JM Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial

J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of
Postcolonial Authorship
Jane Poyner
J. M. COETZEE AND THE PARADOX OF
POSTCOLONIAL AUTHORSHIP
For Mehdi and my mother
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of
Postcolonial Authorship
JANE POYNER
University of Exeter, UK
© Jane Poyner 2009
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
Jane Poyner has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to
EHLGHQWL¿HGDVWKHDXWKRURIWKLVZRUN
Published by
Ashgate Publishing Limited
Wey Court East
Union Road
Farnham
Surrey, GU9 7PT
England
Ashgate Publishing Company
Suite 420
101 Cherry Street
Burlington
VT 05401-4405
USA
www.ashgate.com
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Poyner, Jane.
J. M. Coetzee and the paradox of postcolonial authorship.
1. Coetzee, J. M., 1940– – Criticism and interpretation. 2. Postcolonialism in literature.
3. Politics and literature – South Africa – History – 20th century. 4. South Africa – In
literature.
I. Title
823.9’14–dc22
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Poyner, Jane.
J. M. Coetzee and the paradox of postcolonial authorship / Jane Poyner.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
,6%1DONSDSHU
1. Coetzee, J. M., 1940 – Criticism and interpretation. 2. Coetzee, J. M., 1940 – Characters
– Authors. 3. Authorship in literature. 4. Postcolonialism in literature. 5. South Africa – In
OLWHUDWXUH1DUUDWLRQ5KHWRULF±+LVWRU\±WKFHQWXU\,7LWOH
PR9369.3.C58Z873 2009
823’.914–dc22
2009011742
,6%1KEN
,6%1HEN.V
Contents
Abbreviations
Acknowledgements
Introduction: Positioning the Writer
1
vii
ix
1
³)DWKHU0DNHV0HUU\ZLWK&KLOGUHQ´0DGQHVVDQG0\WKRORJ\LQ
Dusklands
15
5HIXVLQJWR³<LHOGWRWKH6SHFWUHRI5HDVRQ´7KH0DGZRPDQLQWKH
Attic in In the Heart of the Country
33
3
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
53
4
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K: “Strategies in the
6HUYLFHRI6NHSWLFLVP´ 9
BRG\LQJ)RUWKWKH2WKHU)ULGD\DQGWKH³'LVFXUVLYH6LWXDWLRQ´LQ
Foe
91
WrLWLQJ LQ WKH )DFH RI 'HDWK ³)DOVH (W\PRORJLHV´ DQG ³+RPH
7UXWKV´LQWKHAge of Iron
111
7
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
129
8
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
149
9
CoetzHH¶V$FWVRI*HQUHLQWKH/DWHU:RUNVTruth-telling, Fiction
and the Public Intellectual
167
2
5
6
Works Cited
Index
185
199
This page has been left blank intentionally
Abbreviations
D
HC
WB
MK
F
WW
17
AI
MP
DP
GO
B
DIS
LA
SS
Y
EC
SM
DBY
Dusklands. 1974. London: Vintage, 1998.
In the Heart of the Country. 1977. London: Vintage, 1999.
Waiting for the Barbarians. 1980. London: Minerva, 1997.
Life & Times of Michael K. 1983. Middlesex: Penguin, 1985.
Foe. 1986. Middlesex: Penguin, 1987.
White Writing: On the Culture of Letters in South Africa. London &
New Haven: Yale University, 1988.
³7KH1RYHO7RGD\Úpstream±
Age of Iron. 1990. London: Penguin, 1991.
The Master of Petersburg. 1994. London: Minerva, 1995.
Doubling the Point: Essays and Interviews. Ed. David Attwell.
Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard UP, 1992.
Giving Offense: Essays on Censorship. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1996.
Boyhood: A Memoir. 1997. London: Vintage, 1998.
Disgrace. /RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
The Lives of Animals. Ed. and Intro. Amy Gutmann. Princeton:
Princeton UP, 1999.
Stranger Shores: Essays 1986–1999/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
2001.
Youth/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
Elizabeth Costello/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
Slow Man1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ
Diary of a Bad Year/RQGRQ+DUYLOO6HFNHU
This page has been left blank intentionally
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWs
7KLVERRNZKLFKH[SORUHVZKDW,FDOOWKH³SDUDGR[RISRVWFRORQLDODXWKRUVKLS´LQ
WKH¿FWLRQRIWKH6RXWK$IULFDQZULWHU-0&RHW]HHZRXOGQRWKDYHEHHQSRVVLEOH
without the support of the following. My dear friend and mentor, Benita Parry,
guided me through my apprenticeship as a doctoral researcher and has remained
SHUVSLFDFLRXVLQKHUFULWLFLVPDQGZDUPLQKHUVXSSRUW/LNHZLVH1HLO/D]DUXV
KDVEHHQDQLQVSLUDWLRQDQGNLQGO\UHDGVRPHRIWKHHDUO\YHUVLRQVRIWKHFKDSWHUV
Other friends and colleagues who generously leant their critical eye to parts of this
ERRNRUWRZRUNWKDWIHGLQWRLWLQFOXGH0LFKDHO%HOO6DP'XUUDQW.DL(DVWRQ
Regenia Gagnier, Rashmi Varma and Laura Wright.
7KDQNVJRWRWKHWKHQ$UWVDQG+XPDQLWLHV5HVHDUFK%RDUGQRZWKH$+5&
which generously provided a full doctoral scholarship, and to the Department
RI(QJOLVKDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI([HWHUIRUJUDQWLQJP\VDEEDWLFDOZKHQWKH¿QDO
revisions were made.
7KDQN\RXWR$QQ'RQDKXHDW$VKJDWHIRUKHUVXSSRUWRIWKHSURMHFWDQGIRU
her true professionalism.
,ZRXOGDOVROLNHWRWKDQNFROOHDJXHVQRZIULHQGVDW([HWHUZKRKHOSHGWRPDNH
the transition to my new post all the easier, particularly: Julia Copus, Sally Flint,
Jo Gill, Helen Hanson, Helen Taylor, Ana Vadillo and Helen Vassallo. Friends at
P\$OPD0DWHUWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI:DUZLFNZLWKZKRP,VKDUHGWKHWULDOVDQGWKH
thrills of an early research career, are too many to mention here but include Chris
&DPSEHOO0DU\'HDQH6KDUDH'HFNDUG/XF\)UDQN3XPOD*TROD-LP*UDKDP
Kerstin Oloff, Jenny Terry and Rashmi Varma.
$VSHFLDOWKDQNVLVUHVHUYHGIRUP\IDPLO\IRUWKHLUODXJKWHUDQGWKHLUVXSSRUW
Liz, John, Cliff, Jill, Cathy, Chris, Ewan, Grace, Esmé, Rory, John, Rach, Anna,
,VREHO-RH0DUN7HUHVD.HUU\-DFN2OOLH6DUDK(OODDQGQRWOHDVW*HRUJH
$ERYHDOOWKDQN\RXWRP\GHDUPRWKHUZKRJUDFLRXVO\SURRIUHDGWKHERRNLQDOO
its stages and to Mehdi, who weathered the process of my writing and unstintingly
gave his moral support.
Chapter 8 is a substantially revised version of the following essay, reproduced
ZLWK WKH NLQG SHUPLVVLRQ RI Scrutiny2 and Unisa, South Africa: Jane Poyner,
“Truth and Reconciliation in J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace´ Scrutiny2 pp. 68–77.
7KDQNVWRWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQVIRUJUDQWLQJSHUPLVVLRQWRUHSURGXFHWKHFRYHU
LPDJH³$VHJUHJDWHGEHDFKLQ6RXWK$IULFD´813KRWR
Jane Poyner. 3 July, 2009.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Introduction
Positioning the Writer
7KDWKHZDVWKH1REHO/DXUHDWHLQ/LWHUDWXUHDQGWKH¿UVWQRYHOLVWWRZLQWKH
%RRNHU3UL]HWZLFHZLWKLife & Times of Michael K in 1983 and Disgrace in 1999,
DVZHOODVKDYLQJWKHJDPXWRIPDMRU6RXWK$IULFDQDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOOLWHUDU\SUL]HV
conferred upon him, has guaranteed J. M. Coetzee’s reputation as one of the most
important writers living today.1 He is also one of South Africa’s most controversial.
He was awarded the Order of Mapungubwe in Gold by the ANC-led government
LQIRUKLV³H[FHSWLRQDOFRQWULEXWLRQLQWKH¿HOGRIOLWHUDWXUHDQGIRUSXWWLQJ
6RXWK$IULFDRQWKHZRUOGVWDJH´7KH3UHVLGHQF\QSDJGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWRQO\
a few years earlier his eighth novel Disgrace was presented by the African National
&RQJUHVV $1& WR WKH 6RXWK $IULFDQ +XPDQ 5LJKWV &RPPLVVLRQ 6$+5&
as illustrative of racism in the media, its protagonists deemed representative of
ZKLWHV¶DWWLWXGHVWRUDFHLQWKH³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´2+LV¿FWLRQDQGFULWLFDOHVVD\V
have generated a plethora of scholarly research both in South Africa and abroad
and have challenged readers globally, not least for the contentious interventions
WKHRHXYUHPDNHVWKURXJK&RHW]HH¶VVLQJXODUPRGHUQLVWPRGHLQWR6RXWK$IULFDQ
SROLWLFRFXOWXUDOGLVFRXUVHDQGWKH¿HOGRISRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHV(YHQZLWKRQO\¿YH
of the eleven novels being set in South Africa, they all, to a greater or lesser extent,
DGGUHVVWKHPHVDQGLVVXHVSHUWLQHQWWRWKHSRVWFRORQLDODQGDSDUWKHLGVLWXDWLRQV
colonial discourse, the other, racial segregation, censorship, banning and exile,
police brutality and torture, South African liberalism and revolutionary activism,
the place of women, the relationship of South Africa’s peoples to the land and, not
OHDVWWKHHWKLFRSROLWLFVRIZULWLQJDOO¿JXUHSURPLQHQWO\LQWKHRHXYUH%HFDXVH
WKHODWHUZRUNVODUJHO\OHDYHEHKLQGDVSHFL¿FDOO\SRVWFRORQLDOSDUDGLJPPDUNHG
1
Coetzee has been awarded the following literary prizes: South Africa’s prestigious
CNA Literary Award for In the Heart of the CountryWKH&1$WKH-DPHV7DLW%ODFN
Prize and the Geoffrey Faber Memorial Award for Waiting for the BarbariansWKH
CNA and the Prix Étranger Femina in 1985 for Life & Times of Michael K WKH
Jerusalem Prize in 1987 for FoeWKH6XQGD\([SUHVV$ZDUG for Age of Iron
the Irish Times International Fiction Prize in 1995 for The Master of Petersburg and, in
DGGLWLRQ WR WKH %RRNHU WKH &RPPRQZHDOWK :ULWHUV 3UL]H 2YHUDOO :LQQHU LQ IRU
Disgrace. Slow ManZDVVKRUWOLVWHGIRUWKH&RPPRQZHDOWK:ULWHUV3UL]H$IULFDQ
5HJLRQDQGWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO,03$&'XEOLQ/LWHUDU\$ZDUGDQGKLVPRVWUHFHQWQRYHO
Diary of a Bad Year±HOLJLEOHEHFDXVH&RHW]HHLVQRZDQ$XVWUDOLDQFLWL]HQ±ZDV
shortlisted for the Adelaide 2008 Festival Awards for Literature.
2
)RU FRQÀLFWLQJ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV RI WKLV UHSRUW VHH$WWZHOO ³5DFH LQ Disgrace´ DQG
McDonald “Disgrace(IIHFWV´
2
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
coincidentally by Coetzee’s departure from South Africa to another postcolonial
ORFDOH$GHODLGH$XVWUDOLDLQLQWKLVSUHVHQWVWXG\,IRFXVRQWKH¿UVWHLJKW
novels up to and including Disgrace, and conclude with a chapter that addresses the
ODWHUZRUNVElizabeth CostelloSlow ManDQGDiary of a Bad Year
ZLWKLQ D ZLGHU IUDPH RI LQWHOOHFWXDOLVPDQG DXWKRUVKLS WKDW QRQHWKHOHVV
VSHDNVWRWKH¿HOGRISRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHV
These thematic nodes dovetail into what I argue is the premise of all Coetzee’s
¿FWLRQDQGPDQ\RIKLVHVVD\VDQGZKLFKLVDSUREOHPZLWKZKLFKSRVWFRORQLDO
critics have grappled, that through the portrayal of a series of writer protagonists,
Coetzee stages the paradox of postcolonial authorship: whilst striving symbolically
to bring the stories of the marginal and the oppressed to light, stories that heretofore
have been suppressed or silenced by oppressive regimes, writers of conscience
RU FRQVFLHQFHVWULFNHQ ZULWHUV ULVN UHLPSRVLQJ WKH YHU\ DXWKRULW\ WKH\ VHHN WR
FKDOOHQJH7KHWDVNRIWKHSRVWFRORQLDOZULWHUWKHUHIRUHLVH[DFWLQJ,VKRXOGTXDOLI\
this argument by saying that a number of Coetzee’s protagonists are only minimal,
symbolic authors of their texts: the alienated Magda in In the Heart of the Country
UHVLVWVZULWLQJDVDPHDQVRIRXWZLWWLQJWKHSDWULDUFK\DQGOLWHUDU\KLVWRU\
WKDWHQWUDSKHUEXW¿QDOO\VXFFXPEVEHFDXVHLWLVRQO\WKURXJKZULWLQJWKDWVKH
FDQUHHQWHUVRFLHW\DQGEUHDNIUHHIURPWKHIHWWHUVRIKHUDOLHQDWLRQ0LFKDHO.
in Life & TimesLVDXWKRURIKLVOLIHEHFDXVHKHEHVSHDNVWKHIDPLOLDUSRVWFRORQLDO
tropes of writing the body and writing the land. Life & Times also embeds the
³ZKLWHZULWHU´LQ WKHVHQVHWKDW&RHW]HHZRXOGKDYHLW³ZKLWHZULWLQJLVZKLWH
only insofar as it is generated by the concerns of people no longer European, not
\HW$IULFDQ´::7KH0HGLFDO2I¿FHULQLWLDOO\LPSHULRXVO\DVVXPHVWKHULJKW
WRVSHDNRQWKHRWKHU¶VEHKDOI&RHW]HH¶V³ZKLWH´ZULWHUVW\SLFDOO\DJRQL]HRYHU
the ways in which the authority authorship engenders will always compromise
their ethico-political conviction because authorship, for Coetzee, is always already
imbued with power, mastery and colonization.
7KH WUDMHFWRU\ RI WKH RHXYUH WHDVHV RXW WKH SUREOHP RI DXWKRUVKLS LQ ZD\V
that correspond with the novels’ contemporary milieus so that this problem is
JUDGXDOO\GLVWLOOHGLQWZRRI&RHW]HH¶VODWHVWRIIHULQJVWKHTXDVLQRYHOElizabeth
CostelloDQGDiary of a Bad Year ZKLFKSUHVHQWUDGLFDOLQVWDQFHV
RIZKDW,FDOO&RHW]HH¶V³DFWVRIJHQUH´FDSWXUHGLQWKHZRUG³DFW´SHUIRUPDQFHV
of genre that are at once contrived, duplicitous and yet agential. Elizabeth Costello
LVFRPSULVHGRIHLJKW³OHVVRQV´LQVL[RXWRIHLJKWRIZKLFKWKHLGLRV\QFUDWLFDQG
forthright novelist Elizabeth Costello delivers invited lectures which were originally
presented by Coetzee as meta-generic public lectures at a series of international
venues. In DiaryWKHZULWHUDQGDFDGHPLF-&RIIHUVDVHULHVRI³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´
in the genre of the opinion piece, and this public voice is offset at the bottom of
each page by a number of more personal ones, including J. C.’s own. Costello uses
WKHOHFWXUHIRUXPWRDLUKHURIWHQHFFHQWULFH[FHQWULFYLHZVRQVXEMHFWVUDQJLQJ
from animal rights to the problem of representing evil, and the curmudgeonly
-&¶V DSKRULVPV GLYHUVLI\ DFURVV VXEMHFWV VXFK DV$O4DHGD ³QDWLRQDO VKDPH´
DQGWKHEXVLQHVVOLNHHQWHUSULVHRIWKHPRGHUQGD\XQLYHUVLW\:KLOVWWKHVXEVWDQFH
Positioning the Writer
3
of these novels clearly is ethico-political, it is in the acts of genre, I argue, that the
UHDOLQWHOOHFWXDOL]LQJLVGRQH%\¿OWHULQJSXEOLFLQWHUYHQWLRQVWKURXJKWKHSULVP
RI¿FWLRQDQGE\&RHW]HH¿FWLRQDOL]LQJKLPVHOIZLWKLQWKHQDUUDWLYHVWKHUHDGHU
LVOHIWXQFHUWDLQDERXWZKRLVVSHDNLQJ&RHW]HHRUKLVFKDUDFWHUVDQGWKLVHQDEOHV
&RHW]HH WR JHW WZR MREV GRQH ¿UVW WR UDLVH TXHVWLRQV DERXW DXWKRULW\ DQG WKH
FDSDFLW\RILQWHOOHFWXDOVWR³VSHDNWUXWKWRSRZHU´6DLGRepresentationsDQG
second, to nurture a critical readership which is obliged to participate in the life of
WKHWH[W$V(GZDUG6DLGKDVSXWLWWKHSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDO¶V³ZKROHEHLQJLVVWDNHG
on the critical sense´HPSKDVLVDGGHGRepresentations
Typically in Coetzee the public defers to the private sphere, as he discloses to the
interviewer, David Attwell, in Doubling the Point, “the contest of interpretations
«WKHSROLWLFDOYHUVXVWKHHWKLFDO>LV@SOD\HGRXWDJDLQDQGDJDLQLQP\QRYHOV´
'3+RZHYHUZKLOH&RHW]HHFODLPVWKDWZKHUHWKHSXEOLFPDSVRQWRWKH
political and the private to the ethical, he resists championing the ethical over
WKHSROLWLFDOEHFDXVHWKLVZRXOGUHLI\HWKLFVDVODFN'3'HUHN$WWULGJHLV
right when he contends that in Coetzee “it is evident that it is the political that
LVWREHFRUUHFWHGE\WKHHWKLFDODQGQRWYLFHYHUVD´³7UXVWLQJWKH2WKHU´
&RHW]HH¶VZULWHUSURWDJRQLVWVDUHFRQVLVWHQWO\PDUJLQDO¿JXUHVUHVLVWDQWWRWKHHEE
DQGÀRZRIWKHWLGHVRISROLWLFDOUKHWRULF0LFKDHO.¶VTXHVWIRUPHDQLQJLQLife
& Times, for instance, is drawn to a close with a parable in which, envisaging
subsisting using a teaspoon to draw water from a well, he would live minimally off
the land. Mrs. Curren in Age of IronLVRQDTXHVWRIDQRWKHUNLQGWKLVWLPH
IRU³KRPHWUXWKV´LQWKHOHWWHUVKHLVZULWLQJWRKHUGDXJKWHUVKHFDUYHVRXWDQ
intellectual space for herself with an almost pedantic regard for language: “These
are terrible sights … But I cannot denounce them in other people’s words. I must
¿QGP\RZQZRUGVIURPP\VHOI2WKHUZLVHLWLVQRWWKHWUXWK´$,7KURXJK
DFRQIHVVLRQDOPRGHDQGPRWLIVRI³GHPRQSRVVHVVLRQ´DQG³KHDUWVSHHFK´WKH
QRYHOVDGGUHVV&RHW]HH¶VRZQYHU\SULYDWHUHVSRQVHDVDQ³DQ[LRXVLQWHOOHFWXDO´3
WRZRUNLQJXQGHUWKHSUHVVXUHVRIDQRSSUHVVLYHUHJLPHDQGWKRVHRIFRQIRUPLW\
HYHQFRQIRUPLQJWRWKHWHQHWVRIWKHSURJUHVVLYHOHIWZLWKZKLFKKHPDNHVFOHDUKH
sympathizes (because conforming means on some level reining in the creative as
ZHOODVWKHHWKLFDOIDFXOW\
For these reasons, Coetzee is often charged with being evasive: in the eyes of
KLVFULWLFVWKHREOLTXLW\DQGUDUH¿FDWLRQRIWKHZRUNVDUHHYLGHQFHRIKLVGLVDYRZDO
of politics in spite of some obvious sorties into the political fray (cf. Attwell, “Life
DQG7LPHV´7KLVFULWLFLVPVWHPVIURPWKHGLI¿FXOW\FULWLFVKDYHRISRVLWLRQLQJ
an author who, attentive to the pitfalls that postcolonial authorship implies,
KHZV KLPVHOI WKH SUHFDULRXV SRVLWLRQ RI ³QRQSRVLWLRQ´ *2 EXW RQH WKDW LV
ethico-political because it gesturally resists the authority that white South African
PDVFXOLQLW\EHVWRZV*2,UHDOL]HWKDWLQODEHOOLQJKLPHWKLFRpolitical I am
drawing Coetzee down a road he would be averse to travelling. Characteristically
3
Anxious IntellectsLVWKHWLWOHRIDERRNE\-RKQ0LFKDHOWKDW'DYLG$WWZHOOUHIHUVWR
LQDQHVVD\RQ&RHW]HH¶V³SXEOLF´LQWHOOHFWXDOLVP³/LIHDQG7LPHV´
4
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
referring to himself in the third person and revealing an abiding preoccupation
with the paradox of postcolonial authorship I am mapping here, Coetzee observes
WKDW³DOOSROLWLFDOODQJXDJHÓHDYHVKLPFROG³$VIDUEDFNDVKHFDQVHHKHKDV
been ill at ease with language that lays down the law, that is not provisional, that
GRHVQRWDVRQHRILWVKDELWXDOPRWLRQVJODQFHEDFNVFHSWLFDOO\DWLWVSUHPLVHV´'3
+LVXVHRIWKHWKLUGSHUVRQWRVSHDNDERXWKLPVHOIDGHYLFHWKDWUHVXUIDFHVLQ
the memoirs, BoyhoodDQGYouthVXJJHVWVWKDWQRWRQO\LVKH³LOODW
HDVH´ZLWKSROLWLFDOUKHWRULFEXWDVKHFRQFHGHVLQLQWHUYLHZDOVRLVXQFRPIRUWDEOH
EHLQJPDGHWRDQVZHUIRUKLVQRYHOV'36XFKDSRVLWLRQEHFRPHVWKRUQ\
in postcolonial contexts, because, ironically as Coetzee’s oeuvre time and again
UHYHDOV WKH LQWHJULW\ RI WKH SRVWFRORQLDO DXWKRU LV VWDNHG RQ EHLQJ DYDLODEOH WR
redress lest the systems of power embedded in colonial writings are reproduced.
The charge of political evasion laid at Coetzee’s feet has particular resonance
within the South African contexts from which most of the novels were penned
because under apartheid not only political and cultural but also personal freedom
was restricted and often denied, thus necessitating an active struggle against
the state. Draconian censorship laws were passed by the regime, including the
3XEOLFDWLRQV DQG (QWHUWDLQPHQWV $FW DQG WKH 3XEOLFDWLRQV $FW DPHQGHG LQ ,QGHHG &RHW]HH¶V RZQ QRYHOV Waiting for the Barbarians
In the Heart of the CountryDQGLife & Times were brought
before the Directorate of Publications and threatened with the blue-pencil of the
FHQVRU0F'RQDOG³7KH:ULWHU´:LWKLQVRPHTXDUWHUVRIUHVLVWDQFHFXOWXUH
ZDV GHHPHG LQ WKDW QRZ KDFNQH\HG SKUDVH D ³ZHDSRQ RI WKH VWUXJJOH´ DQG LQ
¿FWLRQVRFLDOUHDOLVPZDVSHUFHLYHGDVWKHEHVWPRGHWRFRQYH\WKLVREMHFWLYH
1XPHURXVSURJUHVVLYHFULWLFVOLNH1DGLQH*RUGLPHUZKRHPSOR\VDVRSKLVWLFDWHG
/XNiFVLDQ UHDOLVW PRGHO WKDW FRQWUDVWV WKH FRQVFLRXVQHVV RI LWV SURWDJRQLVW ZLWK
REMHFWLYHUHDOLW\LQ*HRUJ/XNiFV¶ZRUGV³WKHGXDOLW\RILQZDUGQHVVDQGRXWVLGH
ZRUOG´>TWGLQ*RUGLPHUEssential Gesture@YRLFHGWKHLUPLVJLYLQJVDERXW
the silencing and degrading effects of protest literature that Gordimer nicely termed
³FRQIRUPLW\WRDQRUWKRGR[\RIRSSRVLWLRQÉssential Gesture/HZLV1NRVL
FODLPHGWKDWVXFKZULWLQJZDVGHEDVHGE\³MRXUQDOLVWLFIDFWSDUDGLQJRXWUDJHRXVO\
DV LPDJLQDWLYH OLWHUDWXUH´ ³)LFWLRQ´ DQG 1MDEXOR 1GHEHOH DUJXHG WKDW WKH
complexities of the combination of content and form in much contemporary South
$IULFDQ¿FWLRQKDGEHHQQHJOHFWHGIRUSROLWLFDOSRVWXULQJUHVXOWLQJLQ³DQDUWRI
DQWLFLSDWHGVXUIDFHVUDWKHUWKDQRQHRISURFHVVHV´Rediscovery $OELH6DFKV¶V
$1& VSHHFK ³3UHSDULQJ 2XUVHOYHV IRU )UHHGRP´ IXHOOHG WKH GHEDWH E\
UDLVLQJWKHTXHVWLRQ³ZKHWKHUZHKDYHVXI¿FLHQWFXOWXUDOLPDJLQDWLRQWRJUDVSWKH
rich texture of the free and united South Africa that we have done so much to bring
DERXW´6DFKVFRQFOXGHGWKDW³VROLGDULW\FULWLFLVPÚLVNVEHLQJSUHVFULSWLYHDQG
OLPLWLQJ,QGHHGRQWKLVSRLQWWKHVHZULWHUVUHDFKFRQVHQVXVWKRXJKXQOLNH
Coetzee, their concern lies in part with the integrity of the resistance movement
LWVHOI &ULWLFV OLNH 'DYLG$WWZHOO DQG 0LFKDHO &KDSPDQ KRZHYHU KDYH VKRZQ
WKDW VXFK D SRVLWLRQ LWVHOI UHSUHVHQWV D ³FULWLFDO RUWKRGR[\´ $WWZHOO Rewriting
Modernity WKDW RYHUORRNV WKH FRPSOH[LWLHV RI FRPPLWWHG OLWHUDWXUH ZKLFK
Positioning the Writer
5
at times reveals a distinct African modernism and is capable of combining selfUHÀH[LYLW\ZLWKSROLWLFDOFULWLTXH
&RHW]HHEULGJHVWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKH³:HVW´DQGWKHVRFDOOHG7KLUG:RUOG
yet because the novels are steeped in the dominant Western literary tradition
VRPH FULWLFV KDYH TXHVWLRQHG KLV SRVWFRORQLDO FUHGHQWLDOV %HQLWD 3DUU\ IRU
LQVWDQFHDUJXHVWKDWEHFDXVHWKH¿FWLRQVDUHXQGHUSLQQHGE\:HVWHUQFRJQLWLYH
IUDPHZRUNV&RHW]HHLVXQDEOHWRFUDIWPDUJLQDOFKDUDFWHUVWKDWDUHRXWVLGHDQG
EH\RQG(XURFHQWULFGLVFRXUVH³6SHHFKDQG6LOHQFH´7KHRHXYUHKDVHYHQ
EHHQ UHDG E\ D QXPEHU RI FULWLFV DV ³DOOHJRUL]HG WKHRU\´ DV *UDKDP 3HFKH\
SRLQWVRXW³3RVW$SDUWKHLG´GUDZLQJDVLWGRHVXSRQWKHZRUNRI(XURSHDQ
SKLORVRSKHUVDQGWKHRULVWVOLNH%ODNH5RXVVHDX/pYL6WUDXVV/HYLQDV)RXFDXOW
6DUWUH%HQYHQLVWH/DFDQ)UHXG'HUULGD±DVRFDOOHG³SLHGQRLU´±DQG,ULJDUD\
)URP WKH (XURSHDQ OLWHUDU\ WUDGLWLRQ 'DQWH 'HIRH 'RVWRHYVN\ .DIND ' +
/DZUHQFHDQG%HFNHWWQXPEHUDPRQJVW&RHW]HH¶VDFNQRZOHGJHGLQÀXHQFHV1RW
only is all his writing steeped in the European literary tradition, the novels also
ERUURZIURPWKLQNHUVIURPWKHVRFDOOHG7KLUG:RUOG)DQRQ1GHEHOH&pVDLUH
*RUGLPHUDQG%UH\WHQEDFKDPRQJVWRWKHUVPDNHVRPHWLPHVYHLOHGDSSHDUDQFHV
&RHW]HH¶V RIWHQ DFXWHO\ VHOIUHÀH[LYH PRGH HYHQ OHG RQH FULWLF WR VXJJHVW WKDW
³$OPRVWDOOWKHLQLWLDOGLI¿FXOWLHVRI>&RHW]HH¶V@QRYHOVYDQLVKZKHQRQHKDSSHQV
WRKDYHUHDGWKHVDPHERRNVWKDWKHKDV´:DWVRQ³&RORQLDOLVP´
0DQ\RIWKHZRUNVVXEYHUWWKHJHQUHVRIWKHZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQFDQRQ7KLV
LV WKH SUHPLVH RI WKH ¿UVW PRQRJUDSK WKDW DSSHDUHG RQ &RHW]HH The Novels of
J. M. Coetzee: Lacanian AllegoriesE\7HUHVD'RYH\ZKRFRPELQHVWKLV
analysis with a Lacanian psychoanalytic reading of the act of narration in the early
WH[WV DQG RQH VXEVHTXHQWO\ UHKHDUVHG E\ RWKHU &RHW]HH VFKRODUV IRU LQVWDQFH
Attwell, J. M. Coetzee +HDG J. M. Coetzee &RHW]HH¶V ¿FWLRQ H[WHQGV DQG LQ
its oppositional aspects, puts into practice his thesis outlined in White Writing.
