled "Promotion
of initiatives to end FGM" implemented by the Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), on
behalf of the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation
and Development (BMZ), has relied on the following approaches:
- development of awareness-raising materials and coordination
- integration of modules about FGM with educational
programs at primary and lower secondary levels
- use of young people to raise the awareness of other
young people concerning family planning, sexuality,
and the abandonment of FGM (peer education)
- involvement of religious and traditional leaders and
former FGM practitioners in awareness-raising activities
- theatre and other cultural activities with respected storytellers (griots)
- use of radio and female leaders
- approach by former FGM practitioners and imams
- community education through human rights (the
Senegalese TOSTAN approach).
Since January 2004, the programme of the GermanBurkina Faso cooperation regarding reproductive health,
HIV/AIDS, human rights, and the fight against serious
forms of child labour and trafficking in children (PSV
DHTE), implemented by GTZ in collaboration with
DED and KfW, has been lending its support to initiatives
which promote the abandonment of FGM in two regions
of the country: the east and the southwest.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN CAMEROON
Country Information
The Republic of Cameroon, situated in the Western crook
of Africa, has a populace of almost 15 million, constituting over 200 different ethnic groups, most of which are of
Bantu origin. About half the people are Christian, and
one quarter is Animist and Muslim each. Almost 50% of
the population lives in urban centres, and two thirds have
access to health services. One in ten pregnancies occurs
among teenagers, and the total fertility rate is 5.9. Average
life expectancy lies at 55 years of age. Certain discriminatory cultural attitudes and practices, policies and laws
hamper women’s enjoyment of an equal social status
compared to men. This is expressed for instance in a lower level of literacy (50% of women compared to 75% of
men), severely restricted access to land and credit, and
traditional discriminatory practices, including forced marriage, and female genital mutilation.
Prevalence
In Cameroon female genital mutilation (FGM) is inflicted
on an estimated 20% of the female population, though no
national studies are available. This comparatively low prevalence conceals a great regional disparity: FGM is only
practiced in the southwest and the extreme north of the
country, namely Manyu, Logone, and Chari provinces.
Among the communities affected, religious denomination
plays a role in determining a woman’s circumcision, i.e. all
Muslim women, two thirds of Christian women, but no
Animists are victim of the practice. Of those women circumcised, half undergo Type I, most others experience
Type II, and around 15% suffer infibulation.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Age at circumcision differs from village to village between
three years and the birth of the first baby, but tends to be
practiced on preadolescent girls. An “experienced grandmother” or traditional birth attendant carries out the
practice without anaesthetics. Sometimes, staff in hospitals or health centres undertakes the cutting. Such medicalisation may prevent some immediate health hazards,
but does not preclude the long-term ones, and continues
to seriously undermine women’s human rights. Few people appear to be aware of the problems of FGM.
On the contrary, even though its serious health risks are
well established, some communities perform FGM in the
belief that it prevents certain diseases or infertility.
Though, the most common reason proposed for the continuation of the practice is respect for tradition. Implicit
at the basis of this custom appears to be a particular conception of women’s sexuality, and the idea that circumcision secures her virginity and fidelity, as well as sexual satisfaction for the man.
“The practice of female circumcision is only to the benefit of the
man”, opines a middle-aged woman in a national study (IAC
1997).
Often, where the majority of women is circumcised, social sanctions pressure individuals to perpetuate the practice. Moreover, material considerations play a role, since
circumcisers are remunerated in money or kind for their
activity, and the circumcised girl receives gifts.
Notwithstanding, a good proportion of younger women
expresses the wish to discontinue FGM, because they either do not identify with the justifications for it or may
know of the risks involved.
Approaches
The Government of Cameroon has been active in the efforts against FGM since the mid-1980s, and adopted the
National Action Plan against FGM in 1999. It is signatory
to most relevant international treaties and conventions on
the rights of women and children. While the Penal Code
does not criminalize the practice, the Constitution recognises and protects “traditional values that conform to
democratic principles, human rights and the law”. Neither
prosecutions have been recorded with regard to FGM,
nor has the government-created National Human Rights
Commission addressed practices discriminatory to girls
and women, yet.
Nicolas Holazi, Delegate for Social Affairs and Women:
“Our objective is not to deny our customs that shape our way of life
and thinking, but to sort out those which are positive for the individual and society.”
However, the Ministry of Women’s Affairs runs education and outreach programmes on FGM. Cameroon also
benefits from the WHO / UNICEF / UNFPA Regional
Plan to Accelerate Elimination of FGM, which was launched in Yaoundé in 1997 with a public "Fight FGM
Week". The plan takes a three-prong approach:
1. Educating the public and law-makers on the need to
eliminate FGM;
2. tackling the practice as a violation of women’s human
rights as well as health;
3. encouraging the development and implementation of
a national, culturally-specific plan to overcome FGM.
The national chapter of the Inter-African Committee on
Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and
Children (IAC), a non-governmental organisation estab-
lished in 1992, is member of the umbrella organisation
based in Ethiopia. It pursues among others the following
activities in an effort to end FGM:
- Sensitisation campaigns
- Capacity-building of media staff, and of traditional
birth attendants
- Development and implementation of relevant innovative measures
- Networking with other NGOs
The supra-regional project ‘Promotion of initiatives to
end FGM’ of the German Technical Co-operation (GTZ)
is commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Economic
Co-operation and Development (BMZ). The project
promotes innovative activities in various East and West
African countries, strengthens networking, and evaluates
approaches in this regard. In Cameroon, it supported select activities of the national chapter of the IAC with a
view to devising IEC- (information, education, communication) material for the mobilisation and sensitisation of
community change agents, and to organising seminars for
awareness raising in areas where FGM is practiced.
Community change agents may include those members of
a given community, who play a role in the decisionmaking process with regard to the practice of FGM, i.e.
parents, health and pedagogical personnel, religious and
political authorities, and young people. The project also
lobbies among governmental and non-governmental institutions in an effort to strengthen an administration and
judiciary conducive to ending FGM.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN CHAD
Country Information
Located in Central/Sahelian Africa, Chad’s history since
independence has been characterised by conflict and civil
war, and extreme poverty. The major ethnic groups constituting the predominantly rural population of 7.5 million
include the Sara (28% of the people), Sudan-Arabs (12%),
and Mayo-Kebbi (12%). Approximately half of the populace is Muslim, one third is Christian, and a tenth is Animist. Cultural traditions, underpinned by legislative and
judicial practice, tend to keep women in a social status
subordinate to that of men. This is reflected in limited
educational and training opportunities for girls, an extremely low adult female literacy rate (10% vs. 40%
among men), and few formal sector jobs for women.