Concerned with “certain of the ideas, the great intellectual schemas, through
which South Africa has been thought by Europe[,] and with the land itself, South
$IULFDDVODQGVFDSHDQGODQGHGSURSHUW\´::&RHW]HHUHFRJQL]HVWKHIDLOXUH
LQWKHZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQSDVWRUDOWRUHSUHVHQW$IULFDRULWVLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHV
DXWKHQWLFDOO\7KHP\WKRORJL]HGUHODWLRQRIWKH$IULNDQHUWRWKHODQGWKDWVWUXJJOHV
WRIHQGRIIWKHWKUHDWRIXUEDQGHYHORSPHQWE\LQYRNLQJWKHPRWLIRIWKHIDUPHU
WRLOLQJRQWKHODQGIRULQVWDQFHEHWUD\VD³%OLQGQHVVWRWKHFRORXUEODFN´
$VLWVFHQWUDOLVVXHWKHJHQUHSUHIHUVWRLGHQWLI\WKHSUHVHUYDWLRQRID'XWFK
peasant rural order, or at least the preservation of the values of that order …
/RFDWLQJ WKH KLVWRULFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW FRQÀLFW DV EHWZHHQ %RHU DQG %ULWDLQ LW
VKLIWVEODFNZKLWHFRQÀLFWRXWRIVLJKW>@::±
&RHW]HH DUJXHV WKDW WKH RQO\ HDUO\ ³(QJOLVK´ QRYHOV WR H[SORUH WKH IDUP PRWLI
Olive Schreiner’s anti-pastoral The Story of an African Farm DQG3DXOLQH
Smith’s The Beadle DQG VKRUW VWRU\ FROOHFWLRQ The Little Karoo (1925,
UHY ZULWH DJDLQVW WKH JUDLQ RI WKLV SUHYDLOLQJ PRGH ³$W WKH YHU\ OHDVW
6
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
they provide a foil to the plaasroman [farm novel], throwing its preconceptions
LQWRUHOLHI´::±5HSUHVHQWLQJD³FULWLTXHRIFRORQLDOFXOWXUH´&RHW]HH
suggests, Schreiner’s novel distinguishes between the farm and nature (elements
that in the plaasromanH[LVW³LQV\QWKHVLV´WKHIDUPLVLQDVWDWHRIGHFD\DQGWKH
ZLOGHUQHVV LV ³LQKRVSLWDEOH´ 6PLWK¶V IDUP RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG QRVWDOJLFDOO\ UH
LPDJLQHVDQXQDWWDLQDEOH(GHQWKRXJKVHFXUHO\ORGJHGLQDKLVWRULFDOWUDGLWLRQLW
UHJLVWHUVDPDUNHGGLVWLOODWLRQRIDXWKRULW\SDWULDUFK\DQGFDSLWDOZKLFKVLWXDWHV
LW&RHW]HHSURSRXQGVLQD³SUHFDSLWDOLVWRUJDQL]DWLRQ´::±±±
+RZHYHUWKHVHQRYHOVLQDGYHUWHQWO\UHSURGXFHWKHKHJHPRQLFWHQGHQFLHVRI
the plaasroman EHFDXVH WKH\ WRR HUDVH 6RXWK$IULFD¶V PDUJLQDO PDMRULW\ ::
7KH UDGLFDO SRWHQWLDOLW\ RI WKH DQWLSDVWRUDO JHQUH VDQFWLRQHG E\ 6FKUHLQHU
is reappraised in Gordimer’s The Conservationist DQG &RHW]HH¶V In the
Heart of the Country, Life & Times, Foe and DisgraceDVZHOODVKLV¿UVWPHPRLU
BoyhoodZRUNVWKDWQRWRQO\GHP\WKRORJL]HZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQV¶UHODWLRQVKLS
to the land but are inclusive of colonial and apartheid South Africa’s other voices,
DOEHLWLQWKHHDUO\&RHW]HHYRLFHVRIVLOHQFHDQGVXEMXJDWLRQ
$WVWDNHLVZKHWKHU&RHW]HHLQKLVGHSOR\PHQWRIWKHZULWLQJSUDFWLFHVRIWKH
:HVW DQG ZKLWH 6RXWK$IULFDQ JHQUHV DGHTXDWHO\ ± WKDW LV WR VD\ HWKLFDOO\ DQG
politically – accommodates the contexts he chooses to address: do the novels, for
LQVWDQFHLQDGYHUWHQWO\UHDGWKH³7KLUG:RUOG´FRQWH[WVWKURXJKDPLVDSSURSULDWHG
³:HVWHUQ´ RU (XURFHQWULF OHQV WKDW WKHUHIRUH QHFHVVDULO\ ZRXOG EH P\RSLF" %\
the end of Disgrace the problem of relevance begins to dawn on the protagonist
3URIHVVRU 'DYLG /XULH VR WKDW LW LVQ¶W %\URQ RU7HUHVD ZKR ZLOO UHDZDNHQ KLV
FUHDWLYLW\ EXW WKH VRXQG RI D WR\ EDQMR ± ³SOLQN SOXQN´ ± WKDW KH ERXJKW KLV
GDXJKWHU ³RQ WKH VWUHHWV RI .ZD0DVKX´ ',6 ,Q KLV PRQRJUDSK RQ
Coetzee, Attridge argues that the importance of the early novels, Dusklands and In
the Heart of the CountryGRHVQ¶WHYHQOLHLQDQDQDO\VLVRIFRORQLDOLVPSHUVHDV
readers, Attridge claims, we don’t need to have this spelled out to us, though for
me it is in this analysis, which is staged en abyme, where the narratives triumph.
Rather, Attridge contends, their power resides in the dramatizing of debates
about responsibility to the other, “how otherness is engaged, staged, distanced,
embraced, how it is manifested in the rupturing of narrative discourse, in the
lasting uncertainties of reference, in the simultaneous exhibiting and doubting of
WKHQRYHOLVW¶VDXWKRULW\´J. M. Coetzee±
Coetzee addresses issues such as these, albeit often circuitously, in the volume
of essays and interviews collected in Doubling the Point Turning upon the
FRQFHSWRIGRXEOLQJ'RVWRHYVNLDQ³GRXEOHWKRXJKWV´DQGDXWRFULWLTXHWKHYROXPH
SURYLGHVLQVLJKWVLQWR&RHW]HH¶VLQWHOOHFWXDOEDFNJURXQGWKDWKDVFRORXUHGKLVQRYHOV
DQGZKLFKLVGUDZQIURPERWKWKH³:HVW´DQGKLV6RXWK$IULFDQKHULWDJH±ERWK
Attwell and Rita Barnard read the collection as, in Attwell’s words, “intellectual
DXWRELRJUDSK\´$WWZHOO³/LIHDQG7LPHV´%DUQDUG³,PDJLQLQJ´,QWKH
'XWFKSRHW*HUULW$FKWHUEHUJ¶VVRQQHWVHTXHQFH³%DOODGHYDQGH*DV¿WWHU´'3
&RHW]HHDQDO\]HVZKDWKHFDOOVWKH³SRHWLFVRIUHFLSURFLW\´WKHUHODWLRQVKLS
EHWZHHQ WKH ³,´ DQG WKH ³<RX´ WKH VHOI DQG RWKHU LQ OLWHUDU\ WH[WV FRQVWLWXWHG
Positioning the Writer
7
E\ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ FKDUDFWHU DQG DXWKRU '3 )LFWLRQ WKDW &RHW]HH
GLPLQLVKHVDV³UDGLFDOPHWD¿FWLRQ´LIIDLOLQJWRWDNHDFFRXQWRIWKHHWKLFDOLVLQ
GDQJHURI³VZDOORZLQJLWVRZQWDLO´RIEHFRPLQJD³SRHWLFVRIIDLOXUH´'3
+HUHDGVWKHGHIDPLOLDUL]DWLRQRIWLPHLQ)UDQ].DIND¶VVKRUWVWRU\³7KH%XUURZ´
±DVDPHDQVRI³WKLQNLQJRXWVLGHODQJXDJH´DQGH[SORUHVWKHVXEYHUVLYH
potential this might hold for the alienated writer who writes about alienation (DP
,Q³7KH7DLQWRIWKH3RUQRJUDSKLF´KHVXJJHVWVWKDW'+/DZUHQFH¶V Lady
Chatterley’s Lover LVDQH[HUFLVHLQH[RUFL]LQJZRUGVWKDWVRFLHW\KDV³PDGH
GLUW\´RUWDERRSDUWLFXODUO\WKRVHZRUGVRIDVH[XDODQGH[FUHPHQWDOQDWXUH<HW
KHFRQFOXGHVWKDW/DZUHQFH¶VZRUNGHSHQGVXSRQWDERRWRPDLQWDLQLWVVXEVWDQFH
In the section devoted to South African writers Coetzee utilizes Gordimer’s thesis
in The Essential GestureWRGH¿QHKLVRZQSRVLWLRQRIUHVLVWDQFHWRFRQIRUPLW\LQ
DUW³,QWRWKH'DUN&KDPEHU´H[SORUHVZKDW&RHW]HHSHUFHLYHVDV6RXWK$IULFDQ
writers’ morbid fascination with the torture chamber, a fascination which he admits
VKDULQJ'37KLVSUHRFFXSDWLRQQHFHVVLWDWHVDQHWKLFRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ³KRZ
not to play the game by the rules of the state, how to establish one’s own authority,
KRZWRLPDJLQHWRUWXUHDQGGHDWKLQRQH¶VRZQWHUPV´'3³&RQIHVVLRQDQG
'RXEOH 7KRXJKWV´ ZKLFK KH UHJDUGV DV KLV GH¿QLQJ HVVD\ XS WR WKLV PRPHQW
DQDO\]HVWKHFRQIHVVLRQDOZULWLQJRI7ROVWR\5RXVVHDXDQG'RVWRHYVN\WRLGHQWLI\
WKHSUREOHPVWKDWHQFXPEHUFRQIHVVLRQ¿QGLQJWKHWUXWKDERXWWKHVHOIZKLFKLQ
turn, is imbued with problems of deception and self-deception and the problem
RIFORVXUHKRZWRHQGWKHLQ¿QLWHF\FOHRIWUXWKWHOOLQJDQGVHOIDEQHJDWLRQLQWR
ZKLFKWKHFRQIHVVDQWLVOLNHO\WREHGUDZQ(OVHZKHUH&RHW]HHOLQNVWKHHPSKDWLF
DVVHUWLRQWKDW³$OODXWRELRJUDSK\LVVWRU\WHOOLQJDOOZULWLQJLVDXWRELRJUDSK\´ZLWK
WKHSUREOHPRI³KRZWRWHOOWKHWUXWKLQDXWRELRJUDSK\´'3±ZULWLQJLV
constituted by acts of self-disclosure that are plagued by the problem of where and
when to draw a line.
Coetzee’s highly cerebral and meticulously crafted prose revels in aestheticism
yet is perspicacious in its treatment of the socio-political milieu from which it
VSHDNV SULPDULO\ WKH FRORQLHV DQG SRVWFRORQLHV ,W LV LQ WKLV FRPSOH[ NQLW RI
DHVWKHWLFV DQG WKHPDWLFV WKDW UHDGHUV RI &RHW]HH ZLOO ¿QG WKHPVHOYHV PRVW
rewarded, neither aspect being compromised by the other. Although the writerprotagonists in the oeuvre engage with the apparent tensions between art and
SROLWLFV WKH ¿FWLRQV¶ HODERUDWH WH[WXDOLW\ VXJJHVWV WKDW &RHW]HH UHIXVHV IXOO\ WR
HQGRUVH WKH HWKLFRSROLWLFDO E\ QHJDWLQJ WKH OLWHUDU\ ,Q ³7KH 1RYHO 7RGD\´ D
WDONJLYHQWRWKHWeekly Mail%RRN:HHNLQ&DSH7RZQLQ&RHW]HHDUJXHV
that polarizing commitment and aestheticism is, indeed, counterproductive (NT
:KDWLVPRUHDHVWKHWLFVKHDUJXHVSOD\DFRQVWLWXWLYHSDUWLQWKHSROLWLFVRI
DWH[WLQWKHFDVHRIWKHDUJXPHQWIRUZDUGHGLQ³7KH1RYHO7RGD\´&RHW]HH¶V
target is the discourse of history. What is intriguing, as David Atwell has pointed
RXW ³/LIH DQG7LPHV´ LV WKDW WKLV VKRUW SLHFH KDV QHYHU EHHQ DQWKRORJL]HG
RUVXEVHTXHQWO\DFNQRZOHGJHGE\&RHW]HHOHDGLQJXVWRZRQGHUZKHWKHUKHKDV
UHYRNHGWKLVSHUKDSVHDUOLHUSRVLWLRQRQQRYHOLVWLFSUDFWLFHDQGWKHNLQGRIOLWHUDU\
commitment it apparently promotes.
8
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Many of Coetzee’s protagonists are at some level writers by profession, aware
of the demands that the ethico-politics as well as the aesthetics of writing and
reading might entail. The author Foe, for instance, is accused by Susan Barton
in Foe of embellishing the facts of her island adventure: “Once you proposed
to supply a middle by inventing cannibals and pirates. These I would not accept
EHFDXVHWKH\ZHUHQRWWKHWUXWK´VKHVD\V),WLV%DUWRQ¶VFRQYLFWLRQWKDW
³7LOOZHKDYHVSRNHQWKHXQVSRNHQZHKDYHQRWFRPHWRWKHKHDUWRIWKHVWRU\´)
<HW)RHZDUQVWKDWLQFKRRVLQJDSDWKVXFKDVWKLV%DUWRQULVNVEHLQJ³ORVW
LQWKHPD]HRIGRXEWLQJ´)WKHHQGOHVVVSLUDORIVHOIGRXEWLQWRZKLFKWKH
ZULWHUTXHVWLQJIRUWUXWKVLVOLNHO\WREHFRPHHPEURLOHG5DFNHGE\WKHGHPRQVRI
JXLOWWKH&RHW]HDQZULWHURIFRQVFLHQFHW\SLFDOO\LVORVWLQMXVWVXFKDPD]H8QGHU
WKHSUHVVXUHJHQHUDWHGE\WKHFRQÀLFWLQJGHPDQGVZULWLQJLPSRVHVDQLPSORVLRQ
RI VHOI RFFXUV WKH ZULWHU LV ³GHPRQSRVVHVVHG´ RU SV\FKLFDOO\ DQG VRPHWLPHV
WH[WXDOO\XQVWDEOH7UDFLQJWKHJHQHDORJ\RI&RHW]HH¶VDXWKRUQDUUDWRUV-DFREXV
&RHW]HHLVH[FHSWLRQDOEHFDXVHKHUHPDLQVHQWLUHO\XQVHOIUHÀH[LYHEXWDV$WWZHOO
observes, once Coetzee has registered the existence of such blind authoritarianism,
he leaves the Jacobus Coetzees of this world behind (J. M. CoetzeeDQGFRQMXUHV
instead more complex, contradictory characters.
&RHW]HH VNHWFKHV D QRYHOLVWLF SUDFWLFH LQ ³7KH 1RYHO 7RGD\´ WKDW LV DQWL
KLVWRULFDOZKLFKLVQRWWRVD\DKLVWRULFDOEHFDXVHVHYHUDORIWKHZRUNVHQJDJH
H[SOLFLWO\ ZLWK KLVWRULFDO HYHQWV 6RPH DUH WKHUHIRUH DOVR ³DQWLUHDOLVW´ WKRXJK
Age of Iron and DisgraceDUHQRWDEOHIRU&RHW]HH¶V³UHWXUQ´WRUHDOLVP6LWXDWLQJ
KLV DUJXPHQW LQ ³WLPHV RI LQWHQVH LGHRORJLFDO SUHVVXUH OLNH WKH SUHVHQW´
&RHW]HH DGYRFDWHV D QRYHO WKDW WKURXJK SURFHVVHV RI ³ULYDOU\´ UDWKHU WKDQ
³VXSSOHPHQWDULW\´ZRXOGH[SRVHKLVWRU\DVDQLGHRORJLFDOO\LQÀHFWHGGLVFRXUVH
17$QRYHOVXFKDVWKLVZRXOGUHVLVWUHSOLFDWLQJFHUWDLQNLQGVRIKLVWRULFDO
³WUXWKV´SHUYDGHGE\WKHRSSUHVVLYHVWDWH
In the present study, though I aim to preserve the historical-material contexts
RIWKHZRUNVLQP\HIIRUWVWRSURGXFHDpostcolonialFULWLTXHRIWKHDFWRIZULWLQJ
LQ&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQKLVWRULFL]LQJLVQRWP\SULPDU\IRFXVEHFDXVHWKLVWDVNKDV
been amply met in the monographs by Attwell and Susan VanZanten Gallagher.
$WWZHOOLGHQWL¿HV&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQDV³VLWXDWLRQDOPHWD¿FWLRQ´J. M. Coetzee
and asserts “again and again the historicity of the act of storytelling, continually
UHDGLQJWKHQRYHOVEDFNLQWRWKHLUFRQWH[W´J. M. Coetzee$WWZHOO¶VPRQRJUDSK
which ends with Age of Iron, is philosophically and aesthetically in tune with
&RHW]HH¶VZULWLQJLQZKDWWRP\PLQGUHPDLQVRQHRIWKHEHVWERRNOHQJWKVWXGLHV
RIWKHDXWKRU*DOODJKHU¶VDQDO\VLV¿UPO\URRWHGLQDFXOWXUDOPDWHULDOLVWFULWLTXH
SDLQVWDNLQJO\VLWXDWHVWKHWH[WVZLWKLQWKHLUKLVWRULFDODVZHOODVOLWHUDU\FRQWH[WV
Sue Kossew in Pen and Power OLNH $WWZHOO DQG *DOODJKHU DVVHVVHV
Coetzee’s political engagement, this time focusing on the postcoloniality of the
ZRUNVWKURXJKDFRPSDULVRQZLWKDQRWKHUZHOONQRZQZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQDXWKRU
$QGUp %ULQN .RVVHZ FKRRVHV WR IRFXV RQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH OLWHUDU\
DQGWKHSROLWLFDOULJKWO\LQVLVWLQJDVWKHWLWOHWRKHUERRNVXJJHVWVRQWKHSROLWLF
weight of the writing.
Positioning the Writer
9
Coetzee states that he is not endorsing writing that is apolitical: “am I saying
[these things] in order to distance myself from revolutionary art and ally myself
ZLWKWKRVHSHRSOHZKRWKLQNWKHUHLVQRWKLQJQLFHUWKDQFXGGOLQJXSLQEHGZLWK
DQRYHODQGKDYLQJDJRRGROGUHDG«",KRSHQRW´17:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWWR
Coetzee is the staging of debate, challenging orthodoxy and nurturing an agential,
critical readership but one that nevertheless is not expected to forego the pleasure
of the text. Yet Attridge, writing in his monograph about the ethics of reading in
&RHW]HHH[SUHVVHVVNHSWLFLVPWRZDUGVWKHWHQGHQF\ZLWKLQSRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHV
WR HQGRZ WKH OLWHUDU\ ZLWK SROLWLFDO FXUUHQF\ KH DUJXHV WKDW Disgrace, perhaps
&RHW]HH¶VPRVWGLVWXUELQJZRUNWRGDWH³LVGLVWXUELQJLQPDQ\ZD\VDQGDPRQJ
WKHWKLQJVLWGLVWXUEVLVDQ\VLPSOHIDLWKLQWKHSROLWLFDOHI¿FDF\RIOLWHUDWXUH±D
IDLWKXSRQZKLFKVRPHVW\OHVRISRVWFRORQLDOFULWLFLVPDUHEXLOW´³-0&RHW]HH¶V
Disgrace,QWURGXFWLRQ´
7KHHI¿FDF\RIOLWHUDWXUHIRUHIIHFWLQJFKDQJHPD\EHDPRRWSRLQWEXWFDOOLQJ
LQWR TXHVWLRQ WKH GRPLQDQW WHQGHQFLHV LQ ZULWLQJ EH LW KLVWRULFDO RU ¿FWLRQDO LV
crucial to understanding the legacy of colonialism and apartheid given that under
KHJHPRQLHVVXFKDVWKHVHKLVWRULRJUDSK\DQG¿FWLRQDOQDUUDWLYHIRUPSDUWRIWKH
LGHRORJLFDO DPPXQLWLRQ XVHG WR FRQWURO DQG VXEMHFW FRORQL]HG DQG VHJUHJDWHG
peoples. To avoid replicating such tendencies, constant and evolving criticism of
LQWHOOHFWXDO SUDFWLFH PXVW EH WKHUHIRUH IRVWHUHG LI WKH SRVWFRORQLDO SURMHFW LV WR
UHPDLQFUHGLEOHTXHVWLRQLQJWKHZULWHU¶VDXWKRULW\HYHQLIWKURXJKWKHPHGLXPRI
¿FWLRQLVRQHZD\RILOOXPLQDWLQJWKLVHQGHDYRXU
&RHW]HH¶V ZULWLQJ ERWK KLV ¿FWLRQ DQG HVVD\V DFNQRZOHGJHV WKH JUDYLW\ RI
writerly engagement, yet cautions against conformity in resistance lest, through
complacency, artists allow the new order to degenerate to the oppressive standards
of the old. As a committed ANC member, Sachs understands this problem of
LQWHUQDOL]HG³FHQVRUVKLS´DNLQGRIVHOIFHQVRUVKLSDVDWKUHDWWRWKHLQWHJULW\RI
SURJUHVVLYH SROLWLFV *RUGLPHU KHUVHOI DFWLYH LQ WKH DQWLDSDUWKHLG VWUXJJOH
ZDVFHQVRUHGXQGHUDSDUWKHLG'3DQGDWWHPSWVDSSDUHQWO\KDYHEHHQPDGH
E\ VRPH WR FHQVXUH KHU LQ WKH ³QHZ 6RXWK$IULFD´$V &RHW]HH QRWHV LQ Giving
Offense, Gordimer’s Burger’s Daughter ZDV GHHPHG LQ WKH ZRUGV RI WKH
3XEOLFDWLRQV$SSHDO%RDUG3$%WR³FRQWDLQYDULRXVDQWLZKLWHVHQWLPHQWV´*2
ZKLOVWLQ$SULOIRXUWHDFKHUVVLWWLQJRQDQHGXFDWLRQDOHYDOXDWLRQSDQHOLQ
Gauteng Province recommended that July’s PeopleEHUHPRYHGIURPVFKRRO
syllabuses because, in the words of Justin Cartwright who recorded the event, “any
FRQGHPQDWLRQRIUDFLVPLVGLI¿FXOWWRGLVFRYHU±VRWKHVWRU\FRPHVDFURVVDVEHLQJ
GHHSO\UDFLVWVXSHULRUDQGSDWURQLVLQJ´&DUWZULJKWQSDJ(GXFDWLRQ0LQLVWHU
.DGHU$VPDOKRZHYHUZDVTXLFNWRFRPHWR*RUGLPHU¶VGHIHQFHRQWKHJURXQGV
that the comments were anti-intellectualist and pedagogically suspect (South African
*RYHUQPHQW³6SRWOLJKWRQ0DWULFXODQWV´QSDJ7KHSDQHOEDFNHG$VPDO
&RHW]HH PDNHV WKH WKURZDZD\ UHPDUN LQ Doubling the Point WKDW KH ¿QGV
political debates about censorship at best tedious and at worst stupid: his interest lies
LQWKHSV\FKRORJLFDOHIIHFWVRIFHQVRUVKLSZKLFKZRUNVOLNHDGLVHDVHLQIHFWLQJWKH
PLQGRIERWKFHQVRUDQGFHQVRUHGDOLNH'3&RHW]HH¶VHVVD\VRQFHQVRUVKLS
10
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
collected in Giving Offense: Essays on CensorshipHQJDJHZLWKKLVVLJQDWXUH
PRGHUQLVWGRXEOHHGJHGFULWLTXHRIDoubling the Point. In “Breyten Breytenbach
DQGWKH5HDGHULQWKH0LUURU´KHH[SORUHVWKHZD\VLQZKLFK%UH\WHQEDFK¶VPLUURU
writings are structured by notions of contagion and complicity, embodied in the
¿JXUHRIWKHFHQVRUDVdoppelgängerORFNHGLQWKHGH¿QLQJVHOIRWKHUGLDOHFWLF
FHQVRUDQGFHQVRUHGPHWDPRUSKRVHLQWRGDUNWZLQVRU³PLUURUEURWKHUV´*2
Breytenbach, Confessions :ULWHU DQG WH[W ³PLUURUSDJH´ UHSURGXFH WKH
G\QDPLFEHWZHHQ³FRRSHUDWLYHSULVRQHU´DQGLQWHUURJDWRU*2,Q³(UDVPXV
0DGQHVVDQG5LYDOU\´&RHW]HHGUDZVXSRQ5HQp*LUDUGDQG0LFKHO)RXFDXOWWR
UHIRUPXODWHQRWLRQVRI³PDGQHVV´WKDWLQ(QOLJKWHQPHQWGLVFRXUVHKDYHEHHQUHDG
as antithetical to reason and served as a means of state control. In the hands of the
DSDUWKHLG UHJLPH ³UHDVRQ´ LV LWVHOI LUUDWLRQDO DQG WKHUHIRUH ³PDG´ DQG PDGQHVV
DQG UDWLRQDOLW\ XQUHDVRQUHDVRQ DV IRUPV RI ³PLPHWLF YLROHQFH´ DUH UHGXFHG
WR ³ZDUULQJ WZLQV´ *2 ,Q ³$SDUWKHLG 7KLQNLQJ´ &RHW]HH XQGHUVWDQGV
WKHZULWLQJRIWKHSURJHQLWRURIDSDUWKHLGLGHRORJ\*HRIIUH\&URQMpDVDNLQGRI
LQVDQHFRQIHVVLRQWKDWDOORZXVWR³IROORZWKHUDYLQJVIURPLQVLGH´*2
Much scholarship on Coetzee has been preoccupied with the problem of
KRZ WR GH¿QH DQG V\VWHPDWL]H KLV ¿FWLRQ ,Q VSLWH RI WKH FULWLFLVPV RI HYDVLRQ
levelled against him, the consistently Janus-faced portrayal of the writer in the
encounter with alterity throughout the oeuvre evidences Coetzee’s profound sense
RIUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGDFFRXQWDELOLW\WRKLVVXEMHFW,QGHHGZKHQ&RHW]HHDFFHSWV
$WWZHOO¶VODEHODV³ODWHPRGHUQLVWÚDWKHUWKDQSRVWPRGHUQLVWKHDVFULEHVDFHUWDLQ
ethicality to his writing. Neil Lazarus in an early article on Coetzee registers the
LQWHOOHFWXDOLQWHJULW\RIKLV¿FWLRQZKLFKFDQRQO\EHFDOOHGPRGHUQLVW/D]DUXV
argues, not postmodernist, because the novels represent reality, rationalism, the
HWKLFDO DQG D KXPDQLVW FULWLTXH RI WKH status quo ³0RGHUQLVP DQG 0RGHUQLW\´
2QWKLVSRLQW$WWULGJHZRXOGDJUHHDVD³ODWHPRGHUQLVW´&RHW]HH³GRHVQRW
merely employ but extends and revitalizes modernist practices, and in so doing
develops a mode of writing that allows the attentive reader to live through the
SUHVVXUHV DQG SRVVLELOLWLHV DQG DOVR WKH OLPLWV RI SROLWLFDO HQJDJHPHQW´ J. M.
Coetzee$WWULGJH¶VPRQRJUDSKRQ&RHW]HHLVQRWDEOHDPRQJVWRWKHUWKLQJVIRU
its deconstructive turn that borrows from formalism and an emphasis on what he
FDOOVWKH³VLQJXODULW\RIOLWHUDWXUH´H[SHULHQFHGLQWKH³UHDGLQJHYHQW´(WKLFDOO\
UHVSRQVLEOHUHDGLQJKHDUJXHVLQYROYHVVHQVLWLYLW\DQGDWWHQWLYHQHVVWRWKHZRUNLQJV
of a text. The text that is experimental and estranging is more demanding of its
reader and hence such a text is more ethically charged (Attridge, J. M. Coetzee
$WWULGJH¶VUHDGLQJRIWKHHVWUDQJLQJWH[WLVQRWXQOLNH7KHRGRU$GRUQR¶VFRQFHSWRI
literary commitment, crucially distinguished by Adorno’s concern for politics rather
WKDQVLPSO\HWKLFV$GRUQR³&RPPLWPHQW´'RPLQLF+HDGXQGHUVWDQGV&RHW]HH
VRPHZKDWGLIIHUHQWO\E\GH¿QLQJWKH¿FWLRQDV³HWKLFDOO\RULHQWHGSRVWPRGHUQLVP´
(J. M. Coetzee,UHDG&RHW]HHDVDSRVWFRORQLDOODWHPRGHUQLVWEXWZRXOGWHQG
WRDJUHHKRZHYHUZLWK(OOHNH%RHKPHUWKDWLIVWDOOHGDWWKHOHYHORIWHUPLQRORJ\
WKHGHEDWHULVNVEHLQJXQSURGXFWLYHColonial and Postcolonial Literature Positioning the Writer
11
and detracts from the thrust of Coetzee’s writing and from its achievements (not
VRPHWKLQJLWKDVWREHVDLGRIZKLFKWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGFULWLFVDUHJXLOW\
$VDZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQZULWHU&RHW]HHLVDFXWHO\DZDUHWKDWKHVSHDNVIURP
DSRVLWLRQRIEHQH¿FLDU\RIWKHDSDUWKHLGUHJLPHSDOSDEOHLQWKHVWULQJRIDQ[LRXV
intellectuals that populate his novels. At the same time, he has tacitly positioned
himself as marginalized, as a modernist writing against the grain of oppositional
ZULWLQJ DQG LQ FKLOGKRRG DV DQ (QJOLVK VSHDNHU RI SDUW$IULNDQHU VWRFN DQG D
3URWHVWDQWDWWHQGLQJD&DWKROLFKLJKVFKRRO'3±,QBoyhood the young
-RKQ H[SHULHQFHV DOLHQDWLRQ DW SULPDU\ VFKRRO DV ZHOO ZKHQ TXHVWLRQHG E\ KLV
teacher, he precociously announces he is a Roman Catholic, in this instance at a
Protestant establishment, only to be excluded from assembly. (He hopes that the
QH[WGD\KHFDQUHYLVHWKLVFKRLFHDQGEHFRPHD³&KULVWLDQ´>%@+RZHYHU
ZKHWKHU WRGD\ &RHW]HH FDQ EH WDONHG DERXW DV PDUJLQDO LV GRXEWIXO JLYHQ WKH
iQWHQVHJOREDOLQWHUHVWLQKLVZRUN
,QEURDGWHUPV,LGHQWLI\IRXUSKDVHVLQWKHWUDMHFWRU\RIWKHRHXYUHZKLFK
can be mapped on to the political contexts of each. These phases guide the
RUJDQL]DWLRQRIWKHFKDSWHUVWKDWIROORZ,GLVFXVVWKH¿UVWSKDVHDusklands, In
the Heart of the Country and Waiting for the Barbarians, in terms of the “madness
RIFLYLOL]DWLRQ´)RXFDXOW7KHP\WKRORJLHVRIFRORQLDODQGLPSHULDOHQWHUSULVH
that energize the protagonists’ narratives and that allow Coetzee to “historicize
PDGQHVV´*2DUHRIIVHWLQWKHVHQRYHOVDJDLQVWWKHPRWLIRIPDGQHVV7KLV
early phase centres on the unremittingly Draconian power of white hegemonies
– colonialism, apartheid and U.S. imperialism in Vietnam – and on the modernday myths these hegemonies have circulated. In turn, myth mutates into forms of
PDGQHVVLQLWVGLVWRUWLRQRIFHUWDLQNLQGVRI³WUXWKVÉHWKH\SROLWLFDOKLVWRULFDO
social or economic.
$JDLQVWWKHEDFNGURSRIWKH$1&EHJLQQLQJLWVGHIHQFHFDPSDLJQLQ
' ) 0DODQ¶V $IULNDQHU 1DWLRQDO 3DUW\ WKDW ZDV HOHFWHG WR SRZHU LQ LPSOHPHQWHG WKH PDMRU DSDUWKHLG OHJLVODWLRQ EHWZHHQ DQG WKURXJK
which it endeavoured to silence the political voice of South Africa’s marginalized
PDMRULW\%ODFNRSSRVLWLRQDFFRUGLQJWRWKHKLVWRULDQ:LOOLDP%HLQDUWUHDFKHG
LWVKHLJKWEHWZHHQDQGZLWKWKH6KDUSHYLOOHPDVVDFUHEXWLQ
WKH $1& DQG 3DQ $IULFDQLVW &RQJUHVV 3$& ZHUH EDQQHG DQG WKXV IRUFHG
underground. Though the 1960s saw rapid economic growth in South Africa,
WKLV RQO\ VHUYHG WR ZRUVHQ WKH EODFN PDMRULW\¶V SOLJKW EULQJLQJ ZLWK LW WKH
implementation of homeland and forced removal policies. The government’s
violent response to the Soweto student protests of 1976 and the death in police
FXVWRG\RIVWXGHQWOHDGHU6WHYH%LNRLQIDQQHGWKHÀDPHVRIGLVVHQW:ULWWHQ
in the 1970s and early 1980s, when the strong-arm of the apartheid regime may
have seemed unassailable, these novels explore the problems both produced
and encountered by the white writer who peddles or presses against imperialist,
colonialist and apartheid ideologies. Under extreme pressure the colonizer’s
and colonized’s sense of self, that in this early phase turns upon the motifs of
FRQWDJLRQDQGPDGQHVVLVIUDFWXUHGDQGLQVDQLW\UHVXOWV)UDQW])DQRQ¶V³EODFN
12
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
VNLQZKLWHPDVNVÍRUPXODWLRQVSHDNVWRWKLVFRQGLWLRQE\HOXFLGDWLQJWKHVLWHRI
RWKHUQHVV FRQIURQWHG E\ WKH UDFLVW )DQRQ H[SHULHQFHV ³FUXVKLQJ REMHFWKRRG´
DQG LV ³FRPSOHWHO\ GLVORFDWHG´ Black Skin ,Q WKLV SKDVH &RHW]HH
HVWDEOLVKHV WKH XQZDUUDQWHG DQG XQHDUQHG DXWKRULW\ RI WKH ³ZKLWH´ ZULWHU WR
H[SRVHLWDVDNLQGRIPDGQHVV
The second phase, Life & Times and Foe, centres on Coetzee’s paradoxically
UHVLVWLQJEXWXWWHUO\VXEMHFWHGRWKHUVDWKHPHWKDWFRQYHUJHVLQWKH5RELQVRQDGH
parable as well as, in Life & Times .DIND¶V SDUDEOHV DQG SDUDGR[HV 7KLQNLQJ
through what islands signify to the resisting other, my readings of the texts show
how this was a necessary phase in Coetzee’s writing, coming as it did at the height
of the apartheid struggle, before the end of the regime, when attempts were being
PDGH WR VWLÀH WKH YRLFHV RI WKH PDUJLQDOL]HG PDMRULW\ DQG EHIRUH WKH UHDOLW\ RI
GHPRFUDF\ ZDV LQ VLJKW 1HYHUWKHOHVV EODFN UHVLVWDQFH ZDV VLJQL¿FDQW GXULQJ
WKLVSHULRGDQGWKLVIDFWKDVSURYRNHGFULWLFLVPRIWKHVHWH[WVDV,VXEVHTXHQWO\
explain.