Early and forced marriages in exchange for a dowry are
common, and the husband usually has strict authority
over his wife/ wives. One in five pregnancies occurs in
teenage girls, and the average birth rate is 6.6, average life
expectancy is about 47 years of age.
Prevalence
In Chad female genital mutilation (FGM) is inflicted upon
around 45% of all females, and is especially prevalent
among ethnic groups in the east and the south, namely
the five provinces Moyen-Chari, Logone Oriental, ChariBaguirmi, Guéra, and Ouaddai. The practice cuts across
all religious denominations. All three types of FGM occur, but mostly excision of the prepuce and the clitoris,
Type I. The least common but most invasive procedure,
infibulation, is confined largely to the region on the eastern border with Sudan.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
- Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or the
-
entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include death,
haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition, women can
suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and sexual health,
risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Usually an elderly, female circumciser carries out the practice, under non-sterile conditions, without anaesthetics. In
return, she receives gifts and cash of up to FCFA 10,000
(US$ 14).
To an increasing extent, nurses in health centres undertake the cutting. Such medicalisation may prevent the
immediate health hazards, but does not preclude the longterm ones, and continues to seriously undermine women’s
human rights.
FGM is typically performed as integral part of a rite of
passage to adulthood, when the girl is between eight and
fourteen years of age, but seldom as young as two or as
old as twenty years. The female initiation ceremony lasts
three to four weeks, during which valued character traits
are inculcated. These include bravery, endurance, respect
for the future husband and in-laws, and housekeeping.
Genital cutting tends to form the principal part of the series of rites performed. Even though few people know of
the origin of or justification for the practice, most adhere
to it in respect of an ancestral custom. In addition, the
threat of serious social ostracism pressures women to
perpetuate it: Uninitiated women are considered uneducated, unreliable and immature, and receive little respect
from the community.
Alongside tradition, religion plays a decisive role in the
perpetuation of FGM. In the central eastern provinces,
most Muslim religious authorities preach that female circumcision constitutes a religious obligation apparently
outlined in the Koran. In contrast, many Protestant
priests in the south have been actively propagating against
FGM. Generally – and especially among women and
Muslims – the wish to continue with the practice is currently still strong. The different perceptions of and reactions to FGM bear connotations for approaches to end it.
Approaches
The Government of Chad is signatory to most relevant
international treaties and conventions on the rights of
women and children. Markedly, it has not ratified the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
which explicitly calls on state parties to “take all appropriate measures to eliminate harmful social and cultural practices affecting the welfare, dignity, normal growth and development of the child”.
In 2003, a law against FGM was enacted.
Declaration of N’Djamena on FGM
- A network of parliamentarians, representatives of NGOs, and reli-
-
gious and traditional leaders avowed in a declaration on FGM in November 1999 to lobby for the development of a National Action Plan
for the Elimination of FGM, in an effort to
Promote reproductive health (RH)
Overcome FGM
Provide education for girls in rural areas
Introduce modules on RH and harmful traditional practices (HTPs)
into schools
Include circumcisers in the efforts to overcome FGM.
The National Committee to Fight Traditional Practices
Harmful to the Health of Women and Children/InterAfrican Committee (CONA/CI-AF), created in 1988, is a
member of the umbrella organisation based in Ethiopia.
With regard to FGM, it proposes to engage in:
- Community sensitisation,
- Lobbying among public key players,
- Training of health and pedagogical personnel,
- Relevant research.
One of its primary approaches is the conception and
holding of alternative rites of passage without cutting,
which have been successful in Kenya. These initiation
rites would retain crucial components of traditional wisdom and the community code of conduct. They would
additionally take on board training on the body, reproductive health, personal hygiene, gender roles, empathy and
self-esteem. Crucially, they would instead do away with
the genital cutting.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN ETHIOPIA
Country Information
The approximately 60 million inhabitants of the Federal
Republic of Ethiopia come from one of around eighty
different ethnic groups, the major ones of which are the
Amhara (38 %), Oromo (35 %), Tigrinya (9 %.) The majority of the population is Orthodox Christian, one third
is Muslim, and some are Animist. Urbanisation is comparatively low at 16 %, but rapidly increasing. Average life
expectancy is currently 42 years. For girls the mean age at
marriage is 17 years; the total fertility rate is 5.9. A quarter
of adult women are literate compared with 45 % of men.
The lack of land rights for women, discriminatory legislation, the gender-gap in work, access to education and
health, as well as the threat of harmful traditional practices (HTPs) such as female genital mutilation (FGM) are
an expression of women’s perceived inferiority, a belief
widely held in Ethiopia.
Prevalence
80 % of girls and women nationwide are circumcised, according to the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey
(DHS) 2000. The practice is almost universal in the regions of Somali, Affar, Dire Dawa and Harari. More than
three quarters of the female population have been cut
among 23 ethnic groups. In contrast, FGM is not practised among 24 other ethnic groups in the South. Despite
a decrease for instance in Tigray, the overall prevalence of
FGM remains unchanged nationwide, due to an increasing occurrence among certain ethnic groups. Neither rural
or urban origin nor the level of education have much influence on the incidence of the practice. However, the
wish to discontinue the practice is more explicit among
younger, urban and formally educated people.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris and/or
labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include death,
haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition, women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and sexual health, risk
HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Half of all circumcised women in Ethiopia have their
clitoral hood cut (see the WHO classification.) In the remaining cases, the clitoris and/or the labia minora are cut.
Infibulation is limited to five ethnic groups but appears to
be decreasing in favour of less severe types of FGM. Today, among the Somali, 90 % of all circumcised women
are infibulated, among the Affar 63 %, among the Berfa
10 %, among the Harari 5 %, and among the Oromo 1 %.
In half the cases, for instance in Tigray, Affar and Amhara, girls are circumcised in their first year of life, in Somali, between ages six and eight, and among some ethnic
groups just prior to marriage.
Female genital mutilation is variously justified as controlling women’s sexual appetite and unstable emotions, for
hygienic or aesthetic reasons or out of respect for tradition or putative religious requirements, despite the fact
that a growing number of religious leaders condemn
FGM. It is often perpetuated to avoid girls or their families being ostracised or suffering from social stigma.