The insurrection beginning in 1984 that led to the States of Emergency from
WR SRVHG WKH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW WKUHDW WR DSDUWKHLG UXOH FRQVROLGDWLQJ
EODFNRSSRVLWLRQWKDWKDGEHJXQLQWKHVEXWWKLVDOVROHGWRLQWHUQDOGLYLVLRQV
ZLWKLQ WKH UHVLVWDQFH PRYHPHQWV 5XUDO UHPRYDOV DQG WKH QHZ FRQ¿JXUDWLRQV
RIXUEDQL]DWLRQWKDWUHVXOWHGSHDNHGDWWKLVWLPHDQGLQWKHSDVVODZVZHUH
UHVFLQGHGLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHSRSXODWLRQH[SORVLRQLQXUEDQDUHDV%HLQDUW[LLL±[YL
7KHVWXEERUQO\SDVVLYHUHVLVWDQFHRI&RHW]HH¶VEODFNSURWDJRQLVWVGXULQJWKLV
SKDVHLV¿JXUHGLQWKHLUVLOHQFHEXWSUREOHPDWLFDOO\WKLVGHQRWHVDORVVRISROLWLFDO
voice. Yet if, as Peter Hulme argues, the island motif in literature provides the
vessel in which the self is distilled (Colonial EncountersERWK0LFKDHO
K and Friday experience their islands of isolation in a similar way: identity is
reconstituted in the silences they weave around themselves as authors of their
OLYHV,QVSLWHRIWKH³ZKLWHZULWHUV´WKH\HQFRXQWHUDW¿UVWEHOLHYLQJ)ULGD\DQG
Michael K are nothing until they are fashioned in discourse, they are, in fact,
resisting others who hold the colonizer out.
7KHSHQQLQJRIWKH¿UVWWZRQRYHOVRIWKHWKLUGSKDVHAge of Iron and The
Master of PetersburgURXJKO\FRLQFLGHGZLWKWKHUHOHDVHRIWKH¿JXUHKHDG
of the anti-apartheid struggle Nelson Mandela and the unbanning of the ANC in
E\):GH.OHUN¶VUHJLPHDisgraceFDPHTXLFNRQWKHKHHOVRIGHPRFUDF\
With the end of apartheid a very real possibility when Coetzee wrote Age of Iron,
a certainty with The Master of Petersburg and reality with Disgrace, it is not
surprising that this phase is increasingly preoccupied with confession leading to
WUXWK DQG UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ TXHVWLRQV WKDW FOHDUO\ ZHUH ZRUNLQJ WKHPVHOYHV RXW RQ
the national plane. As South Africa moved irrepressibly towards democracy and
apartheid laws were gradually repealed, the residual effects of apartheid left a
QDWLRQVWUXJJOLQJWRFRPHWRWHUPVZLWKWKHSDVWDQGWKHSUREOHPRIKRZEODFNV
and whites could now live peaceably as neighbours.
Positioning the Writer
13
4XHVWLRQV RI WUXWK DQG UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ ZHUH IRUPDOO\ DGGUHVVHG E\ WKH PXFK
PDOLJQHG 7UXWK DQG 5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ &RPPLVVLRQ 75& FKDLUHG E\$UFKELVKRS
'HVPRQG 7XWX ZKLFK ¿UVW VDW LQ 7KH PLVVLRQ RI WKH 75& ZDV WR EULQJ
the truth of apartheid abuse to light, but many rightly argued this was at the cost
RI MXVWLFH )LUVWO\ VRPH SHUSHWUDWRUV RI JURVV YLRODWLRQV RI KXPDQ ULJKWV ZHUH
HIIHFWLYHO\ OHW RII WKH KRRN WKURXJK WKH &RPPLVVLRQ¶V SURFHVVHV RI DPQHVW\
(however, amnesty could be, and often was, refused if the crimes were deemed
QRQSROLWLFDORUH[FHHGHGHYHQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRI³JURVVYLRODWLRQV´DQGVHFRQGO\
the systemic abuses of apartheid were not accounted for.
:KLOHWKH³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´LVHQJDJHGZLWKQDWLRQEXLOGLQJDQGZLWKEHDULQJ
ZLWQHVVWRDQGUHFRQFLOLQJLWVHOIZLWKWKHSDVWWKHQRYHOVRIWKHWKLUGSKDVHZRUN
through the insurmountability of truth and reconciliation in the public, national
sphere as well as in the sphere of the self. In these novels white writers experience
DQG DWWHPSW WR UHVROYH D FULVLV RI DXWKRULW\ DV WKH\ VWUXJJOH WR ¿QG WKHLU SODFH
during a time of seismic change. In other words, there is an acceptance, or at least
a recognition, of the pitfalls writerly authority engenders.
)LQDOO\LQWKHIRXUWKSKDVH&RHW]HHPRYHVEH\RQGDVSHFL¿FDOO\SRVWFRORQLDOLVW
SDUDGLJP,IRFXVRQWKHTXDVLQRYHOElizabeth Costello and Diary of a Bad Year,
with brief reference to Slow ManWRH[SORUHWKHZD\VLQZKLFKLQWKHVHZRUNV
Coetzee pares the problem of the author’s authority via the radical defamiliarization
RI JHQUH RU ³JHQUH DFWV´7KH HQG RI DSDUWKHLG KDV VLJQDOOHG QHZ GLUHFWLRQV LQ
South African literature, which inevitably had been overdetermined by apartheid,
DQGKDVHQDEOHGZULWHUVWRORRNLQZDUGWRWKHVHOIDQGRXWZDUGDQGEH\RQGWR
the global as well as the local. By defamiliarizing genre boundaries to reveal that
UHDOO\WKH\ZHUHSRURXVDOODORQJWKHVHPHWD¿FWLRQVUH¿JXUH6DLG¶VGH¿QLWLRQRI
WKHSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDODVRQHZKR³VSHDNVWUXWKWRSRZHU´DQGIRUJRHVSHUVRQDO
LQWHUHVWVLQIDYRXURI³VHFXODUUDWLRQDOLW\´7KURXJKDFWVRIJHQUH&RHW]HHFDOOV
LQWRTXHVWLRQWKHSURFHVVRIREWDLQLQJLQWHOOHFWXDOWUXWKVDFULWLFDODFWLYLW\WKDWLV
for Said the very lifeblood of the public intellectual.
:KDWHYHUFRQWURYHUV\&RHW]HH¶VRHXYUHKDVVSDUNHGDQGSHUKDSVHYHQFRXUWHG
is the product of the tensions the paradox of postcolonial authorship generates,
D SDUDGR[ WKDW GULYHV DOO RI &RHW]HH¶V QRYHOV DQG PXFK RI KLV QRQ¿FWLRQ WKDW
writing on others’ behalf threatens the ethico-politics that go to the very heart of
WKHSRVWFRORQLDOWH[W&RHW]HH¶VVHOIUHÀH[LYLW\RQPDWWHUVRIDXWKRULW\DQGZKDW
6DLGFDOOVWKH³SHUPLVVLRQWRQDUUDWH´³3HUPLVVLRQ´RQFRORQLDODQGDSDUWKHLG
violence, on censorship and the censoring self and on the negotiation of truth and
UHFRQFLOLDWLRQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIQDWLRQDOOLEHUDWLRQKDVYDULRXVO\EDIÀHGLQIXULDWHG
LQWULJXHGDQGFDSWLYDWHGKLVUHDGHUV1RGRXEWKLVZULWLQJZLOOFRQWLQXHWRLQÀXHQFH
new generations of South African and postcolonial writers for generations to come
LQLWVSHQHWUDWLQJH[SORUDWLRQVLQWRSRVWFRORQLDOZULWHUO\SUDFWLFH7KLVERRNLQ
LWV GHWDLOHG DQDO\VLV RI WKH ZULWHU ¿JXUH LQ &RHW]HH¶V ZRUN KRSHV WR HOXFLGDWH
Coetzee’s ideas on authorial authority so that they might be applied more widely
to colonial and postcolonial literatures.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 1
³)DWKHU0DNHV0HUU\ZLWK&KLOGUHQ´
Madness and Mythology in Dusklands
InKLV¿UVWQRYHODusklands-0&RHW]HHKDVEDIÀHGPDQ\RIKLVUHDGHUV
E\MX[WDSRVLQJWZRDSSDUHQWO\GLVFUHWHQDUUDWLYHV³7KH9LHWQDP3URMHFW´QDUUDWHG
by Eugene Dawn, an American propagandist writing in the early 1970s, and “The
1DUUDWLYHRI-DFREXV&RHW]HH´QDUUDWHGE\DOLQHRI6RXWK$IULFDQ&RHW]HHV7KH
most prominent of this line, Jacobus Coetzee, J. M. Coetzee claims as an ancestor
'37KHRWKHU&RHW]HHVLQWKHWH[WLQFOXGLQJ³&RHW]HH´LQ'DZQ¶VQDUUDWLYH
DUH¿FWLRQDO1 In Doubling the Point -0&RHW]HHLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHERRNLVKLV
UHVSRQVH WR WKH 9LHWQDP :DU DQG WR 6RXWK$IULFDQ KLVWRU\ '3 ± QRW RQO\
colonialism, informed by the author’s reading of the “annals of the exploration of
VRXWKHUQ$IULFDÉXWDOVRDSDUWKHLGEHFDXVH-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VQDUUDWLYHLVUHWROGE\
'U6-&RHW]HHDWWKHPRPHQWLPPHGLDWHO\SUHFHGLQJWKHHOHFWLRQRIWKH$IULNDQHU
1DWLRQDO 3DUW\ LQWR JRYHUQPHQW LQ :LWK PDQ\ FULWLFV UHDGLQJ WKH ZRUN DV
two separate narratives, as Dominic Head observes, criticisms of the text have
WHQGHGWRIRFXVRQWKH³REOLTXLW\RIWKHERRN¶VPHWKRG´WKHPRVWFRQGHPQDWRU\RI
ZKLFKKDYHVXJJHVWHGWKDW-0&RHW]HHLVFRPSOLFLWLQWKHYHU\SURMHFWKHVHHNVWR
FKDOOHQJHWKH³H[FLWHPHQWRIFRORQLDOVHOIDJJUDQGL]HPHQW´+HDGULJKWO\DUJXHV
however, that “complicity is a theme of the novel, and is inevitably enacted in the
VHTXHQFHRI¿UVWSHUVRQQDUUDWLYHVZKHUHHDFKQDUUDWLQJVXEMHFWLVH[SRVHGDVD
SURGXFWDQGSHUSHWUDWRURIFRORQLDOSURMHFWV´J. M. Coetzee
Complicity is realized metaphorically in the psychic collapse of Dawn and
Jacobus Coetzee, both of whom are authors in the service of imperialism and
FRORQLDOLVP UHVSHFWLYHO\ DQG ZKR ZRUN WR SHUSHWXDWH WKH P\WKV RI WKHVH WZR
ideologies (Jacobus is only an author of sorts because he is illiterate and his narrative
KDV WKHUHIRUH EHHQ WUDQVFULEHG ,W LV RQO\ WKURXJK RXU UHDGLQJ 'DZQ¶V UHSRUW
prepared for the American Department of Defense on methods of propaganda, that
Jacobus’s colonial enterprise as myth is more obviously signalled. So reading the
novel as a single piece composed of two corresponding parts, as Head suggests,
rather than self-contained stories is therefore more fruitful, and is no doubt closer
WR-0&RHW]HH¶VLQWHQWLRQLQWKHQRYHO¶VFRQVWUXFWLRQ7KHUHODWLRQLQWKH¿UVW
VHFWLRQEHWZHHQDXWKRU'DZQWH[WWKHUHSRUWDQGZRUOGWKHPLOLWDU\DQGWKH
9LHWQDPHVH LV SDUDOOHOHG ZLWK WKH VHFRQG ³7KH 1DUUDWLYH RI -DFREXV &RHW]HH´
± -DFREXV DXWKRU LV GLFWDWLQJ KLV DQQDOV WH[W RI FRORQLDO H[SORUDWLRQ ZRUOG
1
For clarity, the name of real-life author J. M. Coetzee will be referred to in full and
without inverted commas throughout the chapter.
16
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
– a strategy that invites the reader to draw some obvious comparisons between
WKHWZRPDLQQDUUDWRUVRU³DXWKRUIXQFWLRQV´LQ)RXFDXOGLDQWHUPV³:KDWLVDQ
$XWKRU"´
%RWK 'DZQ DQG -DFREXV ZRUN DW HVWDEOLVKLQJ DQG PDLQWDLQLQJ GRPLQDQW
mythologies, yet I will argue that what Roland Barthes calls the distorting effect of
P\WKLQKLVHQGXULQJZRUNMythologiesHYHQWXDOO\IUDFWXUHVWKHLURZQVHQVH
of self: ironically, as they descend into madness they become victims of the very
ideologies they are busy promoting because they are unable properly to read the
myths they produce. While Dawn, writing from a twentieth-century perspective,
LVGULYHQLQVDQHE\KLVPRUDOO\GXELRXVZRUNDVDQ$PHULFDQSURSDJDQGLVWGXULQJ
the U.S. government’s military intervention into Vietnam and Cambodia in the
1960s and 70s (that foretells the horrors of Abu Ghraib gaol and the contemporary
³ZDURQWHUURU´>FI6SHQFHU³&RORQLDO9LROHQFH´@-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VPDGQHVV
apparently stems from physical disease rather than a bad conscience: the delirium
of fever and infection. Yet because he remains oblivious to the sociopathic and
dehumanizing nature of his colonizing mission, the boil next to his anus and his
ZUDWKDWEHLQJPRFNHGDQGGHJUDGHGE\KLV1DPDTXDFDSWRUVGXULQJKLVWUHNLQWR
their territory translate as metaphors for the madness of colonialism. In different
ways Dawn and Jacobus’s violent and depraved encounter with the other, in which
WKH\WU\WREUHDNWKHRWKHUGRZQZRUNVOLNHDGLVHDVHRQWKHLURZQFRQVFLRXVQHVV
DQG LQ 'DZQ¶V FDVH KLV FRQVFLHQFH WRR 7KH SVHXGRUDWLRQDO GLVFRXUVH WKDW
FDPRXÀDJHVFRORQLDODQGLPSHULDOFRQTXHVWLVXQGHUFXWE\WKHPDGQHVVRIWKHVH
WZR P\WKPDNHUV DQG RI WKH LGHRORJLHV WKH\ H[SRXQG WR UHYHDO WKH PDGQHVV RI
VRFDOOHGFLYLOL]DWLRQ³7KH9LHWQDP3URMHFW´VHUYHVDVDOHQVRUUHDGLQJSUDFWLFH
E\ZKLFKWRUHDGWKHPRUHREOLTXHP\WKRORJL]LQJLQ³7KH1DUUDWLYHRI-DFREXV
&RHW]HH´LQRWKHUZRUGVVFKHPDWLFDOO\-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VPRUHPHWDSKRULFDOO\
UHDOL]HGPDGQHVVLVUHDGWKURXJKWKHWHUPVRI'DZQ¶VRYHUWP\WKPDNLQJDQGKLV
experience of psychological collapse. The myths of imperial and colonial enterprise
DUHH[SRVHGDVDNLQGRIPDGQHVVEHFDXVHWKH\UHJLVWHUDZLOOHGPLVUHFRJQLWLRQRI
WKHLUVXEMHFWWKHLPSHULDODQGFRORQLDORWKHU
7KLVVNHWFKRIWKHVFKHPHDQGWKHPDWLFVRIWKHQRYHOWDOOLHVZLWK-0&RHW]HH¶V
RIWHQFLWHGDGGUHVV³7KH1RYHO7RGD\´DWWKHWeekly Mail%RRN:HHNLQ
Cape Town in 1987 in which he discusses the relation between the genre of the
QRYHODQGWKH³KLVWRULFDOSUHVHQW´+HZULWHVDJDLQVWWKHJUDLQRIWKH³GRPLQDQW
WHQGHQF\´ WR FRQWDLQ WKH QRYHO XQGHU WKH XPEUHOOD RI KLVWRU\ ZKHUHE\ ¿FWLRQ
UHSURGXFHVUHDOKLVWRULFDOHYHQW177KURXJKWKHQRWLRQRIULYDOOLQJUDWKHUWKDQ
supplementing history, he advocates:
a novel that operates in terms of its own procedures and issues in its own
conclusions, not one that operates in terms of the procedures of history and
HYHQWXDWHVLQFRQFOXVLRQVWKDWDUHFKHFNDEOHE\KLVWRU\«,QSDUWLFXODU,PHDQ
a novel that evolves its own paradigms and myths, in the process (and here
LV WKH SRLQW DW ZKLFK WUXH ULYDOU\ HYHQ HQPLW\ SHUKDSV HQWHUV WKH SLFWXUH
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
17
perhaps going so far as to show up the mythic status of history – in other words,
GHP\WKRORJLVLQJKLVWRU\17
J. M. Coetzee is careful to point out that he is not endorsing the literary at the
H[SHQVHRIWKHSROLWLFDOWKHSURMHFWRIULYDOU\ZRXOGFDOOLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHYHU\
ideologies of historiographic practice, necessarily politicizing these modes of
³DQWLUHDOLVW´ ¿FWLRQ WKURXJK WKHLU WH[WXDO UHVLVWDQFH 17 0DGQHVV , ZLOO
argue, is the fulcrum of this deconstructive, demythologizing strategy.
(XJHQH'DZQZRUNVLQWKH0\WKRJUDSK\VHFWLRQRIWKH.HQQHG\,QVWLWXWHLQ
WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 7KURXJK KLV PHWDWH[WXDO DFFRXQW RI KLV SUHSDUDWLRQ RI WKH
³9LHWQDP5HSRUW´ZULWWHQLQWKHEDVHPHQWRIWKH+DUU\67UXPDQ/LEUDU\ZH
OHDUQ RI KLV WURXEOHG UHODWLRQ ZLWK KLV VXSHULRU ³&RHW]HH´KLV VHQVH RI GLVHDVH
ZLWK KLV YRFDWLRQKLV IDLOLQJ PDUULDJHWR KLV ZLIH 0DULO\Q KLV PHQWDO FROODSVH
FXOPLQDWLQJLQKLVNLGQDSSLQJDQGVWDEELQJKLVVRQ0DUWLQDQG¿QDOO\KLVFRPPLWWDO
WRDQDV\OXP,Q'DYLG$WWZHOO¶VZRUGV'DZQLVD³GLVJUDFHG´HPSOR\HHDWWKH
,QVWLWXWHEHFDXVHKH³EUHDNV«>WKH@WKUHVKROGRI>µPRUDOGLVFUHWLRQ¶@UHSHDWHGO\
DQGH[SOLFLWO\ÍRULQVWDQFHZKHQKHDGYRFDWHVD³SURJUDPRIDVVDVVLQDWLRQDQG
RIDUHDERPELQJ´J. M. Coetzee(YHQWKRXJKWKH86JRYHUQPHQWFRPHV
FORVHWRRULQGHHGFURVVHVWKHPRUDOWKUHVKROGLWLVQRW'DZQ¶VSODFHWRSURYRNH
DWWHQWLRQWRWKLVIDFWLGHRORJLFDOVXEWHUIXJHLVDIWHUDOOWKHIXQFWLRQRIP\WKRORJ\
,QWKHVHFRQGSDUWWKH¿UVWDQGPRVWVXEVWDQWLDOVHFWLRQLVQDUUDWHGE\WKHSDUWLDOO\
historical Jacobus Coetzee, a colonial explorer in South Africa in 1760, who details
KLVWKUHHH[SHGLWLRQVWKH¿UVW³EH\RQGWKH*UHDW5LYHU´DQGWKHWZRMRXUQH\VWR
³WKH ODQG RI WKH *UHDW 1DPDTXD´ ' 2Q WKH VHFRQG RI WKH WKUHH
MRXUQH\V-DFREXVIDOOVLOODQGLVQXUVHGE\WKH1DPDTXDVZKRHIIHFWLYHO\KROGKLP
FDSWLYH7KHWKLUGPLVVLRQ±WKHVHFRQGWRWKH*UHDW1DPDTXD±OHGE\&DSWDLQ
+HQGULN +RS LV SULPDULO\ WR FDSWXUH DQG SXQLVK -DFREXV &RHW]HH¶V UXQDZD\
servants. This mission is presented as a transcription written on Jacobus Coetzee’s
behalf, revised and retold in the 1930s and 1940s by S. J. Coetzee, a lecturer at the
KLVWRULFDOO\$IULNDQHU6WHOOHQERVFK8QLYHUVLW\ZKRLVDGLVWDQWUHODWLRQRI-DFREXV
&RHW]HHDQGIDWKHURIWKH¿FWLRQDOWUDQVODWRU³-0&RHW]HH´ZKRDOVRSUHIDFHV
WKHERRN7KH³$IWHUZRUGÉ\6-&RHW]HHLVSDUWRIDVHULHVRIOHFWXUHVJLYHQ
annually to the Van Plettenberg Society between 1934 and 1948, on the eve of the
$IULNDQHU1DWLRQDO3DUW\¶VDVFHQGHQF\WRSRZHUDQGLVIROORZHGE\DGHSRVLWLRQ
in the form of an appendix dictated by Jacobus Coetzee in 1760.
$VD¿UVWLQVWDQFHRIZKDW,VKDOOFDOO&RHW]HH¶V³DFWVRIJHQUH´ZKHUH³DFWV´
imply performance, duplicity and self-consciousness, by placing himself as a
FKDUDFWHULQKLVQRYHO-0&RHW]HHPDNHVVHOILURQL]LQJFODLPVWRDXWKHQWLFLW\
LQWKLVFDVHYLDWKHJHQUHVRIGRFXPHQWDU\WUDYHORJXHDQGKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQW
and unsettles the reading process: the reader is encouraged to sift through the
narrative for elements of truth. Not only does this involve the reader ethically in
WKHOLIHRIWKHZRUNDV5RVHPDU\-ROO\VXJJHVWVLWDOVRJHVWXUHV-0&RHW]HH¶V
own accountability to history (Colonization
18
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Myth, according to Barthes, is a “metalanguage´MythologiesLWSURYLGHV
DIRUPE\ZKLFKGLVFRXUVHFDQLWVHOIEHQDWXUDOL]HG0\WKVHHNVWRQDWXUDOL]H
QRWLQQDWHKXPDQEHKDYLRXU1DWXUHEXW+LVWRU\YLDWKHVRFLDO0RGHUQOLIHLV
structured by myth, which sets about obscuring the “what-goes-without-saying´
RU SXW PRUH EOXQWO\ ³LGHRORJLFDO DEXVH´ Mythologies ,W LV VHOIHYLGHQW
therefore, why Barthes’s theory of myth can be usefully applied to a colonial
SDUDGLJP,QGHHG)UHQFKFRORQLDOLVPLVRQHRI%DUWKHV¶VNH\FRQFHUQV,Q³0\WK
7RGD\´WKHHVVD\WKDWFORVHVKLVDSKRULVWLFP\WKRORJLHV%DUWKHVGHVFULEHVKRZ
the image on the cover of the French magazine Paris-MatchRIWKH³1HJUR´VROGLHU
VDOXWLQJWKHWULFRORXUSUHVHQWVD³VHPLRORJLFDOV\VWHP´LWVLJQL¿HVPXOWLSO\PRVW
importantly here (note the ironic distance Barthes establishes between author
DQGWH[WWKDW³DOO>)UDQFH¶V@VRQVZLWKRXWDQ\FRORXUGLVFULPLQDWLRQIDLWKIXOO\
VHUYH XQGHU KHU ÀDJ DQG WKDW WKHUH LV QR EHWWHU DQVZHU WR WKH GHWUDFWRUV RI DQ
alleged colonialism than the zeal shown by this Negro in serving his so-called
RSSUHVVRUV´Mythologies7KHVLJQL¿HUZKDWWKHSLFWXUHpresents or its mode
of presentation, is “already formed with a previous system (a black soldier is giving
the French salute´7KHVLJQL¿HGZKDWWKHSLFWXUHrepresentsRU³PHDQV´%DUWKHV
VD\VLVD³SXUSRVHIXOPL[WXUHRI)UHQFKQHVVDQGPLOLWDULQHVVÉXWWKHUHLVDOVRD
³SUHVHQFHRIWKHVLJQL¿HGWKURXJKWKHVLJQL¿HU´Mythologies±P\WKRORJLFDO
VLJQL¿HGVDOVRFDQEHPXOWLSOH7KLVLVWKHP\WKRIEHQHYROHQWFRORQLDOLVPWKH
³1HJUR´VROGLHULVQRWD³V\PERO´RUDQ³H[DPSOHÉXWD³JHVWXUH´Mythologies
ZKLFKQDWXUDOL]HVWKHSULQFLSOHVDQGPHWKRGVRIWKH)UHQFKHPSLUH7KLVLV
ZK\P\WKLVDNLQGRI³ODQJXDJHUREEHU\´MythologiesEHFDXVHLWGLVWRUWV
¿UVWRUGHUODQJXDJHE\SLFNLQJDQGFKRRVLQJZKLFKPHDQLQJVWRHPSKDVL]HDQG
which to conceal. Barthes even wonders if there might be a “mythology of the
P\WKRORJLVW´MythologiesKLQWLQJ,FRQMHFWXUHWKDWKLVRZQGHSOR\PHQWRI
DVWUXFWXUDOLVWDSSURDFKWRP\WKGHÀHFWVDWWHQWLRQIURPKLVOHIWLVWSROLWLFVZKLOVW
allowing him to get his ideas heard.
In the manner of Barthes’s mythologies, the repellent photographs that
'DZQ SDZV RYHU DUH PHDQW WR UHDI¿UP WKH LQYLQFLELOLW\ RI WKH 86 ZKLFK DV
KLVWRU\ KDV WHVWL¿HG ZDV LWVHOI P\WKRORJLFDO WKH ¿UVW D SRUQRJUDSKLF LPDJH RI
the child-woman and the American lieutenant, the second of American soldiers
GLVSOD\LQJ WKHLU PDFDEUH WURSKLHV RI VKUXQNHQ 9LHWQDPHVH KHDGV DQG WKH WKLUG
a picture of a Vietnamese prisoner of war, his face pressed against the bars of
KLV FDJH ZLWK WKH FDPHUD IRFXVHG RQ RQH H\H WKDW JOLQWV LQ WKH VXQ7KH ¿UVW LV
a transparent display of patriarchal, colonialist triumph: the woman’s body is a
commodity in the system of patriarchal-colonialist exchange (theorists of anticolonial nationalism have abundantly demonstrated that women were perceived
in this way in the struggle between revolutionary nationalists and the colonizer
>FI&KDWWHUMHHNation.DQGL\RWL³,GHQWLW\´<H÷HQR÷OX Colonial Fantasies@7KH
second revises the myth of the colonial hunt (colonizer asserts his dominion by
SRVLQJZLWKOHJUHVWHGMDXQWLO\XSRQWKHFRUSVHRIDQDQLPDO7KHKHDGVRIWKH
corpses “are trophies: the Annamese tiger having been exterminated, there remain
RQO\PHQDQGFHUWDLQKDUG\OHVVHUPDPPDOV´'7KHDVVRFLDWLRQSHUYDVLYH
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
19
in racist ideology between the ethnic other and animals which reduces the other
to less than human is re-emphasized in the third photograph of the caged soldier
ZKRVHH\H'DZQXQFRQVFLRXVO\ZLVKHVWRJRXJHRXWDVKHVWURNHVWKHVXUIDFHRI
the print. Perhaps the eye represents a resisting consciousness that can return the
JD]HRILWVRSSUHVVRU7KHYLROHQFHRUWKHLPSOLHGYLROHQFHLQWKH¿UVWSLFWXUH
portrayed in these images radically distances us as readers whilst paradoxically
PDNLQJXVFRPSOLFLWWKURXJKWKHDFWRIORRNLQJ
%DUWKHV LGHQWL¿HV WKUHH PRGHV RI LQWHUSUHWLQJ P\WK ¿UVWO\ P\WK UHDG DV
HPSW\ VLJQL¿HU VHFRQGO\ P\WK UHDG DV IXOO VLJQL¿HU DQG WKLUGO\ P\WK UHDG DV
³DQLQH[WULFDEOHZKROHPDGHRIPHDQLQJDQGIRUP´7KH¿UVWPRGHLV³F\QLFDO´
a literal reading is made whereby, in the example of the image of the French
WULFRORXUWKHVDOXWLQJ³1HJUR´VROGLHUEHFRPHVDV\PERORUH[DPSOHRI)UHQFK
LPSHULDOLVP 7KH VHFRQG LV ³GHP\VWLI\LQJ´ DQG GLVWLQJXLVKHV EHWZHHQ PHDQLQJ
DQG IRUP WR UHDG WKH ³GLVWRUWLRQ´ RI WKH LPDJHWH[W WKH ³1HJUR´ VROGLHU LV DQ
³DOLELRI)UHQFKLPSHULDOLW\´7KHWKLUGLV³G\QDPLF´LQZKLFKWKHLPDJHLVUHDG
holistically, as it was intended: the soldier manifests the “very presence of French
LPSHULDOLW\´Mythologies,QWKH¿UVWWZRPRGHVP\WKORVHVLWVFRKHUHQFH
and is destroyed, whereas in the third ideology comes into play and myth is “at
RQFHWUXHDQGXQUHDO´Mythologies$VDP\WKRJUDSKHU'DZQ¶VREMHFWLYHLV
to produce myths that procure the third mode, but the text, by portraying Dawn as
mad and therefore unreliable and by disrupting its own verisimilitude via parody
DQG GHFRQVWUXFWLRQ HOLFLWV ERWK WKH ¿UVW DQG VHFRQG PRGHV ERWK F\QLFDO DQG
GHP\VWLI\LQJ7KLV GLVMXQFWXUH EHWZHHQ UHDGLQJ SUDFWLFHV HPERGLHG LQ 'DZQ LV
WKHPDGQHVVRIKLVP\WKRORJL]LQJSURMHFW
'DZQ LV XQDEOH WR PRYH EH\RQG WKH ³:HVWHUQ´ GLVFRXUVH LQ ZKLFK KH LV
HQWUHQFKHG 1RW XQOLNH WKH LPSOLFLW LGHDO ZULWHU SUHVHQWHG E\ - 0 &RHW]HH LQ
White WritingZKRZRXOGSRUWUD\$IULFDLQ$IULFDQWHUPV-0&RHW]HHLGHQWL¿HV
“a historical insecurity regarding the place of the artist of European heritage in
WKH $IULFDQ ODQGVFDSH´ >:: @ 'DZQ VWULYHV WR UHSUHVHQW WKH ODQGVFDSH LQ
ZKLFK KH ¿QGV KLPVHOI DXWKHQWLFDOO\ ZLWK ³WKH DLU RI D UHDO ZRUOG WKURXJK WKH
ORRNLQJJODVV´'2IFRXUVHWKHMRNHKHUHLVWKDW'DZQ¶VP\WKRJUDSK\KDV
FORVHU DI¿QLWLHV ZLWK$OLFH¶V ZRQGHUODQG ,Q IDFW KH LV WKH XQZLWWLQJ VXEMHFW RI
his own mythography so consumed is he by his own mythologizing. Although
KHDGYDQFHVSURSDJDQGDWKDWWDNHVDFFRXQWRI9LHWQDPHVHFXOWXUHUDWKHUWKDQD
PRGHWKDWRSHUDWHVZLWKLQD³:HVWHUQ´GLVFXUVLYH¿HOGKLVWKLQNLQJLVLWVHOIGHHSO\
rooted in imperialist ideology and, as Attwell demonstrates, the Freudian myth of
WKH³SULPDOKRUGH´LQGHHGWKH³SDURGLFHIIHFW´LQWKLVSDUWRIWKHERRN³GHSHQGV
on Dawn’s perspective coming from withinLPSHULDOLVPDQGLWVWUDGLWLRQV´J. M.