The cutting is usually carried out by traditional female circumcisers in private under unhygienic conditions and
without pain relief. Rarely do trained health professionals
undertake the procedure. We repudiate this so-called
“medicalisation” of FGM in line with the position
adopted by the World Health Organisation (WHO). A
medical procedure does not preclude long-term health
problems and continues to represent a violation of
women and girls’ human rights. Popular awareness of the
physical, psychological and human rights consequences of
the practice is low, particularly in those areas with the
highest incidence of FGM.
Approaches
The Government of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia is
signatory to various international conventions on the
elimination of discrimination against women and children.
Its constitution provides for the fundamental rights and
liberties of the people, and explicitly of women.
The population and health policies as well as the national
policy on Ethiopian women underpin these rights. They
aim to raise the social and economic status of women, inter alia by eliminating all legal and customary practices,
such as FGM, which hinder women’s equal participation
in society and undermine their social status. In 2004, the
Ethiopian Government enacted a law against FGM.
German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), as commissioned
by the Federal German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), supports the Ethiopian
government in its efforts to eradicate female genital mutilation.
National Constitution, Art. 4:
“Women have the right to protection by the state from harmful customs. Laws and practices that oppress them and cause bodily or
mental harm to them are prohibited.”
The National Committee on Traditional Practices of
Ethiopia (NCTPE) is composed of twenty representatives
from governmental, non-governmental and United Nations organisations, backed by a large network of volunteers. The National Committee was established in 1987 to
help overcome traditional practices harmful to women’s
and children’s health, while promoting those with a positive effect on society. On the one hand, it disseminates information on the hazards of HTPs, and on the other sensitises decision-makers as to the need to eradicate HTPs.
Particular emphasis is placed on media and poster campaigns as well as education measures for youth in schools,
health centres and the wider community. The NCTPE is
a member of the Inter-African Committee (IAC) on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and
Children.
The NGO HUNDEE helps the poor, especially women
and girls. The organisation has a “bottom-up” approach
derived from local realities. Since 1998, HUNDEE has
been committed to promoting women’s equal rights and
empowerment as well as combating HTPs.
Taking the findings of a national study as a starting point,
Kembatta Women’s Self-Help Center-Ethopia (KMG,
Kembatta Menti Gezzima) works to eradicate HTPs such
as FGM or the widespread phenomenon of forced marriages through elopement and rape.
Within the context of community education and programmes in schools, the organisation has achieved the
first promising attitude changes amongst community
members.
Further activities forming part of efforts to end FGM include:
- Joint Action against FGM in Ethiopia Project
(JAAFEP) works in conjunction with local newspapers and radio stations. Articles appear and radio
items are broadcast at regular intervals.
- A newsletter is produced four times a year for partner
organisations and public relations work.
- IEC-Materials (information, education, communication) as well as roadshows and puppet theatre are used
to spread information about FGM, other HTPs as
well as HIV/AIDS. The primary target group is young
people.
- Workshops for various target groups promote communication and networks, recruit participants
committed to combating FGM and improve the
quality of work undertaken.
- Female community volunteers are trained in the areas
of FGM, family planning, HIV/AIDs etc.
- Journalists and medical personnel exchange ideas and
materials in order to lead public debate on themes
such as women’s rights, violence against women and
girls and general health risks.
- Community meetings discuss whether binding agreements regarding FGM are being respected.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN GUINEA
Country Information
The West African Republic of Guinea is home to 7,4 million people. The predominant ethnic groups in Guinea are
the Fulbe/Peulh (41 %), Malinke (26 %), Soussou (11 %),
Kissi, Guerze and others (8 %). Almost half of the population is under 15 years of age. Life expectancy is 45 years.
One third of the population has access to health services
and almost half has access to safe water. On average, a
woman will have 5,5 children. Every year, 16 % of women
aged 15 to 19 have a live birth. The use of any contraceptive method among women 15 to 49 years of age is only
2 %, while only 1 % use modern methods. The median age
of girls at first marriage is 16.
In terms of education, the estimated adult illiteracy rate is
73 % among women compared to 45 % among men. Girls'
primary school enrolment is 33 % versus 62 % among
boys. The Gross National Product per capita is 550 US$.
The share of women in the adult labour force is 47 %.
Prevalence
Every year an estimated 3 million girls are subjected to female genital mutilation (FGM), primarily in 28 African
countries, amounting to an estimated 130 million cut
women and girls worldwide. FGM comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the female external genitalia and/or injury to the female genital organs
for cultural or any other non-therapeutic reasons.
FGM is practised throughout Guinea with only slight differences according to ethnic groups or region. Preliminary
results of the November 1999 Demographic and Health
Survey (DHS) indicate a prevalence of 98,6 % among
women 15 to 49 years of age.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
In Guinea, the most widespread form of FGM is Type II,
followed by Type I (mostly with total removal of the clitoris) and IV. Type III is rarely mentioned (only in Moyenne
Guinée). However, there are indications of a decline in the
practice of FGM. According to a survey conducted in 1997
in Haute Guinée and Moyenne Guinée, the probability of
girls and women having undergone FGM declined from
100 % to 86 % between 1984 and 1999.
The employment of health professionals to undertake the
operation is particularly widespread in urban areas (20 %)
and the capital Conakry (24 %). Awareness-raising campaigns have emphasised the health risks of these practices.
As a result, a growing tendency towards the medicalisation
of FGM is observed, especially in urban areas. However,
this does not reduce the risk of long-term damage or
change the fact that it amounts to a violation of human
rights.
The age at which girls undergo FGM ranges from several
months to 18 years, with an average age of 9 to 10 years.
The main reason for practising FGM is the conviction of
parents and society that it is part of a girl's rite of passage,
enabling her to learn how to behave properly and become
pure. Religion and custom are used to support arguments
in favour of the practice being continued.
Many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have
strongly criticised and campaigned against FGM for several years. Among younger women and men, there is a
growing awareness regarding the health-related disadvantages of the practice for women. FGM remains a highly
controversial issue in both the religious and political arenas.
Approaches
The Guinean government has ratified various international
conventions, such as the children's rights and women's
conventions and the civil and political rights covenant.
More importantly, article 265 of the 1965 constitution
clearly forbids the mutilation of the genital organs of both
men and women, and the crime is punishable by life imprisonment. To date, however, no one has been indicted
for this crime.