Coetzee±
Dawn confuses the nature of his vocation and is blind to the limits of the
JHQUHZLWKZKLFKKHZRUNV+LVVXSHULRU³&RHW]HH´FRPPHQWLQJXSRQ'DZQ¶V
report, suggests he should be sympathetic to the needs of his reader (the American
PLOLWDU\DQGVHOIFRQVFLRXVDERXWWKHPHWKRGRORJLHVKHHPSOR\V$VLWVWDQGVWKH
report is obscure and of an “avant-gardeQDWXUH´'DQGDSSHDUVWREHZULWWHQ
20
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
IRU WKH EHQH¿W RI ³&RHW]HH´ 2EVHUYDQW RI WKH SUHYDLOLQJ WHQVLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH
0\WKRJUDSK\ 'HSDUWPHQW DQG WKH DUP\ ³&RHW]HH´ FDXWLRQV 'DZQ WR PDNH WKH
UHSRUW DFFHVVLEOH WR DQ DUP\ UHDGHUVKLS ³LQ ZRUGV RI RQH V\OODEOH´ H[SODLQLQJ
³KRZ P\WKV RSHUDWH LQ KXPDQ VRFLHW\ KRZ VLJQV DUH H[FKDQJHG DQG VR IRUWK´
' 'DZQ RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG ZDQWV WR SULYLOHJH WKH FUHDWLYH DQG H[SOLFLWO\
OLQNV WKH ZULWLQJ RI SURSDJDQGD ± DQ DJJUHVVLYH FRUUXSWLRQ RI KLVWRULFDO WUXWKV
that is overtly ideological – with art. The ironic humour that surfaces in the
ODWHU ZRUNV UHYHDOV LWVHOI KHUH ZLWK 'DZQ XQFRQVFLRXVO\ DEVROYLQJ KLPVHOI RI
UHVSRQVLELOLW\ E\ PDNLQJ VXFK DQ DVVRFLDWLRQ ZKLOVW WKH QDUUDWLYH UHJLVWHUV WKH
XQHWKLFDODQGGHP\WKRORJL]HGQDWXUHRIKLVP\WKPDNLQJLQ%DUWKHVWKHVHFRQG
³GHP\VWLI\LQJ´PRGHWKDW³GHVWUR\V´P\WK)RUDPDQZKRDQVZHUVWRWKHPLOLWDU\
'DZQUHPDUNVXQUHÀH[LYHO\WKDWKHVKXQVFRQÀLFWRIDQ\KXHKDYLQJVWDWHGWKDW
KH LV IHDUIXO RI DQJHULQJ ³&RHW]HH´ ZKR ³LV QRZ D IDLOHG FUHDWLYH SHUVRQ ZKR
OLYHV YLFDULRXVO\ RII WUXH FUHDWLYH SHRSOH´ ' 1RW RQO\ GRHV 'DZQ SHUFHLYH
his current vocation as poetry of sorts, he convinces himself that mythography,
KLV³SUHVHQWVSHFLDOLVP´LV³DQRSHQ¿HOGOLNHSKLORVRSK\RUFULWLFLVPEHFDXVHLW
KDVQRW\HWIRXQGDPHWKRGRORJ\WRORVHLWVHOIIRUHYHULQWKHPD]HVRI´'
'DZQ¶VPLVDSSUHKHQVLRQRIWKHUXOHVRIWKHJDPHZKHUHKHOLNHQVSKLORVRSK\RU
WKH SXUVXLW RI WUXWK WR LWV YHU\ DQWLWKHVLV SURSDJDQGD RU PDQXIDFWXUHG ³WUXWKV´
underscores the distortions produced by ideology, here, the myths of imperialism.
It is a symptom of his psychosis and in turn a metaphor for the madness upon
which such ideologies are built. “I am a hero of resistance … no less than that,
SURSHUO\XQGHUVWRRGLQPHWDSKRU´'KHVD\VDQG³,VHHWKLQJVDQGKDYHD
GXW\WRZDUGKLVWRU\WKDWFDQQRWZDLW´''DZQXQZLWWLQJO\H[SRVHVKLPVHOI
DVDIDLOHGZULWHUZLWKOLWHUDU\DQGKHURLFSUHWHQVLRQVLQIDFWKHLVVLPSO\DODFNH\
RIWKH$PHULFDQJRYHUQPHQW,URQLFDOO\WKLV³KHURRIUHVLVWDQFH´ZKRLVGHHSO\
suspicious of the U.S. government, has yet to set foot on Vietnamese soil.
'DZQ¶V FRQVWDQW UHDVVHUWLRQ RI VHOI OLNH -DFREXV &RHW]HH¶V H[SRVHV KLV
profound insecurity and psychic instability and, as I have argued, he becomes a
YLFWLPRIWKHLPSHULDOLVWSURMHFWKHVHUYHV+LVZRUNWKHEXVLQHVVRIZKDWKHFDOOV
³SV\FKRORJLFDOZDUIDUH´FHQWUHVRQWKHTXHVWLRQZKDWSV\FKLFDQGSV\FKRORJLFDO
³IDFWRUV´ PDNH WKH HQHP\ ³UHVLVWDQW WR SHQHWUDWLRQ´" ³+DYLQJ DQVZHUHG WKLV
TXHVWLRQZHFDQJRRQWRDVNKRZFDQZHPDNHRXUSURJUDPVPRUHSHQHWUDQW´"
'±1RWHWKH)UHXGLDQOLQJXLVWLFUHJLVWHUWKDWLVDIHDWXUHRIWKHERRN7KH
FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGGHFRQVWUXFWLRQRUOLWHUDOO\GHVWUXFWLRQRIWKHVXEMHFWWKHHQHP\
Vietnamese, premises the introduction to Dawn’s report. By drawing a picture
of the myths and social norms of Vietnamese society (community, patrilinearity
DQG VR RQ LQ RUGHU WKDW WKHVH PLJKW EH XQGHUPLQHG SURSDJDQGLVWV OLNH 'DZQ
DLP WR ³EUHDN GRZQ JURXS PRUDOH´ ' 'DZQ¶V VXEVHTXHQW SV\FKRORJLFDO
EUHDNGRZQ D PHWDSKRU IRU PLPHWLF YLROHQFH UHSURGXFHV WKH YHU\ DLPV RI KLV
UHSRUW7KRXJK'DZQZULWHVRI³WKHYLFWLP¶VSUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKWDLQW´XQGHUWKH
KHDGLQJ³7HVWLPRQ\RI&7´SROLWLFDODVVDVVLQDWLRQ'WKHWH[WVLJQDOVTXLWH
transparently that Dawn and Jacobus are each tainted by the mythologizing in
which they are engaged. (Nowhere in the narrative is the meaning of the letters
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
21
³&7´HODERUDWHGWKLVLVWKHGHKXPDQL]LQJP\WKRORJL]LQJODQJXDJHRIZDUZKHUH
GHDWKDQGKXPDQVXIIHULQJDUHWUDGHG
Jolly argues that both Jacobus and Dawn internalize their “repeated acts of
YLRODWLRQ´ ± -DFREXV ¿QGV SOHDVXUH EXUVWLQJ KLV FDUEXQFOH DQG 'DZQ VWDEV KLV
son, Martin. Dawn confuses his own identity with Martin’s in what Jolly reads
as a sadomasochistic impulse. The sadist feels his independence threatened by
the other’s recognition of dependence upon him and can therefore only truly feel
independent by violating the other. This Jolly couches in terms of the mythological
father: “since recognition of the self … is the source of erotic pleasure, the sadist
experiences sexual satisfaction in his violation of the role of the all-powerful
IDWKHUĆolonization±
The father/son relationship of Dawn and Martin ironically mirrors the structure
RI9LHWQDPHVHVRFLHW\WKDW'DZQLVZRUNLQJWRGLVDEOH+LV³WRXJKDSSURDFK´WR
Martin (“How loud must I shout … before [the child] will believe that all is for
WKHEHVWWKDW,ORYHKLPZLWKDIDWKHU¶VORYH"´>'@UHÀHFWVWKHP\WKRORJL]HG
paternalism of his report. Under section 1.4 “The father-voice´ 'DZQ ZULWHV
³7KH IDWKHU LV DXWKRULW\ LQIDOOLELOLW\ XELTXLW\´ ' +RZHYHU PLPHWLFDOO\
UHSURGXFLQJKLVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK0DUWLQXQGHUVHFWLRQ³&RXQWHUP\WKV´KH
points out that the fallibility of the father-myth lies in the “portrayal of the father
DV YXOQHUDEOH´ ' $V 'DZQ SOXQJHV LQWR WKH GHHSHVW UHFHVVHV RI LQVDQLW\
³0DUWLQ´FRXQWHULQWXLWLYHO\PHWDPRUSKRVHVLQ'DZQ¶VVLFNPLQGLQWRWKHIDWKHU
voice as Dawn’s grasp on reality is subsumed by wild fantasies. Since the external
world of the sadist, Jolly argues, refuses to “offer the sadists the recognition [they]
desire … they turn upon themselves in what becomes a masochistic bid for selfUHFRJQLWLRQĆolonization
That the self is consolidated in its recognition of the other is readily apparent
LQ-0&RHW]HH¶VSRUWUD\DORI-DFREXV&RHW]HHDV$WWZHOOREVHUYHV³,QWKHLQLWLDO
PRPHQWVRIWKHHQFRXQWHU-DFREXV&RHW]HHVL]HVXSWKH1DPDTXDOHDGHUDQGLV
condescendingly pleased with his self-assurance and humanity (this is the Hegelian
SOHDVXUHRIH[WUDFWLQJVHOIYDOLGDWLRQIURPWKHUHFRJQLWLRQJLYHQE\WKH2WKHU´
(J. M. Coetzee-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VFRQGLWLRQUHÀHFWVWKH$IULNDQHUV¶VWUXJJOHDV
farmers against the decline of their cultural history that, as J. M. Coetzee explains
LQ³7KH)DUP1RYHOVRI&0YDQGHQ+HHYHU´QHFHVVLWDWHVVXFKDUHDVVHUWLRQ
RI VHOI ³:H > @ VHH HIIRUWV WR EXWWUHVV$IULNDQHU SDWULDUFKDOLVP LQ RUGHU WKDW D
KHLJKWHQHGVLJQL¿FDQFHVKRXOGEHDWWDFKHGWRWKHDFWVRIWKHIRXQGLQJIDWKHUVWR
PDLQWDLQLQJWKHLUOHJDF\DQGSHUSHWXDWLQJWKHLUYDOXHV´::
,IZHWDNHDVDQH[DPSOHWKHFDVHRI-DFREXVDQG³LGOHQHVV´ZHPLJKWFRPH
to a better understanding of Jacobus’s bid for self-recognition that as Attwell
points out, is Hegelian rather than Manichean because it depends upon some form
of cultural exchange (J. M. Coetzee ± 6 - &RHW]HH¶V$IWHUZRUG VLWXDWHV
22
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
-DFREXVDVDFRORQLDOLVWDQGD³%RHU´2 he is openly admiring of Jacobus Coetzee,
QDPLQJ KLP D KHUR ZKR ³LV DFNQRZOHGJHG E\ VWXGHQWV RI RXU HDUO\ KLVWRU\ DV
WKHGLVFRYHUHURIWKH2UDQJH5LYHUDQGWKHJLUDIIH´'+HFODLPVWKDWKLV
$IWHUZRUGKRZHYHUVHUYHVWR³SUHVHQWDPRUHFRPSOHWHDQGWKHUHIRUHPRUHMXVW
YLHZRI-DFREXV&RHW]HH«7RXQGHUVWDQGWKHOLIHRIWKLVREVFXUHIDUPHUUHTXLUHV
D SRVLWLYH DFW RI WKH LPDJLQDWLRQ´ ' ± 7KLV ODVW FRPPHQW RI FRXUVH
throws all the preceding narrative into doubt, suggesting, as it does, that it is only
through willed invention that Jacobus Coetzee’s story can be uncovered at all.
S. J. Coetzee, as mythographer, celebrates Jacobus as a hero of Boer history (as
RSSRVHGWRD(XURSHDQVHWWOHURQHDQGJLYHVFUHGHQFHWRWKHUDFLVWVWHUHRW\SLQJRI
WKH³+RWWHQWRWV´.KRLVDQ'WKDWDWWULEXWHV³+RWWHQWRW´³LGOHQHVV´WRVHWWOHU
FXOWXUHWRGULQNLQJOLTXRUDQGVPRNLQJWREDFFR
Jacobus Coetzee is blind to his own hypocrisy. He regards the Bushmen as
³OLVWOHVVDQGXQUHOLDEOH´ZKLOHRQWKHRWKHUKDQG³,SURJUHVVHGWRDQH[SRVLWLRQRI
my career as tamer of the wild. In the wild I lose my sense of boundaries. This is
WKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIVSDFHDQGVROLWXGH´'$OWKRXJKLWLVDFFHSWDEOHIRUKLP
to live outside colonial social norms in the veld, he expects the indigenous peoples
WRREVHUYHFXOWXUDODQGVRFLDOSUDFWLFHVDOLHQWRWKHP,QWKHYDVW³HPSWLQHVV´RI
the veld, where the boundaries of self and other are in suspension, he unwittingly
EHFRPHV PRUH DNLQ WR WKH %XVKPDQ ZKRVH ³LGOHQHVV´ - 0 &RHW]HH DUJXHV
LQ ³,GOHQHVV LQ 6RXWK$IULFD´ LV HDUO\ (XURSHDQ WUDYHO ZULWHUV¶ PLVUHFRJQLWLRQ
RI D UHFRXUVH WR UHYHULH :: 6XFK ZULWHUV ZKR DUH GXSHG E\ WKHLU RZQ
P\WKRORJLHV ODFN WKH FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUN WR SURSHUO\ XQGHUVWDQG UHDG WKH
RWKHU 7KH FRORQLDOLVW P\WK RI ³+RWWHQWRW´ LGOHQHVV LV FRHYDO - 0 &RHW]HH
VXJJHVWVZLWKWKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHZRUNHWKLFGXULQJWKH(XURSHDQ(QOLJKWHQPHQW
7KH ³LGOH´ ³+RWWHQWRW´ LQ WKH PDQQHU RI WKH +HJHOLDQ PDVWHUVODYH GLDOHFWLF
provides a convenient foil to the European in these early literary representations
EXWDOVRDWKUHDWWKH³+RWWHQWRW´LV³under-developed ÉXWDOVRVFDQGDORXVO\QRW
VRGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH(XURSHDQRULJLQDOHPSKDVLV::³+RWWHQWRW´LGOHQHVV
J. M. Coetzee argues, disproves the travel writer’s preconceived “discourses about
HOHPHQWDOPDQ´)DLOLQJWRFRUUHVSRQGWRWKHDQWKURSRORJLFDOJULGRIGLIIHUHQFHV
drawn up by these early travellers brings about the potentially self-annihilating
UHDOL]DWLRQWKDWWKH\VKDUHPRUHHTXLYDOHQFHVWKDQGLIIHUHQFHVRULJLQDOHPSKDVLV
::
$WWKHVDPHWLPH6-&RHW]HHUHHYDOXDWHV-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VFRORQLDOLVW
KLVWRULRJUDSK\-DFREXV&RHW]HHLVSRUWUD\HGDVDQ³REVFXUHIDUPHU´DQGDVWKH
OLWWOHPDQRIKLVWRU\KHUHFRUGVUHFLSURFLW\EHWZHHQPDVWHUDQGVHUYDQWZKRVH
FKLOGUHQ SOD\HG WRJHWKHU EXW RQO\ WR UHDI¿UP WKH KHJHPRQ\ RI WKH PDVWHU '
³+RWWHQWRWÓLIHLVSRUWUD\HGLQKDUPRQ\ZLWKWKH%RHUVDQGOLNHWKH%RHUV¶
LV³FDSDEOHRISLFWXUHVTXHQHVV«7KHTXLHWIDUPKRXVHRQWKHVORSHVWKHTXLHWKXWV
2
In White Writing&RHW]HHH[SODLQVWKDWKHXVHVWHUPVOLNH³+RWWHQWRW´³%XVKPDQ´
DQG³%RHU´ZKLFKLQWKHFDVHRI³+RWWHQWRW´DQG³%XVKPDQ´DUHGHHSO\RIIHQVLYHLQOLQH
ZLWK³ROGWLPHXVDJH´::Q
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
23
LQWKHKROORZWKHVWDUOLWVN\´'$ERYHDOO6-&RHW]HHFDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQ
the colonialist myth of discovery: “The region was so vast, its explorers so few,
WKDWWKHKLVWRULDQPD\OHJLWLPDWHO\WKLQNRILWVIHDWXUHVDVXQNQRZQDQGRIHDFK
DVNWKHTXHVWLRQ:KRGLVFRYHUHGWKLV"RUWREHPRUHSUHFLVH:KLFK(XURSHDQ
GLVFRYHUHGWKLV"´'±3 S. J. Coetzee’s analysis in the Afterword conveys
WKH FRQÀLFWXDO UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ %RHU DQG (XURSHDQ WKDW $WWZHOO DUJXHV
FRQYHQLHQWO\ VXSSRUWHG WKH $IULNDQHU QDWLRQDOLVW LGHRORJ\ RI WKH V J. M.
CoetzeeVHHDOVR*DOODJKHUStory±6-&RHW]HHGLVPLVVHV(XURSHDQ
botanists in the following terms: “The criteria for a new discovery employed
E\ WKH JHQWOHPHQ IURP (XURSH ZHUH VXUHO\ SDURFKLDO7KH\ UHTXLUHG WKDW HYHU\
VSHFLPHQ ¿OO D KROH LQ WKHLU (XURSHDQ WD[RQRPLHV´ ' +H VSHDNV RI WKH
³LQZDUGPRPHQWRIGLVFRYHU\´ZKLFKKHFUHGLWVWRWKH%RHUZKRGUDZVQRWRQO\
IURPKLVRZQH[SHULHQFHVDQGNQRZOHGJHEXWIURPWKDWRIWKH%XVKPDQDVZHOO
'5HIHUHQFHVWRLGOHQHVVDOVRDOOXGHWRWKHVWHUHRW\SHVWKDWIRUPHGSDUWRI
WKH FDVH (XURSHDQ WUDYHO ZULWHUV ZKRP - 0 &RHW]HH UHIHUV WR DV ³VSRNHVPHQ
RI FRORQLDOLVP´ ZHUH WR EXLOG DJDLQVW WKH %RHU IURQWLHUVPHQ LQ WKH QLQHWHHQWK
FHQWXU\::±WKXVPDNLQJWKH%RHUIDUPHUDQGWKH³+RWWHQWRW´XQOLNHO\
allies. As J. M. Coetzee argues in White Writing, the Boer threatened the purity and
VXSHULRULW\RIWKH(XURSHDQRYHUWKH$IULFDQ³7KHVSRNHVPHQRIFRORQLDOLVPDUH
GLVPD\HGE\WKHVTXDORUDQGVORWKRI%RHUOLIHEHFDXVHLWDIIRUGVVLQLVWHUHYLGHQFH
RIKRZ(XURSHDQVWRFNFDQUHJUHVVDIWHUDIHZJHQHUDWLRQVLQ$IULFD´
7KH FORVH SUR[LPLW\ RI VHOI DQG RWKHU WKDW WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH ³+RWWHQWRW´
threatens to expose leads Jacobus unconsciously to attempt to install more tangible
boundaries between the peoples he encounters, appropriating, for instance, Zeno’s
3DUDGR[DQGWKHRULHVRILQ¿QLW\³8QGHUWKH+RWWHQWRWFDSWLYLW\,KDGQRWIDLOHGWR
NHHSWKH=HQREHHWOHLQPLQG7KHUHKDGEHHQOHJVPHWDSKRULFDOOHJVDQGPXFK
HOVHWRRWKDW,KDGEHHQSUHSDUHGWRORVH´'8QGHUWKH=HQRQLDQSULQFLSOH
the beetle is seeminglyLQ¿QLWHO\LQGHVWUXFWLEOH³7KHIRXUWKJDPHZDVWKHPRVW
LQWHUHVWLQJRQHWKH=HQRQLDQFDVHLQZKLFKRQO\DQLQ¿QLWHO\GLPLQLVKLQJIUDFWLRQ
RI P\ VHOI VXUYLYHG WKH ¿FWLYH HFKR RI D WLQ\ µ,¶ ZKLVSHUHG DFURVV WKH YRLG RI
HWHUQLW\´'FI$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee'RYH\Novels-DFREXVXWLOL]HV
WKHVH SULQFLSOHV WR PDLQWDLQ KLV RZQ LQFUHDVLQJO\ IUDJLOH VHQVH RI VHOI EXW OLNH
'DZQ¶V WKLV LV UXSWXUHG ZKHQ LW EHFRPHV DSSDUHQW WKDW LQ WKH ³ZLOGHUQHVV´ LQ
colonialist terms, Jacobus enters the same psychological space inhabited by those
he strives to other.
7KH ODFN RI VHOIUHÀH[LYLW\ RU VHOIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ LQ 'DZQ DQG -DFREXV RU D
VNHZHGVHOIUHÀH[LYLW\WKDWZHPLJKWFDOOPDGQHVVLVXVHIXOO\LOOXPLQDWHGE\-0
&RHW]HH¶V DUJXPHQW LQ ³$SDUWKHLG 7KLQNLQJ´ WKDW DSDUWKHLG LGHRORJ\ ZDV PDG
J. M. Coetzee treats the writing of the progenitor of apartheid ideology, Geoffrey
3
9DQ=DQWHQ *DOODJKHU QRWHV WKDW WKH ³%DQWX´ ;KRVD DFFRUGLQJ WR ZKLWH 6RXWK
African mythology, were only relatively recent immigrants to South Africa, arriving in the
HLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\DWWKHVDPHWLPHDVWKH%RHUVRQWKHLU³WUHNWRWKHLQWHULRU´Story
24
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
&URQMpDVDNLQGRIFUD]HGVHFXODUFRQIHVVLRQ%\ZD\RITXDOL¿FDWLRQ-0
&RHW]HHSHUFHLYHV&URQMp¶VZRUN
not as a repentant confession – far from it – but as a confession of belief, a credo
all the more revealing for being full of ignorance and madness. In what now
VHHPVROGIDVKLRQHGLQQRFHQFH&URQMpIDOOVLQWRDGHOLULXPRIZULWLQJZLWKD
ODFNRIUHVHUYHDODFNRISUXGHQWVHOIFHQVRUVKLSTXLWHIRUHLJQWRKLVVXFFHVVRUV
in the academic-bureaucratic castle he helped to build. In that delirium we catch
JOLPSVHVRIDSDUWKHLGQDNHGO\RFFXSLHGLQWKLQNLQJLWVHOIRXW%XWZHFDQVKDUH
these glimpses only if we read the texts, follow the ravings, from inside, if we
LQKDELWZLWKSDUWRIRXUVHOYHV&URQMp¶VSRVLWLRQDVZULWLQJVXEMHFW*2
6HDUFKLQJ IRU WKHLU RZQ SDUWLFXODU ZDUSHG VHQVH RI ³WUXWK´ ERWK SURWDJRQLVWV
in Dusklands LQ WKHLU VKRUWVLJKWHG LQWURVSHFWLRQ DQG LQÀDWHG DVVHUWLRQ RI VHOI
SUHVHQWWKHUHDGHUZLWKFRQIHVVLRQVQRWXQOLNH&URQMp¶VLQGHHGERWKGLVSOD\³D
ODFNRISUXGHQWVHOIFHQVRUVKLS´,QWKLVUHVSHFWZHDUHPRVWOLNHO\WRDWWDLQDNLQG
RIWUXWKIXOQHVVQRWWKHWUXWKRIWKHLUQDUUDWLYHVEXWRIWKHXQFRQVFLRXVZRUNLQJV
of their minds and of the ideologies that motivate them.
7KHDFWRIUHDGLQJWKHVHWZR³FRQIHVVLRQV´QHFHVVDULO\HQFRXUDJHVWKHUHDGHUWR
empathize with Dawn and Jacobus, and thus on a symbolic level the reader is made
complicit in their abuse even though, paradoxically, the gratuitous nature of their
YLROHQFHPDUNVDUDGLFDOKLDWXVWKDWUHIXVHVWRDOORZWKHUHDGHUWRHQWHUIXOO\WKHOLIH
of the text or, in fact, to empathize with its protagonists. Therefore, by disturbing
the reader’s sensibilities in this way, the text simulates madness in the experience of
UHDGLQJWKHUHDGHUH[SHULHQFHVWKHPDGQHVVRI³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´³IURPLQVLGH´
,W LV ZRUWK OLQJHULQJ KHUH RYHU WKH LVVXHV DURXQG FRQIHVVLRQ DQG WKH ODFN RI
VHOIFHQVRUVKLSUDLVHGE\WKLVQRYHOWKDWDUHDOVROLQNHGWRWKHWKHPHRIFRPSOLFLW\
(issues treated in more depth in Chapters 6, 7 and 8 which are devoted to the
WKLUGSKDVHRI&RHW]HH¶VZULWLQJ³7KH9LHWQDP3URMHFW´SURYLQJIRUDQHWKLFDOO\
minded white writer such as Coetzee thematically apt as the introduction to the
oeuvre (cf. Attwell, J. M. Coetzee RSHQV ZLWK WKH LURQL]HG FRQIHVVLRQ RI D
JXLOWVWULFNHQ ZKLWH DJJUHVVRU ³0\ QDPH LV (XJHQH 'DZQ , FDQQRW KHOS WKDW´
',QDEDFNKDQGHGIDVKLRQ'DZQDSRORJL]HVSHUKDSVIRUWKHTXDLQWQHVVRU
OXGLFURXVQHVVRIKLVQDPHDQGQRWIRUKLVXQHWKLFDOYRFDWLRQ+HZRUNVIRUWKH
1HZ /LIH 3URMHFW DQG KLV QDPH WKH FRPELQDWLRQ RI ³(XJHQH´ ³HXJHQLFV´ WKH
VFLHQWL¿FSURJUDPPHRIVHOHFWLYHEUHHGLQJDGRSWHGE\+LWOHU¶V1D]LVDQG³'DZQ´
ZKLFKWKXVSXQVRQWKH³GDZQRIDQHZUDFH´+HLVLQYROYHGLQUHFRQVWUXFWLQJ
the Vietnamese psyche under the auspices of a government that would dissociate
itself from the sinister implications of a eugenicist programme, yet the tactics this
government employs are themselves suspect. Jacobus Coetzee’s narrative opens
with a similarly ironic self-disclosure, though with different, racially supremacist
UDPL¿FDWLRQV³)LYH\HDUVDJR$GDP:LMQDQGD%DVWDUG>³&RORXUHG´@no shame
in thatSDFNHGXSDQGWUHNNHGWR.RUDQDFRXQWU\´HPSKDVLVDGGHG'7KDW
which is defended by Jacobus Coetzee – racial alterity – is automatically thrown
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
25
into doubt by the portrayal of Jacobus that follows. Both these white writers
therefore offer misplaced, and in Jacobus Coetzee’s case, insincere, confessions:
Dawn fails to recognize his culpability for American atrocities in Vietnam, and
Jacobus Coetzee exposes his own racism, ironically, by his tacit denial of it.
Dawn gradually regresses into endless self-scrutiny, what he calls “the self
UHDGLQJ WKH VHOI WR WKH VHOI LQ DOO LQ¿QLW\´ ' HFKRHG DOPRVW YHUEDWLP E\
-0&RHW]HH¶VDQDO\VLVRIFRQIHVVLRQLQ³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´,I
as J. M. Coetzee claims in Doubling the Point ³DOO ZULWLQJ LV DXWRELRJUDSK\´
DQGDXWRELRJUDSK\LVGULYHQE\WKHGHVLUHIRUVHOINQRZOHGJHZHFDQ
GHGXFHWKDWZULWLQJQHFHVVDULO\LQYROYHVVHOINQRZOHGJH6XEMHFWHGWRWKHSUREOHP
RIHQGOHVVFRQIHVVLRQHDFKFRQIHVVLRQUHTXLULQJIXUWKHUFRQIHVVLRQDGLQ¿QLWXP
'3'DZQLVSUH\WRWKHWRUWXRXVEUHDNGRZQRIVHOIRQO\E\EUHDNLQJWKLV
chain of self-analysis and self-doubt will he be able to retain his grasp on his
VDQLW\:KHUHDVLQWKHODWHUZRUNVWKHZULWHUSURWDJRQLVWVVHOIFULWLFDOO\DQGVHOI
FRQVFLRXVO\JUDSSOHZLWKH[LVWHQWLDOTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHLUSODFHDVZULWHUV'DZQ¶V
PLVJLYLQJDERXWWKLVUROHPDQLIHVWVLWVHOISV\FKLFDOO\WKURXJKPHQWDOEUHDNGRZQ
On the other hand, guilt is enacted upon Jacobus Coetzee as a character in a
ZRUNRI¿FWLRQWKHPRWLIVRIH[FDYDWLRQDQGVLFNQHVVFRQ¿JXUHDZULWHUO\GLVHDVH
±-0&RHW]HH¶V±ZLWKFRORQLDOLVWYLROHQFH%\MX[WDSRVLQJWKHWZRQDUUDWLYHV
-0 &RHW]HH UDLVHV TXHVWLRQV DERXW JXLOW DQG UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RU LQ -DFREXV
Coetzee’s case, an absence of guilt and responsibility.
Typifying the Coetzean writer, Dawn is tormented by the demons of guilt as
he struggles with his responsibilities as a writer, in this case of propaganda, and
ZLWKWKHDWWHQGDQWHWKLFVVXFKDSURIHVVLRQFKDOOHQJHV*XLOWLQWKH¿UVWQDUUDWLYH
LVH[SOLFLWO\LGHQWL¿HGDVWKHFDXVHRI'DZQ¶VEUHDNGRZQ7KHGRFWRUV¶GLDJQRVLV
Dawn says, is
that intimate contact with the design of war made me callous to suffering and
created in me a need for violent solutions to problems of living, infecting me at
the same time with guilty feelings that showed themselves in nervous symptoms.
'
'DZQ¶V³QHUYRXVV\PSWRPV´LQYHUW-HDQ3DXO6DUWUH¶VFODLPLQKLVSUHIDFHWR)UDQW]
Fanon’s The Wretched of the EarthWKDWWKH³VWDWXVRIµQDWLYH¶LVDQHUYRXV
FRQGLWLRQ´6DUWUHLVZULWLQJDERXWWKHSV\FKRVLVH[SHULHQFHGE\WKH³QDWLYH´
who internalizes an indignant response to colonial violence. In Dawn’s case he
internalizes guilt. Whether a response to anger or guilt, the resultant implosion of
VHOIUHGXFHVWKHVXEMHFWWRPDGQHVV,URQLFDOO\KRZHYHU'DZQSRVLWLRQVKLPVHOIas
the victimRIJXLOW\IHHOLQJVFRQ¿QHGLQDSV\FKLDWULFLQVWLWXWLRQKHGLVSODFHVDQ\
sense of personal accountability for his morally dubious occupation by claiming,
³7KHUHDVRQ,DPQRWDVKDPHG>DW¿QGLQJP\VHOILQWKHKRVSLWDO@LVRIFRXUVHWKDW,
KDYHDEHWWHUFDVHKLVWRU\WKDQWKHORQJWHUPSDWLHQWV´',QDFFRUGDQFHZLWK
the framing device of the novel, his crazed, misconceived sense of guilt refracts
the monstrous Jacobus’s myopia.
26
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
The distinction between guilt and shame has preoccupied philosophers and
FULWLFDOWKLQNHUVSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKH¿HOGRISRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHVVHHIRUH[DPSOH
%KDEKD ³3RVWFRORQLDO $XWKRULW\´ *LOUR\ Against Race JLYHQ WKDW LW SLYRWV
RQ WKH HWKLFDO DQG VRPHWLPHV SROLWLFDO UHVSRQVHV WKH DVKDPHG RU JXLOW\ VXEMHFW
H[SHULHQFHV WRZDUGV WKH RWKHU 6DUWUH IDPRXVO\ SLFNV XS WKHVH HWKLFDO WHQVLRQV
in Being and Nothingness³I am ashamed of myself before the Other. If
DQ\RQHRIWKHVHGLPHQVLRQVGLVDSSHDUVWKHVKDPHGLVDSSHDUVDVZHOO´±
:DOWHU6LQQRWW$UPVWURQJVXPPDUL]HVWKHGLVWLQFWLRQDVIROORZV³WKHREMHFWRI
JXLOWLVDQLQGLYLGXDODFWZKHUHDVWKHREMHFWRIVKDPHLVDZKROHVHOIRUDFKDUDFWHU
trait. In short, people feel guilty for what they do, and they feel ashamed of what
WKH\DUH´³$VKDPHG´7KHHWKLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKLVGLVWLQFWLRQDUHFOHDU
shame is more attuned to accountability and responsibility and to an end product
of self-reform. Guilt, typically experienced physiologically as a paling of the
VNLQDQGVKDPHZKLFKLQGXFHVWKHEOXVKRIHPEDUUDVVPHQWDUHV\PSWRPVRIWKH
VXEMHFW¶VVHOISHUFHSWLRQRIWKHZURQJGRLQJWKHLQYLVLELOLW\RIJXLOWPHDQVLWFDQ
go unaccounted for whilst shame ineluctably signals personal responsibility. To
XQGHUVWDQGZKDWNLQGRIJXLOW\H[SHULHQFHVWKHVHDUHLQWKHOLJKWRIKLVSV\FKRVLV
we must unravel Dawn’s perceptions of his own actions and of his relationship to
the other.
Dawn’s guilt manifests itself unconsciously in his paranoiac delusions. Paranoia,
VXJJHVWV-0&RHW]HHLQ³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´LVWKHSURGXFWRIWKHEHOLHIWKDWWKH
³LQWHQWLRQWRRIIHQGLVGHWHFWHGEHKLQGHYHU\DFWLRQJLYLQJRIIHQVH´*2/LNH
'RVWRHYVN\LQThe Master of PetersburgRULQGHHGWKH'RVWRHYVN\ZKR
penned The Possessed'DZQVXIIHUVIURPHSLOHSV\ZKLFKKLVWRULFDOO\ZDV
PLVFRQFHLYHGDV³GHPRQSRVVHVVLRQ´ZKLFKLVKRZLWLVSUHVHQWHGLQDusklands
and which in turn in all three texts, on one level, can be read as a metaphor for
guilt. Demon-possession hovers behind Dawn’s words: “If this inner face of mine,
this vizor of muscle, had features, they would be the monstrous troglodyte features
of a man who bunches his sleeping eyes and mouth as a totally unacceptable
GUHDPIRUFHVLWVHOILQWRKLP´'+HUHIHUVWRKLVZLIH¶V³QRYHOHWWLVKUHDGLQJ
RIP\SOLJKW´'VD\LQJWKDWVKHEHOLHYHVKLV³KXPDQV\PSDWKLHVKDYHEHHQ
FRDUVHQHG«>DQGWKDWKHKDV@EHFRPHDGGLFWHGWRYLROHQWDQGSHUYHUVHIDQWDVLHV´
'7KHVHIDQWDVLHVDERXWKLVZRUNSHUPHDWHKLVSULYDWHVH[XDOOLIHKLVSDUDQRLD
manifests the belief that Marilyn is indulging in casual, extramarital sex, though he
has no evidence to substantiate this delusion save a sexually explicit photograph
of his wife published in Playboy Magazine,QWXUQVH[XDOIDQWDVLHVDUHOLQNHGWR
WKHZULWLQJSURFHVVLURQLFDOO\'DZQ¶VZLOGLQYHQWLRQVPLUURUWKHLQYHQWLYHQHVVRI
KLVSURSDJDQGDZRUN7KHSHUYHUWHGGLVFRXUVHVRISURSDJDQGDDGLVWRUWLRQRIWKH
WUXWKIRUSROLWLFDOSXUSRVHVDQGSRUQRJUDSK\PDWHULDOVROLFLWLQJDQHURWLFUDWKHU
WKDQ DQ DHVWKHWLF RU HPRWLRQDO UHVSRQVH DUH MX[WDSRVHG WR UHYHDO WKDW ERWK DUH
HQFRGHGE\SDWULDUFK\DQGLPSHULDOLVP'DZQWKLQNVRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKRI0DULO\Q
LQMXVWWKHVHWHUPV±³0HDWIRU\RXUPDVWHU´'±DQGWKHWKUHHSKRWRJUDSKVKH
UHWDLQVIURPWKHUHSRUW+HDGVXJJHVWV³RIIHUDGLVWLOODWLRQRILPSHULDOLVWYLROHQFH´
(J. M. Coetzee
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
27
'DZQPXVW³H[RUFLVH>WKHGHPRQVRIPDGQHVV@ZKLOHWKH\DUHZHDNDQG>KH@LV
VWURQJ´' +HVHHNVDEVROXWLRQIRUVWDEELQJKLVVRQEXWQHYHUWKHOHVVUHIXVHV
to accept culpability,
EHFDXVH,NQRZWKDWLI0DUWLQXQGHUVWRRGWKHVWUDLQ,ZDVXQGHUKHZRXOGIRUJLYH
PHDQGEHFDXVHDOVR,EHOLHYHJXLOWWREHDVWHULOHGLVSRVLWLRQRIWKHPLQGXQOLNHO\
WRIXUWKHUP\FXUH'
Since Dawn’s response is directed towards the action of stabbing and not to his own
sense of self, his response to the crime can be diagnosed as guilt rather than shame,
ruling out the possibility of self-reform. Nonetheless, even his guilt is misdirected
VLQFHEL]DUUHO\KLVFULPLQDODFWLRQV¿JXUHQRZKHUHLQWKLVFRQIHVVLRQ+HUHIXVHV
WR DFFHSW UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RQ WZR FRXQWV ¿UVWO\ WDNLQJ DGYDQWDJH RI WKH QDwYH
unconditional love of the child for its parent, he believes he would be forgiven
by Martin, and secondly, self-interest tells him that guilt will not cure his psychic
FROODSVH 7KLV LV ZKDW ZH PLJKW FDOO WKH SRVWPRGHUQ VXEMHFW¶V VFKL]RSKUHQLF
response to reality: Dawn’s understanding of his actions has detached itself entirely
from the fact of the crime.
Fredric Jameson argues that postmodernism, characterized by the “waning of
DIIHFW´PostmodernismZKHUHE\IHHOLQJV³DUHQRZIUHHÀRDWLQJDQGLPSHUVRQDO
DQGWHQGWREHGRPLQDWHGE\DSHFXOLDUNLQGRIHXSKRULD´PostmodernismLV
best represented by the schizophrenic condition. Modernism on the other hand
HPERGLHV WKH H[SHULHQFHV RI DOLHQDWLRQ DQG LVRODWLRQ -DPHVRQ WXUQV WR -DFTXHV
/DFDQ WR GH¿QH VFKL]RSKUHQLD ³$ EUHDNGRZQ LQ WKH VLJQLI\LQJ FKDLQ WKDW LV
WKH LQWHUORFNLQJ V\QWDJPDWLF VHULHV RI VLJQL¿HUV ZKLFK FRQVWLWXWHV DQ XWWHUDQFH
RU PHDQLQJ´ Postmodernism -DPHVRQ FKRRVHV ODUJHO\ WR VNLUW DURXQG WKH
V\PEROLFDOO\ IDPLOLDO EDVLV XSRQ ZKLFK /DFDQ¶V GH¿QLWLRQ UHVWV EXW /DFDQ VLWV
nicely with the analysis of Dawn made here because the rival of the schizophrenic
LVQRWWKHELRORJLFDOIDWKHURIWKH2HGLSDO&RPSOH[EXWWKH³1DPHRIWKH)DWKHU´
as a linguistic function of authority (Postmodernism,QSRVWPRGHUQFXOWXUHWKH
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVLJQL¿HUDQGVLJQL¿HGEHWZHHQZRUGRUVRXQGLPDJHIRUP
DQGFRQFHSWFRQWHQWLVUHSODFHGDFFRUGLQJWR-DPHVRQE\³WKDWREMHFWLYHPLUDJH
RI VLJQL¿FDWLRQ JHQHUDWHG DQG SURMHFWHG E\ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS RI VLJQL¿HUV DPRQJ
WKHPVHOYHV´Postmodernism6FKL]RSKUHQLDPDQLIHVWVLQWKHVXEMHFWLQZKRP
WKHVLJQLI\LQJFKDLQ³VQDSV´-DPHVRQSRLQWVRXWWKDWKLVLQWHUHVWLQVFKL]RSKUHQLD
LV QRW FOLQLFDO EXW FXOWXUDO DV D ³VXJJHVWLYH DHVWKHWLF PRGHO´ Postmodernism
DVLWLVRQRQHOHYHOLQDusklands if we read the protagonists’ madness as a
metaphor of imperial and colonial violence.
1RWXQOLNHWKH³GHSWKOHVVQHVV´RIWKHSRVWPRGHUQFRQGLWLRQ'DZQLQYLWHVD
VXSHU¿FLDOUHDGLQJRIKLVUHSRUW'DZQ¶VWUHDWPHQWRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKVFRUUHVSRQGV
ZLWK-DPHVRQ¶VDQDO\VLVRISRVWPRGHUQLW\DVD³ZDQLQJRIDIIHFW´ZKLFK-DPHVRQ
DWWULEXWHVWRWKH³ODWHFDSLWDOLVW´SKDVH'DZQ¶VIHWLVKL]DWLRQRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKV
betrays his disassociation from Vietnam, of being literally out of touch with
UHDOLW\³,FORVHP\H\HVDQGSDVVP\¿QJHUWLSVRYHUWKHFRRORGRUOHVVVXUIDFH
28
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
RI WKH SULQW´ ' +H VWUXJJOHV WR UHFWLI\ WKLV E\ SUHVVLQJ RQ WKH LPDJH RI
the prisoner’s eye. This is the postmodernist relation between reader and text.
The photographs themselves in Dusklands cannot be described in terms of the
GHSWKOHVVQHVVRIZKLFK-DPHVRQZULWHV³ZKLFKFRQIHUVLWVGHDWKO\TXDOLW\´WRWKH
image (PostmodernismEHFDXVHH[FHSWIRUWKHDPELJXRXVSKRWRJUDSKRIWKH
child-woman, these are photographs of very real human suffering. Nevertheless,
'DZQ¶VUHVSRQVHWRWKHVHLPDJHVLVV\PSWRPDWLFRIWKH³ZDQLQJRIDIIHFW´WKDW
Jameson theorizes:
On mornings when my spirits have been low and nothing has come, I have
DOZD\VKDGWKHVWDELOL]LQJNQRZOHGJHWKDWXQIROGHGIURPWKHLUZUDSSLQJVDQG
exposed, these pictures could be relied on to give my imagination the slight
HOHFWULFLPSXOVHWKDWLVDOOLWQHHGVWRVHWLWIUHHDJDLQ'
7KH ¿UVW SLFWXUH DV UHIHUUHG WR DERYH GHSLFWV DQ$PHULFDQ OLHXWHQDQW D JLDQW
RI D PDQ FRSXODWLQJ ZLWK D ZRPDQ VR WLQ\ VKH FRXOG EH D FKLOG ' 7KH
IUDPLQJRIWKHSLFWXUHXQGHUWKHKHDGLQJ³)DWKHU0DNHV0HUU\ÚHWXUQVXVWRWKH
patriarchal relations that structure Vietnamese society and hence, in turn, to U.S.
P\WKRJUDSK\,VWKHZRPDQGUXJJHGDSURVWLWXWHEHLQJUDSHGFRXOGWKHVFHQH
EH VWDJHG" 6KH LV FDXJKW EHWZHHQ WZR VFUHHQV WKH FDPHUD OHQV DQG WKH EODQN
WHOHYLVLRQWKDWQRWRQO\UHÀHFWVWKHÀDVKLQJEXOEEXWDOVRPLUURUVWKHEODQNQHVVRU
depthlessness of the woman’s expression, rendering her a readerless text. In the
SURFHVVVKHLVVLPXOWDQHRXVO\GHKXPDQL]HGE\WKH³FRQVXPHU´RIWKHSKRWRJUDSK
0RUHSRVLWLYHO\VKH¿JXUHVDUHVLVWLQJWH[W
If we consider Dawn’s inability to process the mythologies about which he
writes, illustrated in his perverse interest in the photographs that capture scenes
RI KHLQRXV DEXVH DQG LI ZH WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW KLV SV\FKRVLV ZKLFK UHDFKHV LWV
nadir in his inability to comprehend the enormity of his crime when he stabs his
son, we can readily see how he corresponds with the postmodern schizophrenic
VXEMHFWVNHWFKHGE\-DPHVRQ6XFKDQDQDO\VLVKRZHYHULVFRPSOLFDWHGE\WKH
HWKLFRSROLWLFVRI-0&RHW]HH¶VSURMHFWLQFRQMXULQJSURWDJRQLVWVOLNH'DZQDQG
-DFREXV&RHW]HHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVZKLFKMDUZLWK-DPHVRQ¶VPRGHORIGHSWKOHVVQHVV
DQGD³ZHDNHQLQJRIKLVWRULFLW\´Postmodernism)URPWKLVZHFDQGHGXFHWKDW
WKHEUHDN-DPHVRQLGHQWL¿HVEHWZHHQKLJKPRGHUQLVPDQGSRVWPRGHUQLVPLVOHVV
pronounced than he implies. Indeed, Dawn bridges this divide: a character who
LV WKH VXEMHFW RI SRVWPRGHUQ GLVFRXUVH EXW RQH PRXOGHG DQG VKDSHG LQWR D ODWH
PRGHUQLVWWH[WWKDWE\GH¿QLWLRQZLOOEHHWKLFDOLIQRWSROLWLFDODVZHOO
J. M. Coetzee explains Freud’s theory of paranoia in an essay on censorship
in South Africa, “that part of paranoia is a general detachment of libido from the
ZRUOG´ *2 +H JRHV RQ WR DUJXH WKDW LQ WKH WZLOLJKW \HDUV RI DSDUWKHLG
WKLV GHWDFKPHQW RI OLELGR LQ ZKLWH 6RXWK$IULFDQV WRRN WKH IRUP RI WKH ORVV RI
DQ LPDJLQDWLYH FDSDFLW\ WR HQYLVDJH WKH IXWXUH *2 ± ,Q WKH SROLWLFDO
VSKHUHSDUDQRLDPDQLIHVWHGLWVHOIDWWKHOHYHORIIHDURI³WRWDORQVODXJKW´RIHQHP\
VWDWHVDJDLQVW6RXWK$IULFDDVZHOODV³:HVWHUQ&KULVWLDQFLYLOL]DWLRQLQ$IULFD´
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
29
*24 Paranoia also exhibited itself in censorship. Applied to Dawn’s case
LW EHFRPHV HYLGHQW KRZ WKH SDUDQRLDF VWDWH KHUH WKH 86 SURMHFWV LWV PDODLVH
RQ WR WKH YHU\ HQYR\ LW FKDUJHV ZLWK FRQYH\LQJ LWV GDUN PHVVDJH :KDW - 0
&RHW]HHLGHQWL¿HVDVWKH³HVVHQWLDOJHVWXUHRIFHQVRUVKLS´LVWKHDELOLW\WRMXGJH
what to admit into the consciousness and what to refuse. Clearly in the case of
SURSDJDQGD ZULWHUV DUH DEXQGDQWO\ DZDUH WKDW WKHLU MXGJHPHQW IXQFWLRQV RQ D
different plane, that propaganda involves the embellishment of the facts. In Dawn
WKLVSKHQRPHQRQPDQLIHVWVLWVHOILQKLVLQDELOLW\WRMXGJHZKDWLVUHDODQGZKDWLV
not, what to admit and what to refuse.
-DFREXV &RHW]HH ZKR ODFNV DQ\ VXFK DOEHLW SDWKRORJLFDO VHOIUHÀH[LYLW\ LV
portrayed as a foolishly egocentric and self-aggrandizing colonist: “Perhaps on my
KRUVHDQGZLWKWKHVXQRYHUP\ULJKWVKRXOGHU,ORRNHGOLNHDJRG´WRWKH+RWWHQWRWV
'7KLVLVP\WKDQGPDGQHVVLQWKHUDZ-DFREXVLVWKHVWDQGDUGEHDUHURI
colonial expansionism and the herald of its madness. His gun is the colonist’s
³PHGLDWRUZLWKWKHZRUOGÉHFDXVHLWUHPLQGVKLPRIKLVRZQPRUWDOLW\MXVWDV
LWJLYHVKLPWKHSRZHUWRWDNHDOLIH'+HSHUFHLYHVH[HFXWLQJKLVUHQHJDGH
VHUYDQWVDVDGXW\D³VDFUL¿FHIRUP\VHOIDQGIRUP\FRXQWU\PHQ´KDYLQJ³WDNHQ
LWXSRQP\VHOIWREHWKHRQHWRSXOOWKHWULJJHUÍRU³*RG¶VMXGJHPHQWLVMXVW´'
KHEHOLHYHVWKDWD³ZRUOGZLWKRXWPHLVLQFRQFHLYDEOH´'5HDGRQD
OLWHUDOOHYHOIURP-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VSRLQWRIYLHZWKLVODVWUHPDUNLVWDXWRORJLFDO
DOORZLQJ-0&RHW]HHWRPRFNKLVSURWDJRQLVW¶VP\RSLD-DFREXV&RHW]HHODFNV
WKHFDSDFLW\WRUHIRUPKLVPLVVLRQIDLOVEXWKHXQGHUJRHVQRHWKLFDODZDNHQLQJ
DQGLQWKLVUHVSHFWKHLVXQOLNHWKHODWHUZKLWHQDUUDWRUDXWKRUVZKRDWWKHYHU\
OHDVWDUHVHOITXHVWLRQLQJDQGW\SLFDOO\EXUGHQHGE\JXLOW
$FFRUGLQJ WR - 0 &RHW]HH LQ ³$SDUWKHLG 7KLQNLQJ´ WKH %RHUV¶ SDUDQRLDF
IHDURIPLVFHJHQDWLRQUHYHDOHGLQ&URQMp¶VZULWLQJZKLFKZDVEDVHGXSRQQRWLRQV
RI³UDFLDOSXULW\´*2±FDQRQO\EHH[RUFL]HGIURPWKHFROOHFWLYH
South African consciousness by according madness its place in history (GO
7RFDWHJRUL]HPDGQHVVRQWRORJLFDOO\DVLWKDVEHHQLQ6RXWK$IULFD-0
Coetzee argues, is to dislocate it from history yet he concedes that to call apartheid
WKLQNLQJPDGPLJKWEHFRQVWUXHGDVSROLWLFDOVLGHVWHSSLQJDQGWKDWZKLWHOLEHUDOV
XVHGWKHGLDJQRVLVRIPDGQHVVWR³GLVWDQFH>@WKHPVHOYHVÍURPDSDUWKHLGZKLOVW
GRLQJQRWKLQJWRHQGEODFNRSSUHVVLRQ*2±7KLVDUJXPHQWKLJKOLJKWVWKH
SUREOHP RI OLQNLQJ PDGQHVV ZLWK FULPLQDOLW\ DQG LPSHULDO FRPSOLFLW\ LQ 'DZQ
who cannot be held fully accountable when he stabs his son because his insanity
diminishes his responsibility (or he can only be held accountable as criminally
LQVDQH1HYHUWKHOHVVEHFDXVHKLVPDGQHVVLVWKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIKLVSDUWLFXODU
YRFDWLRQRQWKHVHJURXQGVKLVDFFRXQWDELOLW\±DQGWKHUHIRUHWKHHWKLFVRIWKHERRN
– must stand.
4
,QUHVSRQVHWRWKH³WRWDORQVODXJKW´RIWKHVLQVXUUHFWLRQVLQ6RXWK$IULFD3:
%RWKDODXQFKHGDSROLF\RI³WRWDOVWUDWHJ\´WKDWZDVWREULQJDUDQJHRISROLFLHVWRJHWKHULQ
WKH¿JKWDJDLQVWWKHUHYROXWLRQDULHV%HLQDUW
30
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
,QLWVUHÀHFWLRQVRQWKHPDGQHVVRI³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´Dusklands offers a damning
FULWLTXH RI (QOLJKWHQPHQW WKLQNLQJ DQG VRFDOOHG UDWLRQDOLW\ FI $WWZHOO
J. M. Coetzee ± +HDG J. M. Coetzee ± SLYRWLQJ RQ WKH PDGQHVV RI
³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´7KHTXRWDWLRQIURP)ODXEHUW³:KDWLVLPSRUWDQWLVWKHSKLORVRSK\
RIKLVWRU\´WKDWSUHIDFHV³7KH1DUUDWLYHRI-DFREXV&RHW]HH´WUDQVSDUHQWO\VLJQDOV
WKH ERRN¶V SDURGLF GHVLJQ ZKLFK LQ WXUQ H[SRVHV WKH LGHRORJLHV XQGHUSLQQLQJ
history. Flaubert’s text is itself parodic, as Attwell reminds us (J. M. Coetzee 44–
3ODFLQJWKHTXRWDWLRQEHIRUHWKHVHFRQGQDUUDWLYHH[SRVHV-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶V
PRQXPHQWDOODFNRIVHOIUHÀH[LYLW\WRZDUGVKLVFRORQLDOLVWDJHQGD³7KHRQHJXOI
WKDWGLYLGHVXVIURPWKH+RWWHQWRWVLVRXU&KULVWLDQLW\:HDUH&KULVWLDQVDIRONZLWK
DGHVWLQ\7KH\EHFRPH&KULVWLDQVWRREXWWKHLU&KULVWLDQLW\LVDQHPSW\ZRUG´'
-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VH[FHVVLYHSURQRXQFHPHQWVDUHWKHQMX[WDSRVHGZLWKKLV
unselfconscious revelations about his own brutalized and misogynistic notion of
&KULVWLDQLW\LQKLVGHVFULSWLRQRI%XVKPHQZRPHQLURQ\OD\VEDUH&KULVWLDQLW\DV
DQ³HPSW\ZRUG´7KH¿JXUHRIWKH³&KULVWLDQ´KHSDURGLFDOO\LQKDELWVLVYLROHQWO\
imposed upon the other:
>7KH%XVKPDQJLUO@KDVVHHQ\RXNLOOWKHPHQZKRUHSUHVHQWHGSRZHUWRKHU«
You have become Power itself now and she nothing, a rag you wipe yourself on
and throw away. She is completely disposable. She is something for nothing,
IUHH'
$FFRUGLQJWR-DFREXVWKLVLVXQOLNH'XWFKZRPHQZKR³FDUU\DQDXUDRISURSHUW\
ZLWKWKHP7KH\DUH¿UVWRIDOOSURSHUW\WKHPVHOYHV«<RXORVH\RXUIUHHGRP´'
6H[XDOLQWHUFRXUVHZLWK%XVKPHQZRPHQFDUULHVQREXUGHQRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\
QRW XQOLNH WKH ZRPHQ RI 'DZQ¶V VHHG\ LPDJLQDWLRQ VXFK ZRPHQ DUH XWWHUO\
REMHFWL¿DEOHH[LVWLQJ-DFREXV&RHW]HHEHOLHYHVPHUHO\WRVDWLVI\KLVSOHDVXUH
Commentators on Dusklands DUH TXLFN WR FDOO LQWR TXHVWLRQ RQ HWKLFDO
grounds, the representation of violence. Yet violence, which is couched in terms
of pseudo-rationality in the novel, is suggestive of the madness of oppressive
ideologies, here, imperialism, colonialism and apartheid. Attwell alerts us to the
QHJDWLYHUHVSRQVHRIVRPHUHDGHUVWRWKLVDVSHFWRIWKHERRN³7KHYLROHQFHRI
the Hop expedition in Jacobus Coetzee’s narrative is so startling as to become a
EXUGHQ´J. M. Coetzee.QR[6KDZIRULQVWDQFHDUJXHVWKDWWKURXJKVXFK
JUDSKLFYLROHQFH-0&RHW]HH³UHHQDFW>V@µWUXHVDYDJHU\¶DQGWKHUHE\IXUWKHU>V@
LWVFODLPV´TWGLQ$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee.QR[6KDZ$WWZHOOFRXQWHUV
these critics, however, by arguing that “Such writing [in Dusklands] is surely
transgressive, not in a theoretical manner that enables one to explain it away, but
in an aggressivePRGHWKDWLVDLPHGDWUHDGHUV¶VHQVLELOLWLHV´J. M. Coetzee
The reader is defamiliarized from the text through its pornographic or obscene
linguistic register, an effect that reproduces the gulf between self and other and
EHWZHHQWKHZULWHUDQGUHDGHURIZKLFK-ROO\ZULWHV,Q³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´&RHW]HH
is careful to distinguish between pornography and obscenity which are “not coUHIHUHQWLDO«DVXEMHFWFDQQRWUHDFWZLWKXQPL[HGSOHDVXUHWRSRUQRJUDSK\\HW
“Father Makes Merry with Children”
31
DWWKHVDPHWLPHFDOOLWREVFHQH´LILWLQGXFHVZKDW-RHO)HLQEHUJFDOOV³GLVOLNHG
PHQWDOVWDWHV´)HLQEHUJTWGLQ*2'DZQ¶VSKRWRJUDSKVDUHREVFHQHEXWKH
reads them pornographically – another indicator of his madness. The photographs
are both titillating and violent (whereas Jacobus’s sociopathic response to
³%XVKPHQ´ZRPHQEHDUVDOOWKHWUDGHPDUNVRIFRORQLDOYLROHQFH%\QHFHVVDULO\
engaging with the pornographic in the novel, the reader is made complicit in this
violence, which, as I have already discussed, would account for the violence
being especially troubling. The reading experience of this particular novel is itself
³PDG´GHVWDEOL]LQJEHFDXVHDVUHDGHUVZHDUHERWKFRPSOLFLWZLWKDQGUHYXOVHG
from the text. Dawn’s three photographs of his prisoners, which have a perverse
VWDELOL]LQJHIIHFWKHEHOLHYHVRQKLVVHQVHRIVHOI'WKHVH[XDOYLROHQFHGRQH
WRWKH\RXQJ³+RWWHQWRW´JLUOLQ-DFREXV&RHW]HH¶VQDUUDWLYHDQGHYHQWKHYLROHQFH
the latter enacts upon himself when he bursts the carbuncle, which is a means of
UHHVWDEOLVKLQJKLVVHQVHRIVHOIKDYHUHFRXUVHWRWKH=HQRQLDQP\WKRILQ¿QLWH
LQIDOOLELOLW\DQGJDPHSOD\LQJ'
The violence meted out upon the other is, if in a minimal way, witnessed by the
reader via the act of reading. We are alternatively encouraged to empathize with
the other and, through witnessing, made complicit in the other’s abuse, which, as
I have explained, is the madness of this particular reading act. Reading is, at some
level, to experience, and perhaps this is why J. M. Coetzee represents violence in
such intimate, stomach-churning detail: entering Dawn’s, Jacobus Coetzee’s, or,
LQGHHG&URQMp¶VVXEMHFWSRVLWLRQIRULQVWDQFHWKHUHDGHUH[SHULHQFHVDVLPXODWLRQ
RIFRPSOLFLW\DQGPDGQHVVZKDWLQRWKHUFRQWH[WV-0&RHW]HHKDVFDOOHGWDLQW
RU FRQWDJLRQ 7KH HWKLFDO LQÀHFWLRQV RI VXFK D PRYH DUH WKHUHIRUH VHOIHYLGHQW
+HDGFRQ¿UPVWKLVDUJXPHQWZKHQKHVXJJHVWVWKDW³7RVRPHH[WHQWWKHUHLVLQ
such passages, an enactment of the brutal pseudo-rationality that the novel would
UHMHFW&RQVHTXHQWO\RQHLVUHTXLUHGWREHDUHVLVWLQJUHDGHUDQGWKLVLVVLJQDOOHG
TXLWHREYLRXVO\´J. M. Coetzee
7KH ZRUN RI GHP\WKRORJL]LQJ KLVWRULFDO QDUUDWLYH ERWK KLVWRU\ DQG WKH
historical novel, leads J. M. Coetzee in Dusklands to peel away the processes
of mythology and to inhabit inventively the mythographer’s mind and in turn
to expose the madness of so-called civilization. Dawn and Jacobus are deeply
HPEURLOHGLQWKHLGHRORJLFDOZRUNRILPSHULDOLVPDQG(PSLUHEXV\HVWDEOLVKLQJ
the myths of the father. But, preparing the ground for J. M. Coetzee’s next novels,
In the Heart of the CountryDQGWaiting for the Barbarians ZHVHH
how the distorting effect of myth leads to madness which, as revealed in these
servants of imperial and colonial powers who struggle to shore up the fragments
of their shattered selves, is in part the somatic response to the acts of violence they
KDYHSHUSHWUDWHGDJDLQVWWKHRWKHULQWKH³IDWKHU¶V´QDPH
Though DusklandsPD\SURYHWRRFRQWULYHGIRUVRPHUHDGHUVWKHMX[WDSRVLWLRQ
RI WKH WZR VHSDUDWH QDUUDWLYHV UHÀHFWV - 0 &RHW]HH¶V RZQ GLVORFDWHG LGHQWLW\
escaping apartheid South Africa in the late 1960s and early 70s to the U.S., the
ZULWHU DSSHDUV HTXDOO\ GLVLOOXVLRQHG ZLWK WKH P\WK RI WKH IUHH ZRUOG WKDW KH
portrays in Dusklands.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 2
5HIXVLQJWR³<LHOGWRWKH6SHFWUHRI5HDVRQ´
The Madwoman in the Attic in
In the Heart of the Country
Writing is not free expression.
J. M. Coetzee, Doubling the Point 65
0DGQHVVFRQWLQXHVWRWDNHFHQWUHVWDJHLQ-0&RHW]HH¶VVHFRQGQRYHOIn the
Heart of the Country KHUHDIWHUUHIHUUHGWRDVHeart of the Country7KLV
time, however, Coetzee enters the consciousness of a female narrator, Magda,
ZKR OLYHV RQ WKH 6RXWK$IULFDQ .DURR DQG LV RI %RHU IDUPLQJ VWRFN DQG ZKR
therefore inhabits the psychically and textually precarious position of being both
oppressor, as white colonial, and oppressed, as female. The preoccupation of this
novel is the female colonial writer’s psychic struggle with identity, achieved, as in
the earlier novel DusklandsWKURXJKWKHSRUWUD\DORIDQDXWKRU¿JXUHZKR
GHVFHQGVLQWRPDGQHVV6XFKDUHDGLQJPD\VWULNHVRPHDVFRQWUDU\WR&RHW]HH¶V
intention because the protagonist only functions symbolically as author – of her
life – but I will argue that it is the representation of Magda as writer that goes to
WKHKHDUWRIWKHZRUN,WLVE\UHVLVWLQJDQGWKHQVXFFXPELQJWRZULWLQJWKDW0DJGD
EDWWOHVDJDLQVWWKH³VSHFWUHRIUHDVRQ´WKDWRSSUHVVHVKHU+&<LHOGLQJWR
WKLVVSHFWUHPHDQVVXEPLWWLQJWRWKHSDWULDUFK\DQG$IULNDQHUOLWHUDU\KLVWRU\WKDW
are her masters.