In 1989, a governmental declaration, referring to the Constitution's guarantee of the right to physical integrity, condemned harmful traditional practices, including FGM. A
law adopting the promotion of reproductive health was
passed in 2000. Article 6 protects women and men from
torture and all cruel treatment affecting the body, and especially the reproductive organs.
In collaboration with the WHO, the government has initiated a twenty-year strategy to eliminate FGM. This strategy,
planned for the years 1996-2015, has been implemented
and will be evaluated in 2003.
A 2001-2010 national action plan to campaign against
FGM has now been developed in co-ordination with the
Ministry for Social Affairs, development agencies and national NGOs. During a visit by a delegation of the National
Committee against FGM (CNLPE) from Burkina Faso in
1999, the President himself declared the necessity of proceeding step by step, advising NGOs and other actors to
engage in activities in order to obtain national mobilisation.
There is currently no national structure co-ordinating
FGM-related activities in the country. A large number of
NGOs and other organisations pursue different kinds of
strategies and activities. However, forums are organised for
partners to share their experiences. The NGO "Cellule de
coordination sur les pratiques traditionnelles affectant la
santé des femmes et des enfants (CPTAFE)", founded in
1984, was officially acknowledged by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Decentralisation in 1989, following the 1989
declaration mentioned above.
CPTAFE is the only institution that is represented in the
different geographical parts of Guinea through four different regional branches and over 30 sub-sections.
The German Technical Co-operation (GTZ), commissioned by the Federal German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has been supporting
several organisations campaigning against FGM since May
2000 through a sector project entitled “Promotion of initiatives to end Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)”. The project supports local NGOs situated in Conakry, Labé, Faranah, Kissidougou and Guéckédou comprising groups addressing health education, women’s groups concerned with
women's rights and their reproductive health, as well as
theatre groups. These NGOs operate through a network
and are supervised by a co-ordinating team. An approach
based on listening and dialogue developed together with
the beneficiaries has led to promising results. Dialogues between generations and between the sexes, which have
taken place in Conakry, Labé and Faranah should be
understood in this context.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN KENYA
Country Information
The East African country of Kenya is home to almost 30
million people from more than 30 different ethnic groups,
including the Kikuyu (21 % of the population), Luhya
(14 %), Luo (13 %), Kamba (11 %), and Kalenjin (11 %).
Nearly half of the population is under 15 years of age.
Life expectancy is low at 48 years. More than three quarters of the population have access to health services, and
about half have access to safe water. Three quarters of the
people aged over 15 years are literate. Girls’ primary
school enrolment is as low as 13 % in the North Eastern
Province, compared to 90 % in the Central and Western
provinces. The Gross National Product per capita is 320
US$. The female share in wage employment is approximately one third. The total fertility rate lies at 4.9; every
tenth woman aged between 15 and 19 years has a live
birth. One third of the women aged 15 to 29 uses some
method of contraception, 32 % use ’modern’ types.
Prevalence
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is practised in more
than three quarters of the country, it varies widely across
ethnic groups. It is nearly universal among Somali (97%),
Kisii (96%), Kuria (96%) and Maasai (93%) women and it
is also common among Kalenjin (48%), Embu (44%) and
Meru (42%). Levels are lower among Kikuyu (34%) and
Kamba (27%). FGM is almost nonexisting among Luhya
and Luo women (each less than 1%). The type of circumcision varies by the ethnic groups (e.g. Type III for the
Somali women; Type II Maasai, Kalenjin, Meru, Kuria;
Type I Kisii). There has been a notable reduction since
1998 in the proportion of Kalenjin, Kikuyu and Kamba
women who reported being circumcised.
Surveys, which were carried out with a large sample size
from the Ministry of Health and the German Technical
Co-operation (GTZ) 2004 in three districts found the following prevalence rates among women: Kajiado (Masaai
77%), Tharaka (Meru 48%) and Kuria (Kuria 78%).
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
According to the 2003 Kenyan Demographic Health Survey (KDHS), nation-wide 32 % of women between 15
and 49 years are circumcised. This means a decline from
38 in 1998 KDHS to 32 % in 2003. The proportion of
women circumcised increases with age, from 20 % of
women age 15-19 to 48 % of those age 45-49. This implies a steep decline by about half in the practice of FGM
over the last two decades. A higher proportion of rural
women (36%) than urban women (21%) have been circumcised. North Eastern Province, which was included in
the 2003 KDHS, has the largest proportion of women
circumcised (99%).
The average age at circumcision for girls between 15-19 is
13 years and for the women age 19-49 15 years. But in all
districts a reduced age at circumcision is reported. Contributing factors are: poverty causes a need to marry off
girls at an early age to get bride wealth, rise in teenage
pregnancy, fear of parents that their daughters might get
enlightened about their rights and refuse circumcision.
Moreover less severe forms of FGM are practised: 62 %
of circumcised women over age 50 had Type II FGM,
while only 39 % of the 15-19 age group underwent the
same type (most of the remainder underwent Type I).
There is a strong relation between education level and circumcision status. 58% of women with no education report that they are circumcised, compared with only 21%
of those with at least some secondary education.
Custom and traditional demands, better marriage prospects of women, limit of woman sexual desire and rite of
passage into womanhood tend to be common reasons for
the continuation of the practice.
FGM is predominantly performed by traditional circumcisers, typically with own razor or with a knife. In Kajiado
and Kuria there is a trend that trained nurses are performing nowadays FGM. 11 % of the girls age 15-19 report to
be circumcised by a trained nurse under hygienic conditions.
Another survey found that 71% girls aged 4-17years in
Kisii cut by nurse or doctor. Also the 1998 KDHS shows
that 27 % of FGM practitioners today are trained health
staff in government or private hospitals.
Although this trend might reduce the immediate pain or
risk of infection, it does not prevent long-term complications or psychological trauma. FGM must be treated as a
danger to women’s health as well as a violation of human
rights; hence, the medicalisation of the practice is not acceptable.
Approaches
The Kenyan government ratified the various international
conventions on the rights of women and children. The
Kenyan Government adopted the recommendations of
the fourth Conference of Women held in Beijing (1995),
which cited FGM as both threat to women’s reproductive
health and to their violation to their human rights. Kenya
is also a signatory to the Convention of the Rights of the
Child (1990), the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1996) and of the Protocol on the Rights
of The Women in Africa, “Maputo Protocol” (2003).
The Kenyan Constitution provides for the fundamental
rights and freedoms of all citizens. In November 1999,
the Ministry of Health launched the National Plan of Action for the Elimination of FGM in order to reduce of
proportion of girls, women and families that will be affected over the next twenty years. In 2001 the Children’s
Act was enacted, which describes girls who are likely to
be forced into circumcision as children in need of special
care and protection. The act further provides for courts
to take action against the perpetrators.