In Magda’s search for self-understanding, her psychological stability is
threatened by the colonial encounter, namely, her interaction with her servants,
+HQGULNDQG.OHLQ$QQDZKRLQWKHSROLWLFDOO\LQFOXVLYHVHQVHDUHEODFN,Q³%H\RQG
WKH/LPLW´6WHSKHQ&OLQJPDQWUDFHVWKHOLQNEHWZHHQPDGQHVVFRORQLDOLVPDQG
PLVFHJHQDWLRQLQ6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ¿FWLRQIRFXVLQJRQWKHHIIHFWRQWKHRWKHURI
repression. He argues that “in the colonial setting the analytical consideration
RI PDGQHVV LV LQWULQVLFDOO\ FRQQHFWHG ZLWK D VHDUFK IRU VLJQL¿FDQW OLPLWV´ WKRVH
GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ WKH FRORQL]HU IURP WKH FRORQL]HG WKDW ZLWKRXW VXFK OLPLWV
³WKHFRORQ\IDOOVDSDUW´³)RUWKRVHZLWKLQWKHFRORQ\´KHJRHVRQ³LWLVQR
VXUSULVHWKDWOLQHVRIV\PEROLFGHPDUFDWLRQIRUPDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRI>@RWKHUNLQGV
RI GHOLQHDWLRQ´ WKDW LV OLYLQJ VSDFH RZQHUVKLS RI ODQG HFRQRPLF DQG SROLWLFDO
ULJKWV VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO SUDFWLFHV DQG EHKDYLRXUV 0DGQHVV LV ³EH\RQG
WKHOLPLW´RUDV0LFKHO)RXFDXOWKDVDUJXHGLQMadness and Civilization
PDGQHVVKDVORQJGH¿QHGWKHOLPLWVRIUHDVRQDQGQRUPDOF\ERWKSV\FKRORJLFDOO\
DQGOLWHUDOO\&OLQJPDQ³%H\RQGWKH/LPLW´)RXFDXOWMadness([DPSOHV
34
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
RIWKLVWURSHLQ6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ¿FWLRQDUHSOHQWLIXO2OLYH6FKUHLQHU¶VThe Story
of an African Farm 6DUDK *HUWUXGH 0LOOLQ¶V God’s Stepchildren William Plomer’s Turbott Wolfe 3HWHU$EUDKDP¶V The Path of Thunder
'RULV/HVVLQJ¶VThe Grass is Singing%HVVLH+HDG¶VA Question of
Power0RQJDQH:DOO\6HURWH¶VTo Every Birth Its BloodDQGSRVW
DSDUWKHLG.6HOOR'XLNHU¶VThe Quiet Violence of Dreams
,WLVWKURXJKWKHWHQVLRQVJHQHUDWHGE\WKHFRQÀXHQFHRIJHQGHUHGDQGUDFHG
RSSUHVVLRQWKDW0DJGD¶VLQVDQLW\KHUVRFLDOFRQGLWLRQFDQEHWUDFHG\HWVKHDOVR
IXQFWLRQVDVWKH³XQVWDEOH´WH[WRUZKDW&DUROLQH5RG\KDVFDOOHGD³SDSHUWKLQ
OLWHUDU\WURSH´³'DXJKWHU¶V5HYROW´$VIRU'DZQLQDusklands, madness
UHQGHUV0DJGDDQXQUHOLDEOHQDUUDWRU&RHW]HHKRZHYHULVVNHSWLFDODERXWWKH
usefulness of reading Magda as mad: “Magda is passionate in the way that one
FDQEHLQ¿FWLRQ,VHHQRIXUWKHUSRLQWLQFDOOLQJKHUPDG´'3$OWKRXJK
WKLVDI¿UPVWKHERRN¶VH[SHULPHQWDOGHVLJQDV5RODQG%DUWKHV¶V³'HDWKRIWKH
$XWKRU´ZDUQVXVZHVKRXOGQRWIHHOREOLJHGDVUHDGHUVWRWKHZKLPVRUZLOORI
the author nor to the effect the author intends. I therefore will argue that Magda
LVERWKPDGOLWHUDOO\DQGOLWHUDULO\ZRUNLQJRQWKHSULQFLSOHWKDWWKHFDWHJRULHV
of the real and the literary in this novel are irrevocably entangled, deriving
meaning from each other. In her struggle to retain her sanity and her sense of
VHOIVKHLVFRQIURQWHGZLWKD&RHW]HDQGRXEOHELQGDVDFKDUDFWHULQDERRNVKH
must represent herself through writing if she wants to assert her autonomy but
WRGRVRPHDQVEHLQJVXEMHFWWRGLVFRXUVHZKLFKLQWKLVQRYHOLVDOZD\VDOUHDG\
SDWULDUFKDODVZHOODVFRORQLDOLVW
Shoshana Felman’s concern in Writing and Madness ZLWK ³PRGHV
and structures of repressionZLWKLQOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJHÓHDGVKHUWRFRQFOXGHWKDW
³%HWZHHQOLWHUDWXUHDQGPDGQHVVWKHUHH[LVWVDQREVFXUHEXWHVVHQWLDONLQVKLSD
NLQVKLSHQWDLOHGSUHFLVHO\E\whatever blocks them off, by that which destines
WKHP DOLNH WR UHSUHVVLRQ DQG GLVDYRZDO´ Writing and Madness )HOPDQ
whose approach is deconstructive, advocates reading correlations between the
literariness of madness and the madness of literature because, she argues, both
literature and madness are premised upon repression or what Freud calls “a failure
RIWUDQVODWLRQ´TWGLQ)HOPDQWriting and MadnessE\ZKDWLVOHIWXQVDLG
The duality of madness in Heart of the Country is made available by reading
WKH VLOHQFHV VSRNHQ LQ 0DJGD¶V SV\FKRVLV and the literary history in which she
is placed. Perhaps it is here, however, that Coetzee’s novel is compromised. As
Clingman argues, Felman’s deconstructive methodology, that neglects the social
IDFWRUV WKDW LQGXFH PDGQHVV LV ZHDNHQHG E\ LWV LQKHUHQW HVVHQWLDOLVP )HOPDQ
UHDGV DOO OLWHUDU\ WH[WV DV ³PDG´ ³µZULWLQJ¶ DQG µPDGQHVV¶ DUH QRWKLQJ RWKHU
WKDQPXWXDOO\UHIHUHQWLDO´³%H\RQGWKH/LPLW´&RHW]HH¶VFRPPHQWRQWKH
fruitlessness of reading Magda as mad points us in a similar direction, but, with
Barthes in mind, on this point I would beg to differ.
7KHQDPHµ0DJGD¶ZKLFKZHOHDUQRQO\PLGZD\WKURXJKWKHQDUUDWLYHLQYRNHV
WKHDEVXUGLVWQDPLQJE\0ROOR\RIWKHPRWKHU¿JXUHLQ6DPXHO%HFNHWW¶VQRYHO
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
35
I called her Mag, when I had to call her something … . For before you say mag,
you say ma, inevitably. And da, in my part of the world, means father. Besides,
IRUPHWKHTXHVWLRQGLGQRWDULVHDWWKHSHULRG,¶PZRUPLQJLQWRQRZ,PHDQWKH
TXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWRFDOOKHU0D0DJRUWKH&RXQWHVV&DFDMolloy±
So for Molloy, Mag-da is at once meaningless, or illustrative of the need to
¿QGPHDQLQJHYHQZKHUHQRQHH[LVWVDQGUHSUHVHQWVWKHIRUPDWLYHFKLOGSDUHQW
UHODWLRQVKLSLQDFKLOG¶VGHYHORSPHQWWKDWLVNH\WR&RHW]HH¶VQRYHO7KLVSDUDGR[RI
meaning and not-meaning is, moreover, indicative of Magda’s unstable condition
– both literal and literary – and it is partly her construction as mad that allows
Coetzee to achieve this.
³0DJGD´DOVRSDURGLHVWKHV\PEROLVPRIWKHZLIHRIWKHP\WKRORJL]HG*UHDW
7UHNOHDGHU3LHW5HWLHI*DOODJKHUStoryWKHKHURLQHRI&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOGRHVQ¶W
IXO¿OWKHKRPHO\UHTXLUHPHQWVRIWKHFHOHEUDWHG$IULNDQHUZRPHQDFFRUGHGWRKHU
QDPHVDNH6XVDQ9DQ=DQWHQ*DOODJKHULQYRNLQJWKHWLWOHRIWKHQRYHOQRWHVWKDW
³7UDGLWLRQDO GLVFRXUVH KROGV WKDW D PRUDO GRPHVWLFLW\ PDNHV ZRPHQ WKH µKHDUW¶
RIWKHFRXQWU\´Story0DJGD¶VVSLQVWHUKRRGVHUYHVRQO\WRH[DJJHUDWHKHU
marginality in what is a deeply patriarchal society with its expectations of women
as wives and mothers (vrou en moederZKRDUHXSKHOGDVWKHFXVWRGLDQVRIUDFLDO
purity and the morality of the tribe.
The experience of alienation, Clingman suggests (and Magda is the
SHUVRQL¿FDWLRQRIDOLHQDWLRQpar excellence³IURPWKHIRUHLJQODQGWKHFRQWLQHQW
DQGLWVSHRSOHV>@LVWKHUHDOLW\RIWKHFRORQLDOHQWHUSULVH´³%H\RQG´0DJGD
IHHOV DOLHQDWHG E\ WKH VH[XDO UHODWLRQVKLSV WKDW VKH LPDJLQHV KDYH EHHQ EXLOW
EHWZHHQ KHU IDWKHU DQG KLV QHZ EULGH EHWZHHQ WKH EODFN VHUYDQWV +HQGULN DQG
Klein-Anna, and between her father and Klein-Anna: “lines have been drawn, I
DPH[FOXGHGIURPFRPPXQLRQ´+&6KHH[SHULHQFHVERWK(OHFWUDOIDQWDVLHV
±WKHGDXJKWHUKHUHLQIDQWLOL]HG+&GHVLULQJWKHIDWKHUDQGXVXUSHG
E\WKH³PRWKHU´±DQGFRORQLDOLVWIDQWDVLHVRIWKHIHDURIDQGGHVLUHIRUWKHEODFN
RWKHU0DJGDFRQFHLYHVRI+HQGULNDVDIDWKHU¿JXUHDQGWKHZRPHQZLWKZKRP
KHUIDWKHUDQG+HQGULNKDYHUHODWLRQVKLSVDVPRWKHU¿JXUHV0DJGD¶VRZQPRWKHU
has apparently died. She is also alienated from the land, as Rita Barnard and
&DUROLQH5RG\KDYHDPSO\GLVFXVVHG%DUQDUG³'UHDP7RSRJUDSKLHV´5RG\
³&RORQLDO'DXJKWHU¶V5HYROW´
Coetzee, in White WritingXQUDYHOVWKHP\WKRORJL]LQJZRUNRIHDUO\
$IULNDQHU OLWHUDWXUH SDUWLFXODUO\ WKDW SURSRJDWLQJ V DQG V QDWLRQDOLVP
which, as with all new nationalisms, designated culture as a weapon in its
ideological armour. The plaasromanKHDUJXHVEROVWHUVWKH$IULNDQHUP\WKRIWKH
IRXQGLQJIDWKHUVUHLI\LQJLQWKHSURFHVVWKH$IULNDQHU¶V³QDWXUDOULJKW´WRWKHODQG
³7KXVZH¿QGWKHDQFHVWRUVKDJLRJUDSKLVHGDVPHQDQGZRPHQRIKHURLFVWUHQJWK
IRUWLWXGHDQG IDLWKDQG LQVWLWXWHGDV WKHRULJLQDWRUVRI OLQHDJHV´:: 7KHP\WKRIWKH³QDWXUDOULJKW´RIWKH$IULNDQHUWRWKHODQGQRWRQO\VXSSRUWVD
³KLVWRU\RIVHWWOHPHQWÉXWDOVRPDVNV³RQHRIdisplacement´RI6RXWK$IULFD¶V
EODFNSHRSOHV5LWD%DUQDUGDUJXHV³'UHDP7RSRJUDSKLHV´DQGWKLVHUDVXUH
36
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
FRQVWLWXWHVDNLQGRIPDGQHVVHPEHGGHGLQ$IULNDQHUP\WKRORJ\+LJKOLJKWLQJD
SDVVDJHLQWKHQRYHOLQZKLFK0DJGDLPDJLQHVDJHRJUDSK\SHRSOHGE\+HQGULN¶V
IRUHEHDUVZKR³LQWKHROGHQGD\VFULVVFURVVHGWKHGHVHUWZLWKWKHLUÀRFNVDQGWKHLU
FKDWWHOVKHDGLQJIURP$WR%RUIURP;WR<´+&EHIRUHWKHZKLWHVFRORQL]HG
the land, Barnard argues that Coetzee’s utopianist ethics lie in his endeavour to
UHSRSXODWHWKLVODQGVFDSH³'UHDP7RSRJUDSKLHV´
So the novel, which appeared in a South African edition in 1978 with the dialogue
LQ$IULNDDQVXQZULWHVWKHP\WKRORJL]LQJRIWKHplaasroman that relies upon the
VDPHNLQGRIERXQGDU\PDUNLQJRXWOLQHGDERYH9LFWRULD5RVQHUZULWLQJDERXWWKH
6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQSDVWRUDODUJXHVWKDW³,IWKHPDOHVHWWOHUZDVGH¿QHGLQUHODWLRQWR
KLVPDVWHU\RIWKHODQGWKHIHPDOHVHWWOHUZDVGH¿QHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHKRXVHDQG
WKDWKRXVHZDVGH¿QHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHERG\´6WHSSLQJRYHUWKHERXQGDULHVRIWKH
³KRXVHERG\´DV5RVQHUFDOOVLWPHDQWWUDQVJUHVVLQJQRWRQO\JHQGHUEXWUDFHDQG
QDWLRQDOERXQGDULHVWRR5RVQHU,QRWKHUZRUGVWUDQVJUHVVLRQLQWKHFRQWH[WRI
Boer cultural history threatened the limits of Boer identity and was to be guarded
DJDLQVWDWDOOFRVWV7KHFRQVHTXHQFHRIVXFKWUDQVJUHVVLRQZDVQRWRQO\SXQLWLYHEXW
psychological as well because the transgressive woman, by challenging the cultural
LGHQWLW\LPSRVHGXSRQKHUH[HUFLVHGZKDWLWPHDQWWREH$IULNDQHUDQGLQVRGRLQJ
invited madness. Clingman suggests that miscegenation constitutes a “return of the
UHSUHVVHG´³%H\RQGWKH/LPLW´RQFHZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQV¶IDQWDVLHVDERXW
EODFNERGLHVEHFRPHUHDOLW\PDGQHVVHQVXHVDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIVXFKWHVWLQJRI
WKHVRFLDOOLPLWV7KHQRYHODOVR³XQZULWHV´WKH6RXWK$IULFDQWUDJHG\ZKLFKDV
Ian Glenn suggests, typically portrays a doomed romance between the mixed-race
FRXSOH³*DPH+XQWLQJ´±WKDWWKUHDWHQVWKHSUHVHUYHRIZKLWHSXULW\
6LQFH FULWLTXHV RI SDWULDUFK\ DQG FRORQLDOLVP DUH LPSOLFLWO\ SDUDOOHOHG DQG
set in opposition in the text, understanding Magda’s plight entails addressing a
³KLHUDUFK\´RIRSSUHVVLRQVWKRVHRIZRPHQDQGRIFRORQL]HGSHRSOHVDVZHOODV
that of the lunatic as other. (I use the word lunatic in the context that as sentient
EHLQJVZHDUHDOOVXVFHSWLEOHWRPDGQHVV7KHQRYHORSHQVZLWK0DJGDUHIHUULQJWR
KHUVHOIKHUIDWKHUDQGKHUIDWKHU¶V³QHZEULGH´ZKRPD\EHWKH¿JPHQWRI0DJGD¶V
LPDJLQDWLRQDVWKH³DQWDJRQLVWVÚDWKHUWKDQWKHSURWDJRQLVWVRIWKHWDOH+&
LQ WKLV ZD\ PDUNLQJ DQ 2HGLSDO EUHDNGRZQ RI IDPLOLDO UHODWLRQV DQG LQYLWLQJ D
IHPLQLVWFULWLTXH/DWHU0DJGDXQGHUPLQHVWKLVYHUVLRQRIKHUVWRU\E\VWDWLQJWKDW
KHUIDWKHUGLGQRWUHPDUU\$WVWDNHLVZKHWKHUWKHWH[WSULRULWL]HVIHPLQLVWRYHU
DQWLFRORQLDOLVWGLVFRXUVH6WHSKHQ:DWVRQHYHQLGHQWL¿HVWUDFHVRIHXURFHQWULVP
ZKHQ KH ZRQGHUV ³ZK\ 0DJGD JLYHV DPRQJ RWKHUV ZKDW LV VR REYLRXVO\ D
)UHXGLDQH[SODQDWLRQIRUKHUSUHGLFDPHQW«UHIHU>ULQJ@WRWKHµFKLOGKRRGUDSH¶DV
LIVKHZHUHVRPHJOLESV\FKRORJ\XQGHUJUDGXDWH´³&RORQLDOLVP´7KHHIIHFW
RI0DJGDQRWRQO\EHLQJRSSUHVVHGE\WKHVWUXFWXUHVRI$IULNDQHUVRFLHW\EXWDOVR
her attempts to institute oppression over her servants is one of displacement in the
³HTXDWLRQ´RILQMXVWLFHVWKDWRIJHQGHUVH[XDOLW\DQGUDFH
7KH SUREOHP RI HTXDWLQJ RSSUHVVLRQV LV UHYLVLWHG LQ WZR RI WKH ODWHU ZRUNV
published concurrently, The Lives of Animals DQGREOLTXHO\LQDisgrace
%\PHDQVRIZKDW/DXUD:ULJKWFDOOVWKHSURWDJRQLVW(OL]DEHWK&RVWHOOR¶V
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
37
IHPLQLVW ³UDQW´ ³)HPLQLVW9HJHWDULDQ´ Lives challenges commonly held
DVVXPSWLRQV DERXW DQLPDO ³YHUVXV´ KXPDQ ULJKWV ,Q WKLV ZD\ Lives addresses
some of the problems raised by Disgrace, a novel that closes with its protagonist,
Professor David Lurie, in an act suggestive of atonement for his abuse of a female
VWXGHQWJLYLQJXSRQHRIWKHVLFNGRJVXQGHUKLVFDUHIRUHXWKDQDVLD7KHLPSOLFDWLRQ
KHUHLVWKDWRQWKHVFDOHVRIMXVWLFH/XULHLVDEOHWREDODQFHWKHOLIHRIDVXIIHULQJ
DQLPDOZLWKWKDWRIDKXPDQRQHZKRE\6RXWK$IULFDQGHVLJQDWLRQVLJQL¿FDQWO\LV
³FRORXUHG´)UDQW])DQRQDGGUHVVHVWKHVDPHSUREOHPDWLFRIHTXDWLQJRSSUHVVLRQV
in Black Skin, White Masks 2QWKHJURXQGVRIWKHLQWHUFRQQHFWHGQHVVRI
race and class difference, he challenges O. Mannoni’s analysis of what Fanon
JORVVHV DV WKH ³VRFDOOHG GHSHQGHQF\ FRPSOH[ RI FRORQL]HG SHRSOHV´ 0DQQRQL
³KDV QRW XQGHUVWRRG LWV UHDO FRRUGLQDWHV´ DQG LQVWHDG EDVHV KLV WKHVLV XSRQ WKH
FRQIURQWDWLRQEHWZHHQ³FLYLOL]HG´DQG³SULPLWLYH´Black Skin)DQRQDVVHUWV
that “All forms of exploitation resemble one another … . All forms of exploitation
DUH LGHQWLFDO EHFDXVH DOO RI WKHP DUH DSSOLHG DJDLQVW WKH VDPH ³REMHFW´ ³PDQ´
)DQRQ¶VDQDO\VLVLVLWVHOIRIFRXUVHXQZLWWLQJO\KHJHPRQLFLQLWVWKHQ
FRQYHQWLRQDOXVHRI³PDQ´WRVLJQLI\³SHRSOH´
Foe &RHW]HH¶V ¿IWK QRYHO JUDSSOHV ZLWK WKLV FRQXQGUXP 6XVDQ
%DUWRQ¶VQDUUDWLYHZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHVWKH¿UVWWKUHHRIIRXUSDUWVRIWKHERRNLV
VXEVXPHGV\PEROLFDOO\DQGLQHWKLFRSROLWLFDOWHUPVRQO\PLQLPDOO\E\WKDWRI
)ULGD\WKHFRORQLDORWKHU,QWKHIRXUWKDQG¿QDOSDUW)ULGD\¶V³YRLFH´LVSRUWUD\HG
DVDVHULHVRI³R¶V´LVVXLQJIURPKLVPRXWKZKLFKDUHWKH³VRXQGVRIWKHLVODQG´
)'XULQJWKHFRXUVHRIWKHQDUUDWLYH%DUWRQFRPHVWRWKHUHDOL]DWLRQWKDW
KHUDWWHPSWVWRJLYHYRLFHWR)ULGD\)DVWKHVLOHQFHGDQGVLOHQWRWKHUDUH
HWKLFDOO\ LOOFRQFHLYHG WKDW VSHDNLQJ IRU KLP DFWXDOO\ SXUORLQV )ULGD\¶V ULJKW WR
self-determinism.
/LNH)ULGD\0DJGDLPDJLQHVVKHLVDQ³2ÉXWZKLOH)ULGD\¶V³R´VXJJHVWV
autonomy, in Magda’s case it connotes femininity, realized only negatively:
I am a hole crying to be whole … I am … not unaware that there is a hole
EHWZHHQP\OHJVWKDWKDVQHYHUEHHQ¿OOHGOHDGLQJWRDQRWKHUKROHQHYHU¿OOHG
either. If I am an O, I am sometimes persuaded, it must be because I am a woman.
+&
7KH ³2´ RU ODFN ZLWK ZKLFK 0DJGD LGHQWL¿HV KHUVHOI KHU YDJLQD SDURGLHV
6LJPXQG)UHXG¶VVXSSRVLWLRQLQ³/HFWXUH;,,,)HPLQLQLW\´WKDWIHPDOHJHQLWDOLD
DUHWKH³DWURSKLHGÝHUVLRQRIWKHPDOH¶VDQGWKDWWKHJLUOFKLOGLVDOZD\VLQLWLDOO\
homosexual, erotically desiring the body of the mother before bestowing her
DIIHFWLRQXSRQWKHIDWKHU±0DJGD¶VGDXJKWHUVHGXFWLRQIDQWDV\1RWRQO\GRHV³2´
signify the atrophied condition of femininity in Coetzee’s novel, it also represents
DGRXEOHVLJQL¿FDWLRQRIXQIXO¿OOHGGHVLUHVLQFH0DJGDLVDYLUJLQ:LWKDSHUYHUVH
VHQVH RI ORJLF VKH HYHQ ZRQGHUV LI KHU IDQWDV\ RI UDSH ZLOO KDYH PDGH KHU D
ZRPDQ+&
38
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
The novel arms itself with the French feminist challenge to Freud. Luce Irigaray,
IRULQVWDQFHGHPDQGV³+RZFDQZHDFFHSWWKHLGHD>µSHQLVHQY\¶@WKDWZRPDQ¶V
HQWLUHVH[XDOGHYHORSPHQWLVJRYHUQHGE\KHUODFNRIDQGWKXVE\KHUORQJLQJIRU
MHDORXV\RIDQGGHPDQGIRUWKHPDOHRUJDQ"´This Sex0DJGD¶VODFNLVQRW
only gendered, as spinster, on a textual level, it represents the repressed female
voice more generally: as in Irigaray’s analysis, the Feminine Symbolic. However,
ZKLOVW ,ULJDUD\ OLNH )UHXG KDV EHHQ FKDOOHQJHG IRU HVVHQWLDOL]LQJ IHPLQLQLW\1
0DJGD¶VVRFLDODOLHQDWLRQLVVSHFL¿FDOO\WKDWRIWKH$IULNDQHUVSLQVWHURQWKHIDUP
EHFDXVHVKHKDVIDLOHGWRWDNHKHUSODFHDWWKDWKDOORZHGWDEOHRIvrou en moeder.
In her relationship with her servants, Magda is unable to reconcile her needs
as a woman with her position as colonizer. What is more, this relation inverts
)DQRQLDQGLVFRXUVH,Q³7KH3V\FKRSDWKRORJ\RI%ODFNQHVV´)DQRQZULWHV³:KHQ
WKH1HJURPDNHVFRQWDFWZLWKWKHZKLWHZRUOGDFHUWDLQVHQVLWL]LQJDFWLRQWDNHV
SODFH,IKLVSV\FKLFVWUXFWXUHLVZHDNRQHREVHUYHVDFROODSVHRIWKHHJR´Black
Skin )DQRQ GHFRQVWUXFWV WKH FRQFHSWXDOO\ GXELRXV QRWLRQ WKDW ³UDFH´ LV D
ELRORJLFDOFDWHJRU\LQ³7KH)DFWRI%ODFNQHVV´DUJXLQJWKDW³EODFNQHVV´FDQEH
KLVWRULFL]HGDQGLVWKHUHIRUHVRFLDOO\FRQVWUXFWHG0RUHRYHUEODFNSHRSOHDGRSWWKH
ZKLWHPDVNVEHVWRZHGE\ZKLWHVEODFNQHVVPDVTXHUDGHVDVZKLWHQHVV7KHHVVD\
GHWDLOVWKHHIIHFWVRIUDFLVPRQWKHSV\FKHRIEODFNSHRSOHE\WRUWXRXVO\VWDJLQJ
D ³GUDPD RI FRQVFLRXVQHVV´ 3DUU\ ³5HVLVWDQFH 7KHRU\´ )DQRQ LPDJLQHV
this psychic confrontation with his own otherness: “I came into the world imbued
ZLWKWKHZLOOWR¿QGDPHDQLQJLQWKLQJV«DQGWKHQ,IRXQGWKDW,ZDVDQREMHFW
LQWKHPLGVWRIRWKHUREMHFWV´Black Skin,QDVLPLODUZD\0DJGDVWUXJJOHV
WRGH¿QHWKHERXQGDULHVRIKHURZQVHOIZKHQVKHUHMHFWV+HQGULN¶VUHPRQVWUDWLRQ
that as racially marginalized he and Klein-Anna will be punished for the murder of
0DJGD¶VIDWKHULURQLFDOO\0DJGDGRHVWKLVLQSDUWE\GLVWLQJXLVKLQJKHUVHOIIURP
RWKHUZKLWHVLQKHUUHVLVWDQFHWRWKHRWKHU¶VREMHFWLI\LQJJD]HKHUH+HQGULN¶V
³'R\RXWKLQN,DPWRRVSLQHOHVVWRDFNQRZOHGJHP\JXLOW"«,DPQRWVLPSO\
one of the whites, I am I. I am I, not a people. Why have I to pay for other people’s
VLQV"´+&
³7KH )DFW RI %ODFNQHVV´ PDSV WKH SDLQIXO WUDQVLWLRQ IURP )DQRQ¶V VHOI
SHUFHSWLRQRI DQRQUDFHGLGHQWLW\ RQHLQIRUPHGE\ (QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJWR
RQH RI DOWHULW\ VXEMHFWHG WR ³FUXVKLQJ REMHFWKRRG´ DQG ³RYHUGHWHUPLQHG
IURP ZLWKRXW´ $OWKRXJK KH JRHV RQ WR HPEUDFH D FHOHEUDWRU\ %ODFN
&RQVFLRXVQHVV³1RZWKHIUDJPHQWVKDYHEHHQSXWWRJHWKHUDJDLQE\DQRWKHUVHOI´
[Black Skin@HYHQWKLVVWDJHLVVHOIOLPLWLQJDQG)DQRQWKHPRGHUQL]HULV
IRUFHG WR TXHVWLRQ WKH IRXQGDWLRQV RI 1pJULWXGH ³2XW RI WKH QHFHVVLWLHV RI P\
struggle I had chosen the method of regression … I am made of the irrational
«$QG QRZ KRZ P\ YRLFH YLEUDWHV´ )DQRQ¶V VHQVH RI VHOI LV IUDFWXUHG
DORQJVLGHKLVIDLWKLQ(QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJUDFLVPGRHVQRWREH\WKHODZVRI
1
0DUJDUHW :KLWIRUG DQ H[SRQHQW RI ,ULJDUD\ EULHÀ\ RXWOLQHV WKHVH FULWLFLVPV
³,QWURGXFWLRQ´VHHDOVR)HOPDQ³:RPHQDQG0DGQHVV´±
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
39
reason and is impossible to challenge based on reasoned or reasonable argument.
8QGHUWKHVHWHUPVUDFLVPLVLWVHOIDNLQGRIPDGQHVV
7KURXJK WKH GHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI ³EODFNQHVV´ Heart of the Country tacitly
FULWLTXHV WKH REVHVVLYH UDFLDO FDWHJRUL]DWLRQ WKDW ZHQW WR WKH KHDUW RI DSDUWKHLG
WKLQNLQJDVZHOODVWKHUDFLVPLQKHUHQWLQFRORQLDOLVWLGHRORJ\ZKLFKVHUYHGLQ
SDUWWRREVFXUHWKHHFRQRPLFPRWLYDWLRQVEHKLQGWKHZLOOWRFRORQL]H³%ODFNQHVV´
LQWKHQRYHOLVGHIDPLOLDUL]HGE\LWVVXEYHUVLRQDVDELRORJLFDOFDWHJRU\³%ODFN´
typically describes everything but+HQGULN¶VRU$QQD¶VEODFNVNLQGHVWDELOL]LQJ
0DJGD¶VVHQVHRIVHOIDVZKLWH0DJGDFRQFHLYHVRIKHUVHOIDV³DPLVHUDEOHEODFN
YLUJLQ´D³EODFNERUHGVSLQVWHU´ZKRVHVWRU\LV³DGXOOEODFNEOLQGVWXSLGPLVHUDEOH
VWRU\LJQRUDQWRILWVPHDQLQJ´+&6KHFDVWVKHUVHOIDVWKHGHDGO\EODFNZLGRZ
VSLGHUVSLQQLQJKHUWDOHDURXQGKHUODPHQWLQJWKDW³)URPZHDULQJEODFNWRRORQJ
,KDYHJURZQLQWRDEODFNSHUVRQ´+&6KHLPDJLQHV+HQGULN³WKURZLQJKLV
KHDY\EODFNZRUGV´DWKHUZKHQVKHLVXQDEOHWRSD\KLVZDJHV+&
Magda’s psychosis curbs the dominance that her whiteness accords her. Not
RQO\GRHVPDGQHVVE\GH¿QLWLRQVLWXDWHKHUDVRWKHUDORQJVLGHKHUIHPLQLQLW\DQG
in particular alongside her spinsterhood, any authority she attempts to give her
VWRU\LVXQGHUPLQHGEHFDXVHLWLVWKHSURGXFWRISV\FKRVLV7KHWZR³GHDWKV´RI
0DJGD¶VIDWKHULQKHU¿UVWDFFRXQWVKHFODLPVVKHNLOOVKLPZLWKDQD[HLQWKH
second with a gun, yet he reappears at the end of the narrative a decrepit old
PDQDQGRIKHU³UDSHÉ\+HQGULNUHKHDUVHG¿YHWLPHVDQGDOZD\VVXEMHFWWR
GRXEWDUHMXVWWZRLQFRQVLVWHQFLHVLQKHUVWRU\7KHUDSHVFHQHWKURZVOLJKWRQ
WKHGRXEOHVLJQL¿FDWLRQRIPDGQHVVLQWKHWH[WRQWKHVWDWHRI0DJGD¶VPLQGDV
well as textual instability. Together these serve to expose what we might call the
PDGQHVVRI³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´&ULWLFVDUHGLYLGHGRQWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHUDSH$WWZHOO
DUJXHVWKDWWKHSRUWUD\DORIGLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQVLVVXJJHVWLYHRIFRORQLDOLVWIDQWDV\
(J. M. Coetzee ZKLOVW +HDG GLVSXWHV 'LFN 3HQQHU¶V FODLP WKDW LQ +HDG¶V
words, “in successive versions of the rape scene, the violence of perpetrator and
victim diminishes, while the victim’s acceptance increases, and this might also
VXSSRUWWKHLGHDRIDFRORQLDOIDQWDV\´+HDGSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHVHQVHRI0DJGDDV
victim is “surely reinforced by the repetition which … serves to intensify rather
WKDQDPHOLRUDWHWKHLPSUHVVLRQRIRUGHDO´J. M. Coetzee±5RG\LQWHUSUHWV
the scenes as rape but argues nevertheless that, by repeatedly restaging it, Magda
loses credibility: her story may or may not be authentic yet the crisis that ensues
³UHYHUVHV WKH SRZHU UHODWLRQV RI WKH EODFN PDQ DQG ZKLWH ZRPDQ´ ³&RORQLDO
'DXJKWHU¶V 5HYROW´ $WWULGJH RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG FRQWHQGV WKDW WKH ³UDSH´
LVSUHVHQWHGLQRQO\WZRYHUVLRQVWKH¿UVWFRQVWLWXWLQJ0DJGD¶VIHDURIVH[ZLWK
+HQGULNRUZLWKDQ\PDQIRUWKDWPDWWHUDQGWKHVHFRQGWKHH[SHULHQFHLWVHOI
(J. M. Coetzee :KDWVHHPVFOHDULVWKDWWKHQDUUDWLYHVHOIFRQVFLRXVO\plays
into and parodiesWKHFRORQLDOLVWIDQWDV\RIEODFNRQZKLWHUDSHZKLFKUHPDLQV
a pathological anxiety of white South Africans today. As the versions layer
XSRQRQHDQRWKHUZKLFK+HDGDUJXHVLVV\PSWRPDWLFRIWKHLQFUHDVLQJFRQÀLFW
between violator and violated and Attridge argues is in fact the event of rape itself
IROORZLQJ0DJGD¶VIDQWDV\+HQGULN¶VZRUGVWUDQVODWHLPSUREDEO\LQWRWKRVHRID
40
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
FKHDSERGLFHULSSHURUEDZG\IDUFH³'RQ¶WEHDIUDLG´³(YHU\RQHOLNHVLW´³+ROG
WLJKW´+HQGULN¶V HQFRXUDJHPHQWVDUHWKXVVXJJHVWLYHRI0DJGD¶VLQH[SHULHQFH
in and therefore of her wild imaginings of sex. On each occasion Magda wonders
whether she is hallucinating these utterances, lending weight to the idea that they
are the product of an unstable mind and FRQVWLWXWHDWH[WWKDWVHOIUHÀH[LYHO\UH
constructs the colonial fantasy.