Strategies of National Plan of Action for the Elimination of FGM
- Establish national and district mechanisms for the co-ordination
of FGM programmes;
- Establish multi-sectoral collaboration to ensure relevant intervention in key development programmes;
- Map and co-ordinate new and ongoing FGM interventions;
- Invest in human resource and organisational capacity-building;
- Establish pro-active mechanisms for resource mobilisation for
FGM elimination programmes.
The start of activities to eliminate FGM in Kenya was by
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as
Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organisation (MYWO). Together with the Programme for Appropriate Technology
in Health (PATH), MYWO developed a comprehensive
program to end FGM. This program involved baseline
studies, awareness raising in the communities, advocacy
for church, training of women peer educators and senitisations in schools. In 1996 the two organizations started
“Alternative Rite of Passage Ceremonies” in order to
keep cultural practices intact, but without the “cut”, and
to provide social support for girls and families who were
against FGM. This involves a one-week training for girls
on the body, reproductive health, personal hygiene, gender roles, empathy and self-esteem, as well as ‘traditional‘
wisdom and the community code of conduct. A celebration for the graduating girls and a gift concluded the programme.
Since June 2000, the Kenyan Ministry of Health has been
supported by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation (BMZ) through the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) in a project to eliminate FGM. GTZ
was chosen to implement the “Plan of Action for the
Elimination of FGM”. The Anti-FGM component is now
integrated as part of the GTZ Reproductive Health and
Health Financing Program. The Anti-FGM objectives are
as follows:
-
to increase in the communities the knowledge of the
harmfulness of FGM (its medical and social
consequences) and as a violation of human rights,
to change the attitude of community members and to
implement an accepted alternative practice against
FGM,
to identify and support innovative approache and
to work through district representatives of relevant
ministries and the civil societies to integrate as part of
the development plans.
The component is being implemented in five sites that
include Trans Mara, Kajiado, Tharaka, Kuria districts and
among the Somali community in Dadaab Refugee camp.
In three districts (Kajiado, Tharaka, Dadaab) GTZ District-Coordinators are involved, who come from the same
ethnic group as the targeted people. They are attached to
the District Health Management Teams (DHMT). In two
districts (Transmara, Kuria) the DHMT carries out antiFGM activities. A Kenyan GTZ Coordinator supports
and monitors the activities in each district site. The
strategies used include community mobilization, advocacy, generation dialogues, alternative rites of passage
(ARP), promotion of girl child education and collaboration/networking.
Among the achievements reached in the past five years,
the following are noteworthy:
-
The taboo to discuss FGM has been broken;
Knowledge of harmfulness of FGM has increased;
Change in attitudes to promote girl child education
and to implement an alternative rite of passage within
the community;
Less severe forms of FGM are practiced;
The strategy Alternative Rite of Passage has born fruit
among a group of girls;
Representatives of communities declared in public
that they will support activities to end FGM;
Establishment of stakeholder forums at district level;
Support of the Ministry of Health to initiate the Interministerial Committee, which is being coordinated by
the ministry of Gender;
The dissemination of research findings at national and
international forums.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN MALI
Country Information
Mali lies in the heart of West Africa. One quarter of the
country is part of the Sahara Desert. Some 10 % of the
country's 10 million inhabitant are nomads, 80 % are
farmers. Roughly one in three Malians has access to
health services and safe drinking water. The country's
largest ethnic groups are the Bambara (32 % of the total),
Fulbe (14 %), Senufo (12 %), Soninké (9 %) and Tuareg
(7 %). The overwhelming majority of the population is
Muslim. Almost half of the total population is less than
15 years old. Average life expectancy at birth is 49. The
fertility rate is 7.4 %. Seven percent of women aged between 15 and 49 use contraceptives. On average, girls
marry at the age of 16. One third of the adult population
of Mali, and only 23 % of all women are able to read and
write. Women account for 15 % of the total number of
gainfully employed individuals.
Prevalence
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is the term used to define all surgical interventions which remove all or part of
the external genitals of a girl or woman, or which cause
injury to the internal genitals, with no medical justification. In Mali, 92 % of all women between the ages of 15
and 49 have been subjected to FGM, irrespective of their
regional, ethnic or religious affiliations. The rates of FGM
are significantly lower only among the Sonrai, the
Tamachek and the Bozo. In half of all cases the clitoris is
removed (Type I, see WHO classification); the other 50
% of women also sustain removal of the labia (Type II).
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Depending on the ethnic background girls are subjected
to FGM at different ages, from an age of only a few days
to the age of 20 years. The age at which the mutilation is
performed also depends on the importance attached to
the practice. Among the Yélimanté and the Dyala-Khasso
in the Kayes region, for instance, girls are subjected to
FGM at the onset of puberty, so that they are initiated to
adulthood and can be handed over to their husbands.
FGM is practised to preserve cultural traditions, comply
with what is thought to be a religious requirement and to
control female sexuality. In areas in which almost all
women have been mutilated, societal sanctions exert a
pressure on individuals to continue the practice.
Formerly a decision was taken by the religious authorities,
the village and family elders as well as the grandmothers,
whether or not a girl was to be circumcised. Today the
decision is more an individual one, and is largely in the
hands of women. The circumcisers generally belong to
the caste of the blacksmiths; some are midwives. Recently
an increasing number of parents, particularly in the towns
have been turning to medical personnel. While this socalled "medicalisation" might go some way to reducing
health risks in the short term, the long-term damage and
the human rights violation represented by FGM remain.
Unfortunately, only one in three employees in the health
system are aware of the risks involved in FGM. In an
open letter, medical staff were officially banned from
conducting FGM in 1999. Outside health stations, however, female genital mutilation is still performed by medical personnel.
Eight of every ten women stated that they were in favour
of continuing FGM – mostly out of respect for tradition.
There is little difference in the opinions of younger and
older women. Although, in contrast to less educated
mothers in rural areas, mothers in towns stated that they
were in favour of abandoning the practice, 80 % of them
had already had their eldest daughter circumcised or were
about to do so. In other words, critical attitudes do not
equate with overcoming the practice.