Fanon sheds light on this fantasy when he discredits O. Mannoni’s “Prospero
FRPSOH[´
,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHVXPRIWKRVHXQFRQVFLRXVQHXURWLFWHQGHQFLHVWKDWGHOLQHDWH
DWWKHVDPHWLPHWKH³SLFWXUH´RIWKHSDWHUQDOLVWFRORQLDODQGWKHSRUWUDLWRI³WKH
racialist whose daughter has suffered an [imaginary] attempted rape at the hands
RIDQLQIHULRUEHLQJDGGHGWH[W)DQRQ¶VBlack Skin0DQQRQL
The colonial rape complex is a well-rehearsed trope in South African literature.
$QGUp%ULQN¶VImaginings of SandDQGRights of Desire&RHW]HH¶V
Disgrace 'DQJRU¶V Bitter Fruit )DULGD .DURGLD¶V Other Secrets
/HZLV1NRVL¶VMating BirdsDQG-R$QQH Richards’s The Innocence
of Roast Chicken DUH MXVW VRPH H[DPSOHV %ULWLVKERUQ 'RULV /HVVLQJ¶V
¿UVWQRYHOThe Grass is SingingVHWLQ5KRGHVLDQRZ=LPEDEZHIURP
where Lessing had recently emigrated, explores such white sexual neuroses about
EODFNPDVFXOLQLW\ZLWKRXWVWDJLQJUDSH0HJ6DPXHOVRQZULWLQJDERXWUDSHLQWKH
literature of the South African transition, pointedly warns that rape should not be
read simply as a metaphor for racial division in South Africa because “It is an
HQGHPLF±DQGSUROLIHUDWLQJ±VRFLDOGLVRUGHU´1HYHUWKHOHVVDV/XF\*UDKDP
VKRZV LQ KHU FULWLTXH RI Disgrace, “sensationalized media accounts of white
ZRPHQUDSHGE\EODFNPHQZHUHV\PSWRPVRIWKHµEODFNSHULO¶K\VWHULDRIWKHHDUO\
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGFRQWULEXWHGWRRSSUHVVLYHOHJLVODWLYHPHDVXUHVDJDLQVWEODFN
SHRSOHLQ6RXWK$IULFD´6XFKDFFRXQWV*UDKDPZDUQVKDYHEHHQUHVXUIDFLQJLQ
WKHWUDQVLWLRQSHULRGRIWKHV³5HDGLQJWKH8QVSHDNDEOH´FI&OLQJPDQ
³%H\RQGWKH/LPLW´7KH6RXWK$IULFDQ3UHVLGHQW7KDER0EHNLSXEOLVKHGD
UHVSRQVHWRJOREDOPHGLDUHSRUWVRIWKH³HSLGHPLF´RIUDSHLQ6RXWK$IULFDFODLPLQJ
WKDWLWKDVEHFRPHDQLVVXHRIUDFLVPWKDWIHHGVXSRQZKLWHV¶IHDURIEODFNV³,QWKH
end [whites] fear freedom from their psychosis, convinced that this would destroy
WKHLUVHQVHRILGHQWLW\´³*RRG1HZV´QSDJ1RWHWKHDVVRFLDWLRQ0EHNLPDNHV
between whites’ inability to delimit identity and madness. Graham, who argues
WKDW0EHNLLVLQSDUWUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHVHHQWUHQFKHGZKLWHSHUFHSWLRQVRIEODFN
men, points out that in fact most rapes in contemporary South Africa are intraracial
UDWKHUWKDQLQWHUUDFLDO³8QVSHDNDEOH´±
0DJGDEHOLHYHVWKDW+HQGULNUDSHVKHUWRVHHNUHWULEXWLRQIURPKHUIDWKHU¿UVWO\
IRUHQWHULQJLQWRVH[XDOUHODWLRQVZLWK.OHLQ$QQDDQGVHFRQGO\IRUVXEMHFWLQJ
him in the colonial relation. As delusional, Magda’s narrative therefore has all
the ingredients of Oedipal and colonialist fantasies of desire, fear and envy that
are realized in actual rape in Disgrace. (Elizabeth Lowry suggests that Disgrace
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
41
re-evaluates issues raised by Heart of the CountryRIKRZEODFNVDQGZKLWHVFDQ
OLYHSHDFHDEO\DORQJVLGHHDFKRWKHULQWKHLQFHSWLYHVWDWH>³/LNHD'RJ´@
Mirroring Magda’s earlier account of the return of the newly remarried father
WRWKHIDUPWKHLPDJLQHGDUULYDORI+HQGULNZLWKKLVQHZEULGHFDVWV+HQGULNDVD
IDWKHU¿JXUHWR0DJGDDQGWKHUHIRUHQRWRQO\PDLQWDLQVWKHGDXJKWHU¶VGHVLUHIRU
the father of psychoanalytic theory, but also inverts colonialist racist hierarchies
E\SRUWUD\LQJWKHEODFNVHUYDQWVXEMXJDWLQJWKHZKLWHPDVWHU¿JXUH(QUDJHGDW
EHLQJGLVSODFHGE\.OHLQ$QQDDVVXUURJDWH0RWKHU0DJGDSLFWXUHVVKRRWLQJ
KHUIDWKHUDQGZKHQKHVXSSRVHGO\GLHVRIKLVZRXQGVHQWUHDWLQJ+HQGULNWKH
spurned husband, to help her bury him. In due course, Magda’s narrative records
DVKLIWLQWKHG\QDPLFVRIWKHPDVWHUVHUYDQWUHODWLRQVKLS+HQGULNZLWKWKHDLG
RI .OHLQ$QQD DSSDUHQWO\ JDLQV ³RZQHUVKLS´ RI ERWK WKH IDUP DQG 0DJGD ,Q
0DJGD¶V FDVH WKLV LV DFKLHYHG WKURXJK UDSH ZKLFK DOZD\V UHPDLQV VXEMHFW WR
GRXEWDQGWKURXJK0DJGD¶VGHVLUHIRUVH[XDOLQWLPDF\7KHZKLWHZRPDQ¶VERG\
in this novel and Disgrace is perceived by the victim as both a commodity within
DSDWULDUFKDOV\VWHPRIH[FKDQJHDQGDVWKHVLWHZKHUHDQGURFHQWULFPDVWHUVODYH
relations are acted out, though as Graham points out, Lucy in Disgrace “remains
UHVROXWHO\VLOHQWDERXWKHUH[SHULHQFH´³8QVSHDNDEOH´:RPHQLQWKHVHWH[WV
KDYHEHHQFRGL¿HGZLWKLQDKLVWRULFDOO\SDWULDUFKDOV\VWHPRIUHWULEXWLRQUHYHQJH
and reparations. In the eyes of Lurie in Disgrace, who is struggling to rationalize
KLV GDXJKWHU /XF\¶V UDSH /XF\ UHSUHVHQWV ³%RRW\ ZDU UHSDUDWLRQV DQRWKHU
LQFLGHQW LQ WKH JUHDW FDPSDLJQ RI UHGLVWULEXWLRQ´ ',6 *UDKDP VWULYHV WR
PDNHWKH³XQVSHDNDEOH´VLOHQFHVDURXQGUDSHKHDUGEDVHGRQWKHTXHVWLRQ³ZKR
does notVSHDNDQGZK\"´+LJJLQVDQG6LOYHUTWGLQ³8QVSHDNDEOH´VHHDOVR
+LJJLQVDQG6LOYHUDisgraceVKHDUJXHV³GLVVROYHV>UDFH@ERXQGDULHVÉHWZHHQ
/XULH DQG /XF\¶V DWWDFNHUV ³8QVSHDNDEOH´ DOORZLQJ WKH DPELYDOHQFH RI
UDSH¶VVLOHQFHVWR³GRXEOH>@EDFN´VRWKDW&RHW]HHPDNHVKLPVHOIDQGKLVUHDGHU
UHVSRQVLEOHLQWKHGLVVHPLQDWLRQRI/XF\¶VVWRU\³8QVSHDNDEOH´7KLVSDWWHUQ
RIGHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVDGXPEUDWHGLQWKHHDUOLHUZRUNHeart of the Country. Given
WKDWFRORQLDOPDVWHUVIUHTXHQWO\UDSHGWKHLUIHPDOHVHUYDQWVDQGVODYHVWKHQDWXUH
RIWKHOLDLVRQEHWZHHQ0DJGD¶VIDWKHUDQG.OHLQ$QQDZKRP+HQGULNVHWVDERXW
EHDWLQJRQFHWKHDIIDLULVPDGHSXEOLFUHTXLUHVFORVHUH[DPLQDWLRQ$WEHVWLWLV
probably coercive. Magda fails to enlighten us, evidenced in the prospective nature
of her version of the union: “In a month’s time, I can see it, I will be bringing my
IDWKHUDQGP\PDLGEUHDNIDVWLQEHG´+&
What distinguishes the portrayal of madness in this text from other examples
from South African literature is Magda’s self-consciousness, not as a psychotic
FKDUDFWHUZKROLYHVRXWWKHFRORQLDOFRQGLWLRQWKHUHDUHSOHQW\RIWKHVHEXWDV
DPHWDWH[WXDOFRQFHLWVXEMHFWWRWKHZKLPVRIKHUDXWKRU:KLOVWWKHPDWHULDOLW\
of Magda’s story, which powerfully conveys her sense of dislocation, should not
EHQHJOHFWHGLQDQ\GLVFXVVLRQRIWKHZRUNWKHQDUUDWLYHWDQJLEO\DQQRXQFHVLWV
RZQ¿FWLRQDOLW\as text: Magda is not only controlled literally, under patriarchal
DXWKRULW\MXVWDVVKHFRQWUROVWKHFRORQLDORWKHUVKHLVDOVRFRQWUROOHGOLWHUDULO\
42
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
as a character in a text, both by her author and by literary history. Moreover, she
struggles with her own authority as author:
,QDKRXVHVKDSHGE\GHVWLQ\OLNHDQ+,KDYHOLYHGDOOP\OLIHLQDWKHDWUHRI
stone and sun fenced in with miles of wire, spinning my trail from room to room
«7KHQZHKDYHUHWLUHGWRVOHHSWRGUHDPDOOHJRULHVRIEDXONHGGHVLUHVXFKDV
ZHDUHEOHVVHGO\XQ¿WWHGWRLQWHUSUHW>@+&
Magda resists her role as colonial spinster and writer both in her dual function as
³UHDO´HQWLW\DQGOLWHUDU\WURSHDQGXOWLPDWHO\ERWKVKHDQGWKHWH[WUHJLVWHUWKH
failure of this resistance. It is this tension between character and trope – Magda’s
DZDUHQHVVRIKHU¿FWLRQDOLW\PLUHVKHUGHHSHUDQGGHHSHULQPDGQHVV±WKDWKDV
preoccupied critics of the novel. Glenn, for instance, suggests that: “The play
EHWZHHQWKH,DVQDUUDWRUDQGWKH,DVVXEMHFWLVRQHRIWKHQRYHO¶VPDQ\VW\OLVWLF
games. A failure to decode that game means a failure to grasp what Coetzee is
GRLQJ LQ WKH QRYHO´ ³*DPH +XQWLQJ´ 5RG\ UHFRJQL]HV WKH LQWULFDF\ RI
&RHW]HH¶V FRQVWUXFWLRQ WKDW 0DJGD ³LV SHUKDSV WKH EHVW VSRNHVSHUVRQ ZH KDYH
IRUDSHUVRQ¶V±RUDWH[W¶V±HQWUDSPHQWLQODQJXDJH´³0DG&RORQLDO'DXJKWHU¶V
5HYROW´ ± )HOPDQ LQ KHU VWXG\ RI PDGQHVV DQG OLWHUDWXUH SHUFHLYHV WKH
relation between character and trope rather differently, as resistance: madness,
OLNHOLWHUDWXUHFRQVWLWXWHV³DQLUUHGXFLEOHUHVLVWDQFHWRLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ´Writing and
Madness
Interviewed by Watson, Coetzee confoundingly argues that “Magda is not
D FRORQLDO VSLQVWHU´ MXVW DV ³-DFREXV &RHW]HH LV QRW D>Q HLJKWHHQWK@FHQWXU\
IURQWLHUVPDQ´ WKH\ DUH ³,¿JXUHV LQ ERRNV´ TWG LQ *OHQQ ³*DPH +XQWLQJ´
&RHW]HH TWG LQ:DWVRQ ³6SHDNLQJ´ LQ OLQH *OHQQ VXJJHVWV ZLWK WKH
VHPLRWLFVRI-DNREVRQDQG%HQYHQLVWH³*DPH+XQWLQJ´&RHW]HH¶VUHWUHDW
LQWR WKH UHDOPV RI WH[WXDO SOD\ *OHQQ DSWO\ WLWOHV KLV HVVD\ ³*DPH +XQWLQJ´
might well allow him to prevaricate on the ethico-political issues the text raises
± WKH FRQGLWLRQ RI ZRPHQ LQ$IULNDQHU VRFLHW\ WKHLU SODFH LQ D ³KLHUDUFK\´ RI
RSSUHVVLRQ WKH GLI¿FXOW\ LQ UHSUHVHQWLQJ VXFK ZRPHQ DUH MXVW WKUHH H[DPSOHV
At the same time, paradoxically, the novel’s very textuality facilitates ethicopolitical debate by apportioning the reader interpretative autonomy through this
YHU\DPELJXLW\WKHUHDGHUPXVWWDNHUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUFRQVWUXFWLQJDYHUVLRQRI
HYHQWV DQG IRU PDNLQJ VHQVH RI 0DJGD¶V VWRU\$WWULGJH DGGUHVVHV WKLV UHDGHUO\
HQJDJHPHQWLQKLVGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHPRGHUQLVWDHVWKHWLFVRIWKHZRUNZKDWKHFDOOV
LWV³WH[WXDORWKHUQHVV´RU³textualterity´7KH³IRUPDOVWUDWHJLHV´PRGHUQLVPXVHV
to foreground language and the device of genre should not be written off simply
DV WH[WXDO SOD\ EXW DQ DFNQRZOHGJHPHQW GHVSLWH ZKDW DXWKRUV PD\ WKLQN WKH\
are doing to the contrary, “that literature’s distinctive power and potential ethical
force reside in a testing and unsettling of deeply held assumptions of transparency,
instrumentality, and direct referentiality´ $WWULGJH FRQWHQGV WKDW VXFK WHVWLQJ
allows the reader to apprehend otherness “which those assumptions had silently
H[FOXGHG´HPSKDVLVDGGHGJ. M. Coetzee
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
43
An example of this strategy of fostering an agential reader is the division of the
QDUUDWLYHLQWRQXPEHUHGSDUDJUDSKVZKDW&RHW]HHFDOOVD³PRQWDJH´HIIHFW
In the Heart of the CountryLV«FRQVWUXFWHGRXWRITXLWHEULHIVHTXHQFHVZKLFK
DUHQXPEHUHGDVDZD\RISRLQWLQJWRZKDWLVQRWWKHUHEHWZHHQWKHPWKHNLQG
RI VFHQHVHWWLQJ DQG FRQQHFWLYH WLVVXH WKDW WKH WUDGLWLRQDO QRYHO XVHG WR ¿QG
necessary – particularly the South African novel of rural life that In the Heart of
the CountryWDNHVRIIIURP'3±
Such a strategy has a defamiliarizing effect: the reader must decipher the narrative
but also must reconstruct what is left unsaid, in its silences. The numbering of
SDUDJUDSKV LV VXJJHVWLYH RI FRQIHVVLRQDO GLDU\ ZULWLQJV FRQ¿UPHG E\ 0DJGD
³, DP D VSLQVWHU ZLWK D ORFNHG GLDU\´ VKH ODPHQWV +& WKH WUXWKIXOQHVV RI
her confession, of course, is thrown into doubt because her narrative suggests
psychosis. She is compelled to give order to the seemingly sparse story of her life
and, conceiving of herself as a mirror-image, believes she “will dwindle and expire
here in the heart of the country unless she has at least a thin porridge of event to live
RQ´+&7KHVHOIFRQVFLRXVQHVVRIWKHQDUUDWLYHLQWLPDWHVWKDWZULWLQJEUHDWKHV
OLIHLQWRKHUVKHLVTXLWHREYLRXVO\³G\LQJ´RIERUHGRP\HWDWWKHVDPHWLPHDV
WKHVXEMHFWRISDWULDUFKDODQGLQGHHGFRORQLDOLVWGLVFRXUVHVKHLVLPSULVRQHGE\
LW:RUNLQJDJDLQVWWKHFRQYHQWLRQVRIWKHUHDOLVWQRYHOWKHQXPEHUVLQIDFWSRLQW
up a lack of order or rationality that their inclusion might imply. Magda herself
experiences gaps in her memory: “A day must have intervened here. Where there is
DEODQNWKHUHPXVWKDYHEHHQDGD\GXULQJZKLFKP\IDWKHUVLFNHQHGLUUHFRYHUDEO\
«,VXVSHFWWKDWWKHGD\WKHGD\ZDVPLVVLQJ,ZDVQRWWKHUH´+&±7KH
SDVVLQJRIWLPHPXVWEHEURNHQGRZQLQWRVPDOOHUPDQDJHDEOHRUEHDUDEOHFKXQNV
both for Magda and, apparently, for the reader of the novel. It is ironic of course
that the missing day is when something apparently actually does happen.
On a textual level, Magda is ensnared in a double bind for whilst she depends
upon narrative for her substance, at the same time it girds her to the Law of the
)DWKHU 2Q WKH RQH KDQG VKH EHOLHYHV WKDW VKH LV XQDEOH WR EUHDN IUHH IURP WKH
SURFHVVRIFUHDWLQJ¿FWLRQVRUIURPEHFRPLQJD¿FWLRQ³,PDNHLWDOOXSLQRUGHU
WKDWLWVKDOOPDNHPHXS,FDQQRWVWRSQRZ´+&2QWKHRWKHUWKHQDUUDWLYH
LPSOLHVVKHLVWKHV\PEROLFDXWKRURIKHUWH[WIRUVKHZRQGHUVLIVKHKDV³LQN\
YLROHW´ EORRG LQ KHU YHLQV +& DV D ³SRHWHVV RI LQWHULRULW\´ +& VKH
FODLPV ³O\ULF LV P\ PHGLXP QRW FKURQLFOH´ +& VKH LV WKH ³EODFN ZLGRZ
VSLGHU´ ZHDYLQJ KHU WDOH +& ZKR VWUXJJOHV IRU DXWRQRP\ RI KHU VWRU\
ZKLFK VKRXOG KDYH ³D EHJLQQLQJ D PLGGOH DQG DQ HQG´ +& VKH VWUHVVHV
WKDW VKH ³GHDO>V@ LQ VLJQV PHUHO\´ +& 0DJGD¶V GLYLGHG VHOI DV RSSUHVVRU
DQGRSSUHVVHGLV¿JXUHGLQWKLVDXWKRUFRQFHLWZKHUHDXWKRUVKLSDOZD\VDOUHDG\
connotes mastery. But as a character in a story she is also its servant, both dominated
and marginalized, self and other. This is her predicament. She struggles to free
herself from writing and being written since, as Irigaray’s speculations reveal, the
DFWRIZULWLQJPDNHVKHUERWKFRPSOLFLWZLWK\HWVXEMHFWHGE\SKDOORJRFHQWULVP
44
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
It is from her phallogocentric self and from Coetzee as emblematic patriarch and
DXWKRULQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKLVQRYHOWKHWHUPVDUHFRYDOHQWWKDWVKHVWUXJJOHVWR
liberate herself whilst at the same time needing to assert her autonomy, “I am
,´+&6HOIFRQVFLRXVO\DQGXQFRQVFLRXVO\WKURXJK³ZULWLQJ´DQGPDGQHVV
UHVSHFWLYHO\VKHVSLQV¿FWLRQVDURXQGKHUVHOIYHU\PXFKDVDXWKRUVFRQVWUXFWWKHLU
tales. As the story draws to a close, supposedly abandoned by her servants, Magda
LPDJLQHVFRPPXQLFDWLQJZLWK³PDFKLQHVLQWKHVN\´³+DYLQJIDLOHGWRPDNHP\
VKRXWVKHDUG«,WXUQHGWRZULWLQJ´+&6KHHYHQÀLSSDQWO\WR\VZLWKKHU
UHDGHUE\DQQRXQFLQJLQWKHRSHQLQJSDVVDJHVRIWKHERRNWKDWKHUIDWKHUDUULYHG
home with his new bride “in a dog-cart drawn by a horse with an ostrich-plume
ZDYLQJRQLWVIRUHKHDG´RQO\WRFDVWGRXEWXSRQWKLVDFFRXQW³2USHUKDSVWKH\
ZHUHGUDZQE\WZRSOXPHGGRQNH\VWKDWLVDOVRSRVVLEOH«0RUHGHWDLO,FDQQRW
JLYH XQOHVV , EHJLQ WR HPEURLGHU IRU , ZDV QRW ZDWFKLQJ´ +& 0DJGD ERWK
weaves and unravels a tale, thereby functioning minimally as both the writer and
UHDGHURIKHUWH[W'HUDQJHGDQGKHDULQJYRLFHVFRQYH\HGE\³PDFKLQHVWKDWÀ\LQ
WKHVN\´+&VKHWULHVWRPDNHVHQVHRIWKHP
Gallagher argues that the time of the narrative loosely spans the period 1870 to
1960 because references are made to the use of horses and carts, bicycles, trains
and aeroplanes, and to the demand for taxes from Magda for municipal services
(Story$V+HDGSRLQWVRXWVLQFHWKHSORWLVSUHVHQWHGXQUHDOLVWLFDOO\RUantiUHDOLVWLFDOO\WKLVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQUHTXLUHVWKDWZHVXVSHQGRXUGLVEHOLHIJ. M. Coetzee
0DJGD PD\ EH SUHVDJLQJ D IXWXUH WLPH QDUUDWLQJ IURP WKH ODWH WZHQWLHWK
century whilst trapped psychologically in the colonial past, or, as a character-type
LQDERRNPD\EHVWUXJJOLQJWRGLVORGJHKHUVHOIIURPFRORQLDOOLWHUDU\KLVWRU\:H
DUH QRW H[SHFWHG WR KLVWRULFL]H WKH ZRUN DFFXUDWHO\ LQGHHG E\ GHIDPLOLDUL]LQJ
KLVWRULFDOWLPH&RHW]HHFDUYHVDVSDFHWRDVNTXHVWLRQVDERXWFRORQLDOOLWHUDU\
history, including the status of the text and its author within that history. Gone
PDGDQGWKXVHYHU\DFFRXQWWKDWVKH³ZULWHV´KDVWREHFRQGLWLRQDOVKHLPDJLQHV
³ZULWLQJ´PHVVDJHVWRWKH³VN\JRGV´+&ZLWKVWRQHVGHVSHUDWHO\DQQRXQFLQJ
her self and her body in a last-ditch attempt to escape her psychological committal
WRWKHIDUP6KH LVIRUFHGVKHEHOLHYHVWRWXUQWR³ZULWLQJ´±ZKLFKLVVXEMHFW
to the Law of the Father – because her shouts go apparently unheard. Indeed,
she advertises herself within a masculinized notion of femininity, as a sexualized
ERG\³)(00±$02532578´+&8OWLPDWHO\PDUNLQJWKHIDLOXUHRI
her attempts to resist dominant modes of writing, and again negating the preceding
events, the narrative draws to a close with the reappearance of the father, though
now decrepit since he is deaf, blind and incontinent.
7KHYRLFHV0DJGDKHDUVIURPWKH³À\LQJPDFKLQHV´+&¿JXUHWKHFULVLV
of the pathological space in which she resides:
7KH\DFFXVHPHLI,XQGHUVWDQGWKHPRIWXUQLQJP\OLIHLQWRD¿FWLRQRXWRI
ERUHGRP«DVWKRXJK,ZHUHUHDGLQJP\VHOIOLNHDERRNDQGIRXQGWKHERRN
GXOODQGSXWLWDVLGHDQGEHJDQWRPDNHP\VHOIXSLQVWHDG«ZKHQ,FRXOG¿QG
no enemy outside, when hordes of brown horsemen would not pour out of the
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
45
hills waving their bows and ululating, I made an enemy out of myself. (HC
±
0DJGDUHDOL]HVWKDWKHUSV\FKLFGLVHDVHLVWXUQHGLQZDUGVWKDWWKHIHDURIEODFN
ERGLHV ³EURZQ KRUVHPHQ´ LV WKH SURMHFWLRQ RI KHU RZQ SDUDQRLD 7KLV LV WKH
point from which Coetzee’s third novel Waiting for the BarbariansEHJLQV
ZKHUHWKHVHWWOHUVZDLWLQIHDURIWKHDUULYDORIWKHHQLJPDWLF³EDUEDULDQV´/LNH
WKHVRFLHW\WKDWSRSXODWHV&RQVWDQWLQH3&DYDI\¶VSRHPWRZKLFKWKHODWWHU
QRYHOPDNHVWLWXODUUHIHUHQFHZLWKRXWWKH³EDUEDULDQV´WRSUHRFFXS\KHUZKRLQ
&DYDI\ DUH ³D NLQG RI VROXWLRQ´ 0DJGD SURMHFWV KHU QHXURVHV EDFN RQ KHUVHOI
Nonetheless, she is also attributed insight into this complex and her psychological
IUDLOW\ +HU OLIH LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ D ODFN RI IXO¿OPHQW DQG GHVLUH DQG OLNH WKH
VHWWOHUVLQWKHSRHPVKH¿QGVKHUVHOILQDSHUSHWXDOVWDWHRIZDLWLQJWUDSSHGLQWKH
mythological and mythologizing colonial condition which, the novel suggests, is
also a patriarchal domain.