Approaches
The Government of Mali picked up on the topic of FGM
as far back as the nineteen sixties, and since the 1980s it
has been tackling the practice with increasing fervour. In
1997, the National Committee to Overcome Harmful
Traditional Practices was established, bringing together
the Ministry of Health, the Ministry for the Promotion of
Women, Child & Family Affairs and several NGOs. The
committee has developed a national action plan to fight
FGM (1998 – 2005), which aims to reduce the nationwide
prevalence of FGM to 40 %. It took as its entry points
the alleged link between religion and FGM, the dilemma
faced by women with regard to FGM, the lack of cooperation between NGOs and women's groups, and strategies to convince circumcisers to abandon their profession.
In 1999 the National Committee to Overcome Harmful
Traditional Practices was replaced by the National Programme against Excision. The national programme coordinates activities at strategic and political level and in 2005
hosted the meeting of the Inter-Africa Committee on
Traditional Practices (IAC). It networks political and religious decision-makers and NGOs through awareness
campaigns and regular network meetings.
Mali has signed most relevant international agreements
and conventions on the rights of women and children. In
2005 it ratified the Maputo Protocol on the Rights of
Women in Africa. Currently legislation is being drafted
which will make FGM a punishable offence as it already is
in other African states. In 2002 the Ministry for the Promotion of Women, Child & Family Affairs and the Ministry of Health submitted a pertinent legislative text. Although there is no link between Islam and female genital
mutilation, religious leaders torpedoed the anti-FGM legislation in parliament at that time. Since 2002 members of
parliament and the Islamic authorities have been informed increasingly about the harmful consequences of
the practice, and the chances of having a new law on
FGM adopted are increasing.
Currently, around thirty women's groups and NGOs are
working to put a stop to female genital mutilation. While
originally many addressed the circumcisers themselves,
they are now pursuing several different approaches. One
of the pioneers in Mali is the Centre Djoliba, a documentation and training centre, which has been in existence
since 1964. It conducts awareness campaigns and studies
and runs a database with publications on FGM. The Centre Djoliba also offers seminars/ further training courses
for the staff of municipal authorities and the health services along with the appropriate didactic materials. Finally, it coordinates a network of NGOs working to
eliminate female genital mutilation.
The GTZ's supraregional project "Promotion of Initiatives to End Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)" supported various NGOs in the Fifth Region around Mopti
and in Bamako between 2000 and 2003. Since April 2003,
anti-FGM activities have been integrated into a GTZ
primary education project, which has been working in
schools in the Fifth Region since 1994.
The measures in Mali aim to make FGM a topic addressed by education inside and outside the school system. The target group comprises school pupils in grades
five and six, and secondary level pupils, as well as the
people living in the environs of the schools. In cooperation with the Ministry of Education, the topics
HIV/AIDS and FGM will be incorporated into the
school curriculum. Teachers, educational advisers, head
teachers and representatives of women's and youth organisations will be given basic and further training in
terms of the subject matter itself and the didactic approaches to follow, and teachers' guidelines will be produced.
The debate about female genital mutilation is to be extended to embrace a broader section of the population, by
initiating an exchange of ideas and experience about family life, tradition and change outside schools, parallel to
the school-based activities. An inter-generational dialogue
and discussion groups will help involve the local community in education and awareness work on FGM. Local authorities and women's and youth groups will play an important part in this.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN MAURITANIA
Country Information
Mauritania, situated between the Maghreb and subSaharan Africa, is home to 2.7 million, Moors, Wolof,
Fulbe and Soninké, most of whom live from herding and
agriculture. Activities in the mining, fishing and services
sectors are other important sources of income. The average annual income is around USD 380 per capita, and
about half the population (47.6 % in 2004) have to survive on less than one dollar a day.
Economic growth is running at a rate of 6.2 %. 32.5 % of
the population is unemployed, and two-thirds of the
ranks of the unemployed are female. 99 % of the population is Muslim. Islam shapes everyday life. Mauritania is
going through a process of social change: nomadic lifestyles are increasingly giving way to a sedentary existence,
with more and more people settling in large towns. Currently, the birth rate is 2.6 % and the average life expectancy at birth is 52 years. Maternal mortality (747 of
100,000 live births) and infant mortality (123 per 100,000
live births) are both relatively high. Gross primary enrolment is 76.7 % (2004-2005) and girls are catching up at an
astonishing rate. About 30 % of women can read, while
the figure for men is 50 %. Mahadras (traditional Islamic
schools) play an important part in Mauritanian society.
Women's lives are determined by the socioeconomic context. They have limited scope for making decisions, this
being limited mainly to the domestic sphere. Their workload and the traditional gender roles have a marked influence on both the social status of women and their health.
Prevalence
Every year about 3 million girls are subjected to female
genital mutilation practices, most of them in 28 African
states. It is estimated that 130 million women and girls
worldwide have been victims of FGM. Female genital
mutilation covers all forms of surgery involving the partial
or complete removal of the external genitals of a girl or
woman and/or the cutting of the genitals practised for
cultural or other non-medical reasons.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
According to the results of the demographic and health
census (EDSM, Mauritanie 2000-2001), FGM is widespread, affecting 71 % of the country's women and girls.
The prevalence varies depending on ethnic background. It
affects 92 % of Soninké women, 72% of Fulbe women,
71% of Moorish women and 28 % of Wolof women.
Types I and II are practised in Mauritania. Infibulation
(Type III) is unknown.
In rural areas, FGM is more widespread than in the
towns. In the north of the country, according to the
EDSM census, mutilation is symbolic.
Most often, girls are subjected to FGM at the age of eight
days, but sometimes mutilation is practised on girls aged
between two and six years. Cases are also known where
women have been mutilated immediately prior to the
birth of their first child, in the belief that this will make
childbirth easier.
FGM is practised by traditional midwives, without anaesthetic and in conditions which are far from hygienic.
These activities give the midwives a high level of prestige
within society and provide them with a guaranteed regular
income. According to the EDSM census, women suffer
complications in 53 % of cases.
crétariat d’Etat à la Condition féminine (Secretariat of
State for Women's Affairs - SECF) to organise seminars
and training workshops for different target groups and
round tables with the Islamic authorities.
To justify this practice various reasons are advanced (tradition, myths, ancestral practices, presumed religious obligations and medical necessity). According to women and
men questioned during the EDSM, FGM has three advantages: the social acceptance it confers, curbing
women's sexual desire and satisfying religious requirements. 60% of men and 57% of women think, erroneously, that female genital mutilation is required by religion, but 70% of men and 64% of women would be prepared to abandon the practice.
In December 2005, a law was passed according legal protection to children, which stipulates that sanctions will be
imposed on any person who "harms the genital organs of
a female child … where the child sustains injury as a result". The Ministry of Health has officially prohibited
FGM in medical facilities.
Approaches
In 2000, Mauritania signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW). It is a member of the Inter-Africa Committee
on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women
and Children.
Since the mid-1980s the Mauritanian Government has
been looking at the problem of FGM, through various
ministries, increasingly with the support of international
organisations, in particular the UNFPA, the WHO,
UNICEF, GTZ, the Lutheran World Federation and national NGOs.
United Nations organisations develop joint strategies and
organise conferences or workshops on the rights of
women and the fight against FGM. They help the Se
To mark the International Zero Tolerance to FGM Day
in 2006, the Association of Imams and Ulemas released a
fatwa denouncing FGM and clarifying its place in jurisprudence. The fatwa clarifies that the Hadiths of the
Prophet Mohamed do not contain any express or tacit indication that circumcision was recommended for girls.
The SECF has set up a committee responsible for coordinating the activities of various stakeholders aiming to
overcome FGM. Currently, the SECF is drawing up an
integrated national strategy against FGM.
GTZ in Mauritania has been working with the SECF
since the end of 2005 within the framework of its good
governance programme and with the support of the supraregional project "Promotion of Initiatives to End Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). An analytical study of the
status of activities to end FGM in Mauritania is underway,
and a joint plan of action is being drawn up.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN SENEGAL
Country Information
Senegal is located on the coast of West Africa and is
home to a total population of 9 million. The predominant
ethnic groups are the Wolof (43%), Serer (15%), Fulani or
Peulh (14%), Tukulor (9%), Diola (5%) and Mandingo
(4%). Senegal has a young population with 58% below 20
years of age, and an average life expectancy of below 50
years. Half of the people live in the countryside, and there
is a wide rural-urban gap in living standards. 40% of the
population have access to health services and 50% to safe
water. Almost two thirds of the total adult population,
and 77% of women, are illiterate. Girls’ primary enrolment lies at 55% (81% in urban areas and 22% in rural areas). Women constitute just over a third of the adult
workforce. The overwhelming majority of the people is
Sunni Muslim, and early marriage and polygamy are widespread. The median age of marriage for girls is 16 years,
and one in ten girls aged 15 to 19 years give one live birth
each year. The total fertility rate is 5.7. Due to their status
and the socio-cultural environment, women meet limits to
their social and economic activities and advancement,
adding to their marginalisation and impoverishment.
Prevalence
FGM comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the female external genitalia and/or injury
to the female genital organs for cultural or any other nontherapeutic reasons. In Senegal, about 20% of the female
population has been circumcised – as the practice is locally termed. This comparatively low figure conceals the
great regional disparity of the practice: It is hardly known
in the Central and Northwest region (apart from among
recent migrants), but common in the South and Southeast, as well as along the river Sénégal in the North and
East. In the region of Kolda, 88% of women are affected
by the practice, and in St. Louis and Tambacounda 60 to
70 percent. Ethnicity determines the prevalence of FGM,
together with religion. It is practiced among the Peulh,
Diola, Mandingo, Serer and Soninke, and proportionately
more so among Muslims than among Catholics.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
The most common form of FGM practiced is the excision of the prepuce and the clitoris or parts thereof (Type
I), but amputation of the prepuce and the clitoris, combined with stitching of the labia minora take place for example among the Hal Pular. The more severe forms,
however, are declining, with higher incidence among
older women. Age at mutilation varies from one ethnic
group to another, and is decreasing – possibly in the light
of the government’s position against female circumcision.
One third of FGM occurs just after birth (e.g. among the
Hal Pular), another third before the age of six (e.g. among
the Mandingo), and the remainder by adolescence.
For most ethnic groups engaging in the practice represents a rite of passage, which allows a girl to enter motherhood. Moreover, often perceived hygienic, health and
reproductive reasons are given to justify the practice. The
apparent hygienic function is often linked to spiritual notions of purity, though FGM is not linked to one particular religion. FGM is usually predominantly performed by
‘traditional’ circumcisers, typically with knives or razor
blades and without anaesthetics, whereas boys’ circumcision tends to be undertaken in clinics. While pain can represent certain virtues in Senegal, genital cutting is irreversible and can lead to severe acute and long-term physical as well as psychological damage, and also death. Especially in rural areas, people are often not aware of the
health hazards or otherwise trace them to mythical origins.
Approaches
Since the 1970s, women’s organisations and the Ministries
responsible for Health and for Women have taken a
stance against FGM, but in a little effective and coordinated way.
Senegal’s former President stated at the International Hu-
man Rights Congress at Dakar on 20/11/1997: “Government
and non-govern-mental organisations, we must altogether convince
the people that [circumcision] constitutes a danger to a woman’s
health… Today, this practice can no longer be justified.”
Still today, there is no national committee to fight the
practice. However, the Senegalese government has ratified most treaties and conventions against the discrimination of women and for the protection of children, and
developed a 5-year Action Plan for Women. On 13 January 1999, the government passed Article 299bis of the
Penal Code rendering FGM illegal, with penalties of up to
5 years imprisonment. However, groups working towards
eliminating the practice oppose its criminalisation in favour of awareness raising measures. To complement the
law and in recognition that legislation alone does not suffice to alter the deeply anchored tradition, the Ministry of
Family and Social Affairs and National Solidarity developed an Action Plan in 1999 with a goal to abandon
FGM totally and definitely in Senegal by the year 2005.
Strategies proposed include networking with partners
with regard to FGM, capacity building, IEC programmes,
and research and documentation.
The Village Empowerment Programme, facilitated by
TOSTAN, consists of four modules – human rights, conflict resolution, hygiene, and women’s health – into which the topic of FGM is
variously integrated. The education programme goes hand in hand
with campaigns of social mobilisation and sensitisation by the participants:
- Every participant chooses one person with whom she/he daily
shares the newly acquired knowledge.
- At the end of every module, the participants (assisted by their
facilitators) spread their knowledge among the other villagers
through plays, poems or songs, which they develop themselves.
- Inter-village visits are organised to spark off discussion also in
neighbouring villages, which practice FGM.
Among the various non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) working in the field of FGM, the international
organisation TOSTAN is the most active one. The four
pillars of TOSTAN’s approach are its education programme, mobilisation of the people, public declarations,
and media campaigns.
The non-formal education programme for development
for rural youth and adults, especially women, is offered as
a 2½-year literacy programme or the 7-month Village
Empowerment Programme. Both are based on participatory research, utilising women’s own experiences
and re-enforcing positive cultural values. Local health
workers and traditional healers help implement the activities. The programmes have had as one of their positive
outcomes the public declaration to abandon FGM by 148
villages in the period between 1997 and 1999. The German Technical Co-operation (GTZ) supported the Village
Empowerment Programme.
The GTZ, financed by the Federal Ministry of Economic
Co-operation and Development (BMZ), supported the
Senegalese Ministry of Health with the implementation of
the project “Promotion of family planning and the fight
against STD/AIDS”, locally known as FANKANTA.
From 1999 to 2005 the project’s main fields of activity included measures against FGM. Given the particularly high
incidence, the regional focus is on the districts of Kolda,
Sedhiou and Vélingara. Initially, together with its partners
GTZ organised a series of Focus Group discussions in
order to determine the practice, experiences and attitudes
of people with regard to FGM. The study highlights how
deep-rooted the tradition is in society, and that only a collective process – with respect of the attitudes and sentiments of all those involved – can lead to the effective
abolition of FGM in Senegal.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm
Africa Division
Regional Division Sahel and Westafrica
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION IN SIERRA LEONE
Country Information
Sierra Leone is located on the coast of West Africa, bordering Guinea and Liberia, and has 4.8 million inhabitants. Two-thirds of the population live in rural areas,
with the bulk involved in subsistence farming. Particularly
rural areas are characterised by inadequate health services
and communication networks. The major ethnic groups
in Sierra Leone are the Mende and the Temne, which
each constitute about one third of the total population,
the Limba (8%), and the Kono (5%). They variously practice African Traditional Religions (52%), Islam (40%), or
Christianity (8%). Women experience a lower social status
vis-à-vis men as expressed among others in the fact that
only 15% of women are literate compared to 45% of
men. The overwhelming majority of women is married by
the age of 18 years, and the total fertility rate is 6.5.
Women tend to have little influence on family planning.
Unusually high compared with many sub-Saharan African
countries, women constitute a two-third proportion of
the adult workforce. Average life expectancy is very low
at approximately 35 years of age. Both latter factors can
be explained by the many years of war. Since 1991, 2 million people have fled the country.
Prevalence
In Sierra Leone, female genital mutilation (FGM) is practiced across all ethnic groups, except the Christian Krio in
Western Area.
WHO classification of different types of FGM
Type I: Excision of the prepuce, with or without excision of part or
the entire clitoris.
Type II: Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the
labia minora.
Type III: Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation).
Type IV: Unclassified; includes piercing or incising of the clitoris
and/or labia, cauterisation, scraping, or cutting of vaginal tissue etc.
These operations are all irreversible. Acute complications include
death, haemorrhage, shock, infection and severe pain. In addition,
women can suffer severe longterm damage to their reproductive and
sexual health, risk HIV infection, and are often left with psychological scars.
Though local groups believe it overstated, WHO estimates that 90% of the female population has been circumcised. The most common type of FGM practiced is
Type II, while only the Muslim Krio undertake excision
of the prepuce, or sunna (Type I). No ethnic group practices infibulation. Girls are usually teenagers at circumcision, while for example among the Madingo in the North,
they are circumcised at under one year of age.
FGM is performed as part of a rite of passage signifying
the transition from childhood to womanhood. It is linked
with the so-called Bundu Secret Society (in Temne terms,
and Souwe in Mende), which traditionally acted as an informal system of education: Girls were initiated into their
future role of wife and mother, and taught the use of
herbs for medical purposes and personal hygiene. Subsequently the girls were married off, willingly or unwillingly.
However, in view of formal education, and the high costs
of maintaining girls in the Bundu Society for many weeks,
initiation is now largely reduced to the genital cutting. At
the same time, age at circumcision tends to get younger.
Despite the changing significance of FGM, there are no
clear signs of a decrease in the practice. Especially adult
women from rural areas and Muslim communities cling to
the tradition. However, an important reason for the perpetuation of the practice lies in the social pressure derived
from men’s attitudes towards women’s sexuality, in conjunction with apparent increased matrimonial opportunities for circumcised girls.
Circumcision is usually performed by a prominent, wellrespected woman, who is also the local traditional birth
attendant (Digba in Temne, Majo in Mende). In view of
the health risks, some literate people express the wish for
FGM to be discontinued. Other parents attempt to lower
the health risks with prophylactic injections for the girl to
be circumcised. Institutions opposing FGM strongly condemn medicalisation of the practice, because it does not
preclude all health risks and leaves underlying social issues
untouched.
Approaches
Although a number of non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) are working to inform the public about the
health hazards of FGM and the fact that it offends human rights, public actions to end the practice are currently
few, little co-ordinated and hardly effective. Comparatively concerted efforts against female circumcision are
taking place at regional and international level. Sierra
Leone is a member of the Inter-African Committee (IAC)
on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women
and Children, which strongly lobbies against FGM. It also
benefits from the 20-year plan of the WHO Regional Office for Africa, which seeks to boost country activities for
the prevention and elimination of harmful traditional
practices, including FGM.
While the government of Sierra Leone has ratified many
treaties and conventions against the discrimination of
women and for the protection of children, no law is in
place that prohibits FGM. Nor has an Action Plan been
devised let alone implemented. Those endeavours against
FGM that do exist, meet the active resistance by the
Bundu Society. Apparently also some of the women in
politically influential positions oppose potential policy
statements to ban FGM.
Certain NGOs working in the field of reproductive health
and rights show concern over the situation of FGM in the
country. One of them is the Planned Parenthood Association of Sierra Leone (PPA-SL), which is the leading service provider of family planning in the country and has
led the campaign on violence against women. However,
given the government stance, and PPA-SL’s mandate to
complement government health initiatives, the NGO
cannot be openly active against FGM. Instead, its programmes have covert components on FGM, especially to
raise awareness on the health hazards of the practice.
The German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), commissioned by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation
and Development (BMZ), runs the supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end FGM. The project promotes innovative initiatives in various East and West African countries, strengthens networking, and evaluates
approaches in this regard.
Published by
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Supra-regional project
Promotion of initiatives to end
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
Dag Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
65760 Eschborn
Tel. +49(0)6196-79-1578, -1579, -1553
Fax +49(0)6196-79-7177
E-Mail [email protected]
Web www.gtz.de/fgm