The psychic interiority mapped by Heart of the Country recalls Marlow’s
SV\FKRORJLFDOMRXUQH\LQWRWKHLQWHULRURIWKHPLQGLQ-RVHSK&RQUDG¶VHeart of
Darkness &ULWLFVVXFKDV&KLQXD$FKHEHKDYHFRQGHPQHG&RQUDG¶VQRYHO
for its representation of the African as simply the foil against which Marlow’s
psyche is explored: “Can nobody see the preposterous and perverse arrogance in
WKXVUHGXFLQJ$IULFDWRWKHUROHRISURSVIRUWKHEUHDNXSRIRQHSHWW\(XURSHDQ
PLQG"´ Hopes and Impediments $FKHEH¶V SULPDU\ FRQFHUQ LV WKH SROLWLFV
RI FDQRQL]DWLRQ 6LPLODUO\ LQ Heart of the Country +HQGULN DQG .OHLQ$QQD
DUHREMHFWL¿HGE\0DJGDXQGHUFRORQLDOLVWGLVFRXUVH0DJGDDEXVLYHO\VHHNVWR
IHPLQL]HKHUVHOIWKURXJK WKHLUERGLHV PDNLQJQR DWWHPSWWR UHSUHVHQWWKHRWKHU
VDYHWKHRWKHUVLGHRIKHUVHOI)RULQVWDQFHVKHLPSHULRXVO\SUH¿[HVWKHVHUYDQW
JLUO$QQD¶VQDPH³.OHLQ$QQD´±DK\EULGRI$QQD)UHXGDQG0HODQLH.OHLQERWK
disciples of Freud who specialized in the psychoanalysis of children yet whose
ZRUNEURXJKWWKHPLQWRFRQÀLFWZLWKHDFKRWKHU$QQD)UHXGGHYHORSHGWKHPRGHO
RIWKH*RRG0RWKHU
However, in Heart of Darkness Conrad preserves an ironic distance from the
imperialist discourse he presents through the formal device of the framed narrative:
0DUORZUHFRXQWVKLVWDOHWRDQXQQDPHGQDUUDWRURQDVKLSGRFNHGLQWKH7KDPHV
In Conrad’s defence, Edward Said argues that “Conrad’s self-consciously circular
QDUUDWLYHIRUPVGUDZDWWHQWLRQWRWKHPVHOYHVDVDUWL¿FLDOFRQVWUXFWLRQVHQFRXUDJLQJ
XVWRVHQVHWKHSRWHQWLDORIDUHDOLW\WKDWVHHPHGLQDFFHVVLEOHWRLPSHULDOLVPMXVW
EH\RQGLWVFRQWUROĆulture and ImperialismDQGFRQ¿UPHGE\%HQLWD3DUU\
ZKHQVKHUHIHUVWRWKHQRYHOOD¶V³SOXUDODQGFRQWUDGLFWRU\GLVFRXUVHV´³$IWHUOLIH´
Q SDJ /LNHZLVH &RHW]HH GLVWDQFHV KLPVHOI IURP FRORQLDOLVW DQG $IULNDQHU
nationalist discourse by portraying a character en abyme, laying bare the processes
by which she is written. She is a character who, as insane and unreliable, is a paltry
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKH³JUHDWFRORQL]LQJPLVVLRQ´
7KH VOLSSHULQHVV RI &RHW]HH¶V FULWLTXH FDQ SHUKDSV EHVW EH H[SODLQHG E\
Barnard’s contention that “The capacity for changing the rules of the game is
46
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
SUHFLVHO\ZKDW>&RHW]HH@YDOXHVPRVWLQDZRUNRIDUW´³'UHDP7RSRJUDSKLHV´
DQG WKLV LV QR PRUH HYLGHQW WKDQ LQ KLV VHOIFRQVFLRXV PDQLSXODWLRQ RI WKH
plaasroman genre in this novel. Magda wonders whether it might be better to “give
XSWKH¿FWLRQRIIDUPLQJ´+&DQGLVDOOWRRDZDUHZKHQSRVLWLRQLQJKHUVHOI
DQGEHLQJSRVLWLRQHGE\&RHW]HHWKDWVKHLVDVWRFNFKDUDFWHURIWKHJHQUH³,DP
the one who´VKHVD\V+HUIDWKHULVWKHDUFKHW\SDOKHDGRIWKH%RHUKRXVHKROG
“My father is the one whoSDFHVWKHÀRRUERDUGVEDFNDQGIRUWK´HPSKDVLVDGGHG
+& :KHUH VH[XDO SDVVLRQ LQ &RHW]HH LV DQDORJRXV WR DUWLVWLF SURGXFWLRQ LQ
this novel Magda struggles with her sexual identity and analogously is oppressed
E\ZRUGVDQGOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH)LQGLQJKHUVHOILQWKHJHQUHRIWKHplaasroman,
DOEHLWDKLJKO\LURQL]HGYHUVLRQIRU0DJGDWKHZULWWHQZRUGVLJQL¿HVLVRODWLRQDQG
the denial of sexual and social intercourse. Language is isolating on two counts:
¿UVWO\LWVVXEMHFWLVWKHVHOIDOZD\VDOUHDG\FRQVWLWXWHGE\WKHPDVFXOLQHV\PEROLF
IURPZKLFK0DJGDLVVWULYLQJWREUHDNIUHHDQGVHFRQGO\KHUVWRU\HYHQWKRXJK
other-directed, is a monologue rather than a dialogue, connoting the struggle with
ZRUGV DQG VSHHFK RI WKH VRFLDOO\ DOLHQDWHG DV LQ 6DPXHO %HFNHWW¶V SOD\V WKH
VWUXJJOHWREHKHDUGFI5RG\
Magda’s place in the novel is paradoxical since she is both entrapped
E\ ODQJXDJH RU ³ZULWHV´ DERXW EHLQJ WUDSSHG ZKLOVW VKH SUHVVHV DJDLQVW LW
WUDQVJUHVVLQJ ERXQGDULHV 5HL¿HG LQ PDGQHVV IHPDOH UHSUHVVLRQ DQG FRORQLDO
DQ[LHW\DUHLQHOXFWDEO\ERXQGWR0DJGDDVPHWD¿FWLRQDOWURSH6KHLQKDELWVWKH
VSDFHWKDW)HOPDQLGHQWL¿HVDVWKHEULGJHEHWZHHQPDGQHVVDQGZULWLQJ³OLWHUDWXUH
and madness are informed byHDFKRWKHU«SUHFLVHO\OLQNHGE\ZKDWDWWHPSWVWR
VKXWWKHPRXW´Writing and Madness
,QDQHVVD\RQ*HUULW$FKWHUEHUJ¶VSRHP³%DOODGHYDQGH*DV¿WWHU´&RHW]HH
ORFDWHV D VLPLODU OD\HULQJ RI VLJQL¿FDWLRQ LQ WKH XVH RI WKH SHUVRQDO SURQRXQV
³,´ DQG ³\RX´ ³VKLIWHUV´ DFFRUGLQJ WR -DNREVRQ >TWG LQ '3 @ ZKLFK LV
a relationship between the self and other as well as the self’s relationship to
ODQJXDJH7KHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKH³,´DQG³<RX´RIWKHSRHP&RHW]HHDUJXHV
LV QRW RQO\ WKDW EHWZHHQ WKH FKDUDFWHUV SRUWUD\HG WKH JDV¿WWHU DQG WKH ZRPDQ
EXWDOVREHWZHHQDPHWDSK\VLFDOEHLQJDQGWKHSRHPLWVHOI'37KH'XWFK
word dichten, he points out, has no comparable homonym in English, and means
ERWK³SOXJJLQJDKROHÉXWDOVR³WRZULWHSRHWU\´WKXVWKHJDV¿WWHULQWKHSRHPLV
³VHDOLQJRIIOHDNV>EXW@LVDOVRWKHSRHWDWZRUN´'3,QHeart of the Country
0DJGD¶VUHFRJQLWLRQRIKHUVHOIDV³ODFN´DQGDVDKROHRUDQ³2ÚHSUHVHQWVERWK
KHU IHPLQLQLW\ QHJDWLYHO\ FRQVWLWXWHG DQG KHU LQHIIHFWXDOLW\ DV DQ DUWLVW ³2´
UHSUHVHQWVDQ³HPSW\´FRQVFLRXVQHVVRUWKHEODQNWH[W7KLVKROHPD\EHWKHKROH
to which Sartre refers in Being and NothingnessZKLFK&RHW]HHLQWXUQ
LGHQWL¿HVZLWKWKHKROHLQWKH$FKWHUEHUJSRHP
Consciousness is presented [in Sartre] as a hole through which nothingness pours
LQWRWKHZRUOG,IZHUHFRJQL]H6DUWUHDVWKHGDUNHUVSLULWEHKLQG$FKWHUEHUJWKH
TXHVWRIWKHIIRUWKHKROHEHFRPHVDQDEVXUGTXHVWIRUFRQIURQWDWLRQZLWKWKH
YRLG>@'3
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
47
&RHW]HH FRQFOXGHV WKDW WKH ³IDWH RI WKH JDV¿WWHU LV SUHFLVHO\ VHOIDQQLKLODWLRQ D
GZLQGOLQJDZD\RIVHOIKRRG´'3
/LNH$FKWHUEHUJ¶V JDV¿WWHU DV D FKDUDFWHU DQG ³DXWKRU´ LQ DQG RI KHU VWRU\
0DJGDRFFXSLHVSRODUL]HGSRVLWLRQVRI³<RX´DQG³,´DVSDFHVKHFRQVWUXHVDV
KHU GRXEOH VLJQL¿FDWLRQ LQ ZKLFK VKH HQGHDYRXUV WR SUHVHUYH WKH UHPQDQWV RI D
GLVVLSDWHGVXEMHFWHGVHOIFI$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee±6KHVWDWHV³,I,DP
DQ HPEOHP WKHQ , DP DQ HPEOHP´ +& DQG ODWHU WKDW ³7KLV PRQRORJXH RI
WKH VHOI LV D PD]H RI ZRUGV RXW RI ZKLFK , VKDOO QRW ¿QG D ZD\ XQWLO VRPHRQH
HOVHJLYHVPHDOHDG´+&+HUHVKHLVDSSHDOLQJERWKWRWKHDXWKRUDQGWR
DQLPDJLQHGVH[XDOSDUWQHUZKRZLOOWHDFKKHUWKURXJKLQWHUFRXUVHKRZWRPDNH
KHUVHOIDZRPDQ$QGWKHWZRDXWKRUDQGORYHUDUHLQH[WULFDEO\OLQNHG
Aching to form the words that will translate me into the land of myth and hero
« , DP QRW D KDSS\ SHDVDQW , DP D PLVHUDEOH EODFN YLUJLQ DQG P\ VWRU\ LV
P\VWRU\HYHQLILWLVDGXOOEODFNEOLQGVWXSLGPLVHUDEOHVWRU\LJQRUDQWRILWV
PHDQLQJ«,DP,+&
$OOXGLQJWRKHU¿FWLRQDOLW\VKHFRPSDUHVKHUVHOILQKHULVRODWLRQ³OLNHDJRRG
FDVWDZD\´WRWKHUHVRXUFHIXO5RELQVRQ&UXVRHDQGWRWKHQHJOHFWHGDUFKHW\SDO
YLFWLP &LQGHUHOOD ³&,1'5/$ (6 0, « 48,(52 81 $875 « 621
,62/$'2´+&7KDWWKHPHDQLQJRI³$875´LVOHIWDPELJXRXVUHJLVWHUV
0DJGD¶VGXDO³IXQFWLRQ´LQ)UHQFKl’autrePHDQV³RWKHU´ZKLOHl’auteur translates
DV³DXWKRU´2IFRXUVH0DJGDPL[HV6SDQLVKDQG)UHQFK7KHWH[WRIIHUVWZR
SRVVLEOH UHDGLQJV )LUVWO\ OLNH 0DJGD¶V GHVLUH WR HVFDSH ZRUGV DQG ODQJXDJH
DXWKRUVKLSLQWKHVHUYLFHRISDWULDUFK\WKHDFWRIZULWLQJLVSUHVHQWHGDVDQWL
IHPLQLVW 0DJGD DGRSWV WKH VWHUHRW\SHG UROH RI WKH REMHFWL¿HG DQG VXEVHUYLHQW
ZRPDQ LQ KHU LQVFULSWLRQV LQ VWRQHV 6HFRQGO\ IHPLQLVW DQG TXHHU WKHRULHV RI
performativity would suggest that she is minimally resistant because she selfFRQVFLRXVO\PLPHVZRPDQKRRGSDURG\HIIHFWLQJFULWLTXHFI,ULJDUD\This Sex
%XWOHUBodies ±+RZHYHUKHUIDLOXUHWRUHVLVWDVLQWKH¿UVWPRGHORI
writing, is evidenced in the futility of her bid for freedom by laying messages in
stones, a futility which is accentuated by her delusion that she is communicating in
Spanish or her idea of Spanish, because it is a language she does not understand.
Believing intercourse, both sexual and social, would enable her to resist
the masculinist notion of fathering stories (as a spinster, authorship for Magda
HQJHQGHUVRSSUHVVLRQVKHVWUXJJOHVWRHPEUDFHVH[XDOORYH\HWHYHQWKHVHHIIRUWV
are thwarted: “The law has gripped my throat, I say and do not say … its one hand
RQP\WRQJXHLWVRWKHURQP\OLSV´+&±/LSVDUHLQWHUFKDQJHDEO\WKRVH
of the mouth and female genitalia. Magda’s conception of herself as both socially
DQGVH[XDOO\RSSUHVVHGE\WKH)DWKHU¶VZLOOLVUHL¿HGVRPDWLFDOO\UHSUHVHQWHGE\
WKHPRXWKVSHHFKDQGJHQLWDOLDFRSXODWLRQUHVSHFWLYHO\6KHLVLQKDELWHGE\WKH
Father. In a desperate bid to communicate with others, she turns to sexual love
because, she believes, this will bypass the written word. In the same manner that
VKHLPDJLQHVHQWHULQJWKHERG\RI.OHLQ$QQDLQRUGHUWRH[SHULHQFH³DXWKHQWLF´
48
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
human feelings, she unwittingly inverts the motif of being entered by the body of
WKH)DWKHUKHUIDWKHUZKHQVKHSLFWXUHVFOLPELQJOLNH+DPOHWLQWRKLVJUDYH2
DQGE\RFFXS\LQJWKHJUDYHLQWKLVZD\VLJQDOVVHOIDI¿UPDWLRQ'HVSLWH0DJGD¶V
SOHDVWRVWRS+HQGULNODWHUGUHVVHVXSLQKHUGHDGIDWKHU¶VFORWKHVWRWDXQWKHULQD
JURWHVTXHSDWULDUFKDOPDVTXHUDGH+&
Sexual love for Magda, therefore, is the path to agency and resistance, whilst
writing and reading, or being written or read, which signify entrapment and
RSSUHVVLRQ EORFN WKLV SDWK RII ,Q WKLV UHVSHFW 0DJGD LV DQWLWH[WXDO MXVW DV KHU
madness renders her uninterpretable:
:KDWGR,ODFN"«,VLWPHUHSDVVLRQ",VLWPHUHO\DYLVLRQRIDVHFRQGH[LVWHQFH
passionate enough to carry me from the mundane of being into the doubleness
RIVLJQL¿FDWLRQ"«:KDWDXWRPDWLVPLVWKLVZKDWOLEHUDWLRQLVLWJRLQJWREULQJ
PHDQGZLWKRXWOLEHUDWLRQZKDWLVWKHSRLQWRIP\VWRU\"«:KRLVEHKLQGP\
RSSUHVVLRQ"+&±
The light begins to dawn on Magda that she also is oppressed by her author,
Coetzee: that she is an unwilling and unwitting participant in the system
ZKLFKRSSUHVVHVKHURQHZKLFKVKHFDQQRWHVFDSH,QKHUDQJXLVKHGTXHVWIRU
meaningful liberation she exposes the ethical residues of the text. Any ethicoSROLWLFDOO\PLQGHGZRUNPXVWRIIHUVRPHNLQGRIUHVROXWLRQRUDOWHUQDWLYHWRWKH
dilemmas it constructs and without future orientation or divergent perspectives
this becomes untenable. In Heart of the CountryWKLVUHVROXWLRQLVWKHPHWD¿FWLRQDO
TXDOLW\RI0DJGD¶VWDOHWKHYRLFLQJRIDQ[LHWLHVDERXWODQJXDJHDQGDXWKRUVKLS
and Magda’s developing awareness of her predicament, as oppressor and
oppressed. Paradoxically, her attempts to liberate herself through sexual love
are inappropriate and simply reinstall another form of oppression, this time the
UDFLDORSSUHVVLRQRI+HQGULNDQG.OHLQ$QQD7KHODWWHUDFFRUGLQJWR0DJGDLV
³RSSUHVVHGSDUWLFXODUO\E\P\WDON´+&5HYHDOLQJWKHSDWKRVRI0DJGD¶V
plight, these failed attempts at communion render the sincerity or authenticity of
KHUOHVVRQLQORYLQJLQYDOLGDQGLQVWHDGOD\EDUH0DJGD¶VQDwYHWpDQGUHSUHVVLRQ
0RUHRYHU0DJGDDFWLYHO\SXUVXHVWKH³UHDO´H[SHULHQFHWKDWLVHQFRGHGLQWKH
YHU\GLVFRXUVHVKHUHVLVWV6KHWDNHVLWXSRQKHUVHOIWRUHFODLPDSODFHIRUWKH
³FRORQLDOGDXJKWHUV´ZKROLNHFRORQL]HGLQGLJHQHV¿QGWKHPVHOYHVRWKHUHGE\
colonial discourse: “I am not a principle, a rule of discourse … I need a history
DQG D FXOWXUH « , DP DORQH DJDLQ « LQ WKH KLVWRULFDO SUHVHQW´ +& ±
Of course, Magda neglects to mention here that she is complicit in the act of
othering as well.
Magda situates herself and is situated by the author Coetzee as the “madwoman
LQWKHDWWLF´RIIHPLQLVWWKHRU\³,DPWKHRQHZKRVWD\VLQKHUURRPUHDGLQJRU
2
,Q 6KDNHVSHDUH¶V 2HGLSDO WUDJHG\ +DPOHW WKURZV KLPVHOI LQWR 2SKHOLD¶V JUDYH
GHVSDLULQJ³+ROGRIIWKHHDUWKDZKLOH7LOO,KDYHFDXJKWKHURQFHPRUHLQPLQHDUPV´$FW
±
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
49
ZULWLQJRU¿JKWLQJPLJUDLQHV7KHFRORQLHVDUHIXOORIJLUOVOLNHWKDWEXWQRQH,
WKLQNVRH[WUHPHDV,´+&7KHSULYLOHJHRISULYDF\VLJQDOVRQO\KHULVRODWLRQ
DQGPDUJLQDOLW\DVVKHVD\V³%HWZHHQIRXUZDOOVP\UDJHLVEDIÀHG5HÀHFWHG
IURPSODQHVRISODVWHUDQGWLOHDQGERDUGDQGZDOOSDSHUP\RXWSRXULQJVUDLQEDFN
RQ PH´ +& DQG WKDW ³,Q WKH FORLVWHU RI P\ URRP , DP WKH PDG KDJ , DP
GHVWLQHGWREH´+&7KLVPRWLIKDVEHHQZLGHO\UHDGLQWRZRPHQ¶VWH[WVOLNH
&KDUORWWH3HUNLQV*LOPDQ¶VThe Yellow Wallpaper&KDUORWWH%URQWs¶VJane
EyreDQG-HDQ5K\V¶VWide Sargasso Sea ZKLFKDOOSROLWLFL]HWKH
marginalization of early women writers through the trope of the mad, incarcerated
DQGLVRODWHGIHPDOH³QHXURWLF´
Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar argue that the trope of the “mad woman in the
DWWLF´LQQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZRPHQ¶VWH[WVFRQVWLWXWHVWKHUHVLVWLQJIHPDOHZULWHU
DQGLQWKLVVHQVHPDGQHVVWKHUHIRUHVLJQL¿HVDXWRQRP\+HUHWKH\UHDG%HUWKDLQ
Jane Eyre as Jane’s mad alter-ego:
it is disturbingly clear from recurrent images in [Jane Eyre] that Bertha not
only acts for Jane, she also acts like Jane. The imprisoned Bertha, running
³EDFNZDUGVDQGIRUZDUGV´RQDOOIRXUVLQWKHDWWLFIRULQVWDQFHUHFDOOVQRWRQO\
-DQHWKHJRYHUQHVVZKRVHRQO\UHOLHIIURPPHQWDOSDLQZDVWRSDFH³EDFNZDUGV
DQGIRUZDUGV´LQWKHWKLUGVWRU\EXWDOVRWKDW³EDGDQLPDO´ZKRZDVWHQ\HDU
old Jane, imprisoned in the red-room, howling and mad … . At that point,
VLJQL¿FDQWO\ZKHQWKH%HUWKDLQ-DQHIDOOVIURPWKHUXLQHGZDOORI7KRUQ¿HOG
DQGLVGHVWUR\HG«WKHEXUGHQRIKHUSDVWZLOOEHOLIWHG±DQGVKHZLOOZDNH
1RWXQOLNH$FKHEH¶VUHDGLQJRI&RQUDGDQG&OLQJPDQ¶VUHDGLQJRIWKHOLPLWVWKDW
ERXQG LGHQWLW\ *D\DWUL 6SLYDN KDV SRLQWHG XS WKH HXURFHQWULVP RI *LOEHUW DQG
Gubar’s reading: Bertha Rochester, a white Caribbean Creole, merely serves as a
PLUURUDJDLQVWZKLFKWRPHDVXUH³SODLQ-DQH¶VSURJUHVV´±WKHWLWOHRI*LOEHUWDQG
Gubar’s essay. As Edward Said demonstrates in Culture and Imperialism
WKHERQHVRIQRYHOVOLNHJane EyreDUHEXULHGLQFRORQLDOSODFHV)RU6SLYDNJane
EyreLVJXLOW\RIUHSURGXFLQJDQLPSHULDOLVWFRQFHUQIRUVXEMHFWFRQVWLWXWLRQEDVHG
RQ³FKLOGEHDULQJDQGVRXOPDNLQJ´±LQWKHODWWHUFDVHLPSHULDOLVPZDVUHJDUGHGDV
DKLJKHUVRFLDOPLVVLRQDQGVDZLWVGXW\DVFLYLOL]LQJWKH³QDWLYH´-DQHHVWDEOLVKHV
her sense of self, therefore, through her romantic love for Rochester and through
evidence of her moral fortitude. By portraying Bertha Rochester, on the other
KDQG DV DQ LQGHWHUPLQDWH EHLQJ SDUWKXPDQ SDUWDQLPDO DV %URQWs FKRRVHV
WR %HUWKD¶V HQWLWOHPHQW WR D ³VRXO´ LQ WKH QRYHO LV ZHDNHQHG )RU 6SLYDN WKLV
PHDQVWKDW³1DWLYH´DJDLQVHUYHVDV³VHOIFRQVROLGDWLQJ2WKHU´6SLYDN³7KUHH
:RPHQ¶V7H[WV´,QGHHGLQWKHHFRQRP\RIWKHQRYHO%HUWKDmust die for
Jane to achieve herSODFHLQLW7KHSURFHVVRIVXEMHFWFRQVWLWXWLRQLVVWDJHGVHOI
consciously in Heart of the CountryDV0DJGDVWUXJJOHVWRGH¿QHKHUVHOILQKHU
attempts at communicating with the other. The novel inverts Gilbert and Gubar’s
thesis: madness and sexuality are set at odds with writing in the novel (because
ZULWLQJLVDOZD\VDOUHDG\SKDOORFHQWULFVHUYLQJRQO\WRHPSKDVL]H0DJGD¶VVWDWXV
50
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
DVV\PEROLF\HWUHVLVWDQW³DXWKRU´RIKHUVWRU\:KHQ0DJGDHYHQWXDOO\WXUQVWR
ZULWLQJ LQ VWRQHV VKH LV FRQVFLRXV WKDW VKH KDV VXFFXPEHG WR WKH /DZ RI WKH
Father. She is born into a language which she uses to give birth to her frustration,
anguish and psychosis (Head appropriately calls her invasion of other bodies
³PRQVWURXVELUWK>V@´>J. M. Coetzee@
$QVZHULQJ$WWZHOO¶V TXHVWLRQ DERXW D ³KLVWRU\ RI VHOIFDQFHOOLQJ OLWHUDWXUH´
ZKLFKFHQWUHVRQD³SRHWLFVRIIDLOXUH´DQGZKLFK$WWZHOOLGHQWL¿HVZLWKHeart of
the Country&RHW]HHVXJJHVWVWKDW0DJGDLV³DQDQRPDORXV¿JXUHKHUSDVVLRQ
[for South Africa, its landscape and its people] doesn’t belong in the genre [the
SDVWRUDO@ LQ ZKLFK VKH ¿QGV KHUVHOI´ '3 ± Heart of the Country DVNV
TXHVWLRQV DERXW LWV JHQUH TXHVWLRQV ZKLFK IRU $WWZHOO DUH EDVHG RQ D IDLOXUH
of reciprocity that undermines the colonial humanism that resides in the South
African pastoral. Yet, returning us to the real/literary perception of reciprocity
captured in the Achterberg essay, Coetzee says that he is more interested in the
ZD\WKDWWKHSRVWPRGHUQQRYHOWUHDWVDFRQGLWLRQVXFKDV³IDOOLQJLQORYH´DV³WKH
¿JXUHRIDUHODWLRQVKLS«UDWKHUWKDQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSSHUVH´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV
'3 7KLV KH SXWV GRZQ WR D SURFHVV RI KLVWRULFL]LQJ IDOOLQJ LQ ORYH$JDLQ
Magda inhabits a site of dislocation both literally and literarily: parodying the
6RXWK$IULFDQSDVWRUDOVKHFDQQRWDXWKHQWLFDWHKHUUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK+HQGULNDQG
Klein-Anna though she attempts to do so, nor can she resolve her alienation from
OLWHUDU\ODQJXDJH
Anticipating the later novels, Life & Times of Michael KDQGDisgrace
0DJGDGUHDPVXSDXWRSLDQLVWSDVWRUDOFORVXUHWRKHUVWRU\DVDPHDQVRI
reconciling herself to the land and her lot. Ultimately, a happy ending is forestalled
because this vision commits her to a life without companionship or agency. At
every turn her desire to escape, or escapism, is frustrated: “am I going to yield to
WKHVSHFWUHRIUHDVRQDQGH[SODLQP\VHOIWRP\VHOILQWKHRQO\NLQGRIFRQIHVVLRQ
ZHSURWHVWDQWVNQRZ"7RGLHDQHQLJPDZLWKDIXOOVRXORUWRGLHHPSWLHGRIP\
VHFUHWV´+&0RGHUQLW\WKHUHIRUHLVFRQFHLYHGRQO\QHJDWLYHO\7KHDUULYDO
RIWKHKDOOXFLQDWRU\³VN\JRGV´WHPSRUDOO\PDUNLQJWKHGDZQLQJRIWKHPRGHUQ
age, forces her to communicate through writing, and thus to bend to the Law of
the Father having failed to realize a feminine symbolic. Rody argues that Magda’s
UHYHDOV ³DQ H[WUHPH GHJUHH RI DOLHQDWLRQ LQ ODQJXDJH´ WKURXJK KHU ³HIIXVLYH
subversive écriture feminine´ 5RG\ , ZRXOG SXW WKLV UDWKHU GLIIHUHQWO\
Magda’s encounters with writing only reinforce her social and textual alienation.
6KHDOVRUHDOLVHVWKDWVKH³ZULWHV´DQGLVZULWWHQDJDLQVWWKHJUDLQRI$IULNDQHU
mythology: “Perhaps my rage at my father is simply rage at the violations of the
ROGODQJXDJHWKHFRUUHFWODQJXDJH´VKHVD\V+&7KH³ROG´DQG³FRUUHFW´
language operate within the criss-crossing paradigms of patriarchy and colonialism
ERWKGHQRWHGE\WKH/DZRIWKH)DWKHUEXWLVDOVR$IULNDDQVDK\EULGZKLFKKDV
been used to administer oppression. Because Magda’s father is also the symbolic
)DWKHU VKH EHOLHYHV WKDW DXWKHQWLF FRPPXQLFDWLRQ EHWZHHQ KHUVHOI ZKLWH
IHPDOHDQG+HQGULNEODFNPDOHLVRQO\SRVVLEOHWKURXJKVH[XDOORYHUDWKHUWKDQ
WKHVSRNHQRUZULWWHQZRUG³7KHODQJXDJHWKDWVKRXOGSDVVEHWZHHQP\VHOIDQG
Refusing to “Yield to the Spectre of Reason”
51
these people was subverted by my father and cannot be recovered. What passes
EHWZHHQXVQRZLVDSDURG\«,WZDVP\IDWKHUWRQJXH´+&
'LVFRXUVHDFFRUGLQJWR,ULJDUD\LWVHOIFDQEHUHDGDVDNLQGRI³JUDPPDU´ZLWK
³LWVV\QWDFWLFODZVRUUHTXLUHPHQWVLWVLPDJLQDU\FRQ¿JXUDWLRQVLWVPHWDSKRULF
QHWZRUNVDQGDOVRRIFRXUVHZKDWLWGRHVQRWDUWLFXODWHDWWKHOHYHORIXWWHUDQFH
its silences´ RULJLQDO HPSKDVLV This Sex $V DQ$IULNDQHU VSLQVWHU 0DJGD
associates silence with a literary history that suppresses or occludes women’s
VWRULHV3DUDGR[LFDOO\KHUPRQRORJXHZKLFKVKHUHFRJQL]HVDV³VSXULRXVEDEEOH´
is meaningless within such a system: “a history so tedious in the telling that it
PLJKWDVZHOOEHDKLVWRU\RIVLOHQFH:KDW,ODFNLVWKHFRXUDJHWRVWRSWDONLQJ
WRGLHEDFNLQWRWKHVLOHQFH,FDPHIURP´+&7KDWGLVFRXUVHLVLQKHUHQWO\
masculinist, having the power in Irigaray’s words to “reduce all others to the
HFRQRP\RIWKH6DPH´This SexPHDQV0DJGD¶VRQO\UHIXJHLVVLOHQFHDQG
the refusal to participate within it.
$VDFKDUDFWHULQDERRN0DJGDVHOIFRQVFLRXVO\FDOOVXSRQKHUDXWKRU&RHW]HH
to listen to the silences enshrouding women’s histories. She wonders if “One day
VRPHDV\HWXQERUQVFKRODU«VKRXOGVWXG\WKHNHUQHORIWKHWUXWKRIWKLVIDQF\>WKH
FKLOGKRRGUDSH@´+&±1RWRQO\GRHVVKHDOOXGHWR&RHW]HHDVDQ³XQERUQ
VFKRODU´DQGFKDPSLRQRIWKHDQWLSDVWRUDOPRYHPHQWLURQLFDOO\VKHDOVRHQJDJHVLQ
VXFKDSURMHFWDVPLQLPDODXWKRURIKHURZQVWRU\(PRWLRQDOO\LQHSWDQGXQORYHG
0DJGD¿QDOO\LVH[FOXGHGIURPWKHP\WKLFDOWUDGLWLRQRIERWKplaasroman and the
6RXWK$IULFDQWUDJHG\7KHGXDOLW\RI&RHW]HH¶VFULWLTXHLVVXJJHVWHGWKURXJKLURQ\
DQGSDUDGR[LQWKHWLWOHRIWKHERRN³KHDUW´FRQQRWLQJDSURIRXQGO\QDWLRQDOLVW
rural community with the vrou en moederDVLWV¿JXUHKHDGEXWDOVRSDVVLRQDQG
HPSDWK\0DJGDUHSHDWHGO\UHIHUVWRWKHIDUPVWHDGDVD³GHVHUW´+&
DQGDVWKH³KHDUWRIQRZKHUH´+&6KHEHPRDQVKHUODFNRI
passion and agency, placing desire and authorship in opposition:
A woman with red bloodLQKHUYHLQVZKDWFRORXULVPLQH"DZDWHU\SLQN"DQ
inky violet"ZRXOGKDYHSXVKHGDKDWFKHWLQWR>+HQGULN¶V@KDQGVDQGEXQGOHG
him into the house to search out vengeance. A woman determined to be the
DXWKRURIKHURZQOLIHZRXOGQRWKDYHVKUXQNIURPKXUOLQJRSHQWKHFXUWDLQVDQG
ÀRRGLQJWKHJXLOW\GHHGZLWKOLJKW>@HPSKDVLVDGGHG+&
For Magda, desire cannot be accommodated by phallocentric language. Her
imagined dialogue with her racial other, Klein-Anna, reveals to her that “Words
alienate. Language is no medium for desire… . It is only by alienating the desired
WKDW ODQJXDJH PDVWHUV LW´ +& ± 3DUDGR[LFDOO\ 0DJGD LV DQ XQUHOLDEOH
QDUUDWRUZKRUHVLVWVZULWLQJ\HWVKHLVDOZD\VREVHVVLYHO\³ZULWLQJ´KHULQFHVVDQW
diatribe which, given its philosophic and literary nature, is both not-mad and mad.
Felman notes that “literature is … in a position of excess, since it includes that
ZKLFK SKLORVRSK\ H[FOXGHV E\ GH¿QLWLRQ PDGQHVV 0DGQHVV WKXV EHFRPHV DQ
RYHUÀRZ WKDW ZKLFK UHPDLQV RI OLWHUDWXUH DIWHU SKLORVRSK\ KDV EHHQ VXEWUDFWHG
IURPLW´Writing and Madness7KHVXFFHVVRI0DJGD¶VRSSRVLWLRQWRZULWLQJ
52
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
LVDPELJXRXVPDGQHVVRUKHUÀLJKWVRIIDQF\SURYLGHVKHUZLWKDSODFHWRUHVLVW
EHLQJ¿JXUHGLQDQGE\GLVFRXUVHDQGWRFRPEDWKHUERUHGRPDVWKHDUFKHW\SDO
colonial spinster, whilst her textual instability allows her to subvert dominant
OLWHUDU\JHQUHV<HWWKLV³PDGQHVV´DOVRGHVWDELOL]HVDOOXVDEOHPHDQLQJWKHQRYHO
HQFRGHV FI $WWZHOO ³/LIH DQG 7LPHV´ LQFOXGLQJ LWV SROLWLFL]HG GLVFRXUVH
DERXW$IULNDQHUZRPHQ¶VZULWLQJDQGZULWLQJDERXWVXFKZRPHQ
)HOPDQSXWVWKHTXHVWLRQ
0LJKWLWQRWEHSRVVLEOHWRGH¿QHWKHYHU\VSHFL¿FLW\RIOLWHUDWXUHDVWKDWZKLFK
suspends the answerWRWKHTXHVWLRQRINQRZLQJZKHWKHUWKHPDGQHVVOLWHUDWXUH
VSHDNV RI LV OLWHUDO RU ¿JXUDWLYH" 7KH VSHFL¿F SURSHUW\ RI WKH WKLQJ FDOOHG
literature is such, in other words, that the rhetorical status of its madness can no
longer be determined. (Writing and Madness
)HOPDQ DUJXHV WKDW OLWHUDWXUH¶V SDUWLFXODU TXDOLW\ LV LWV DELOLW\ WR ³XQVHWWOH WKH
ERXQGDU\ÉHWZHHQZKDWVKHFDOOV³SV\FKRVLV´DQG³VWHUHRW\SH´RUEHWZHHQ
the clinical condition of madness and the ways that madness gets represented in
writing, which always relies on preconceptions because madness resists language,
the conduit of reason. Magda recognizes the radical potential of madness as
resistance, as a means of remaining outside and beyond dominant forms of writing,
but it is a challenge she is unable to meet. She is reduced to communicate via the
V\PEROLFRUGHUVKHUHMHFWV\LHOGLQJWRWKHVSHFWUHRIUHDVRQ:KLFKOHDGVPHWR
FRQFOXGHWKDWZKDWPLJKWEHFDOOHGWKH³SRHWLFVRIUHFLSURFLW\´LQWKHQRYHOERWK
Magda’s attempts at communion with her servants and the relationship between
WKH ³<RX´ DQG ³,´ RI WKH WH[W PLJKW EHWWHU EH FDOOHG LQ &RHW]HH¶V ZRUGV WKH
³SRHWLFVRIIDLOXUH´'3
Chapter 3
Madness and Civilization in
Waiting for the Barbarians
We have yet to write the history of that other form of madness, by which men, in an
DFWRIVRYHUHLJQUHDVRQFRQ¿QHWKHLUQHLJKERUVDQGFRPPXQLFDWHDQGUHFRJQL]H
each other through the merciless language of non-madness.
Michel Foucault, Madness and CivilizationL[
$QGVRPHZKRKDYHMXVWUHWXUQHGIURPWKHERUGHUVD\
there are no barbarians any longer.
$QGQRZZKDW¶VJRLQJWRKDSSHQWRXVZLWKRXWEDUEDULDQV"
7KH\ZHUHWKRVHSHRSOHDNLQGRIVROXWLRQ
&RQVWDQWLQH3&DYDI\³:DLWLQJIRUWKH%DUEDULDQV´
J. M. Coetzee’s third novel Waiting for the Barbarians KHUHDIWHU
BarbariansZKLFKPDNHVDWLWXODUDOOXVLRQWRWKH*UHHNPRGHUQLVW&RQVWDQWLQH
P. Cavafy’s poem, stages the state of waiting of a colonizing people, who live in
IHDURIDWWDFNE\WKHHOXVLYH³EDUEDULDQV´7KHWH[WUHQGHUVWKHWHUP³EDUEDULDQ´
DQ HIIHFW RI LPSHULDO GLVFRXUVH 7KH 0DJLVWUDWH ZKR QDUUDWHV WKH VWRU\ LV WKH
administrator of a settler outpost of an indeterminate place and time and which
WKXVFRQVWLWXWHVDNLQGRIWHPSRUDOQRPDQ¶VODQGRU³LQWHUUHJQXP´7KLVWHUPFR
opted by Gordimer from the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci’s reinterpretation,
denotes a transitional period between regimes when, in Gramsci’s words, “the
ROGLVG\LQJDQGWKHQHZFDQQRWEHERUQ´TWGLQ*RUGLPHUEssential Gesture
7KH0DJLVWUDWH¶VDXWKRULW\LVXVXUSHGE\3ROLFH&RORQHO-ROODQGKLVVLGHNLFN
Mandel when they arrive with a relief battalion to protect the outpost. In the interim
the Magistrate forms an obsessive relationship with an enigmatic barbarian girl
ZKRKDVEHHQWRUWXUHGDWWKHKDQGVRI-ROORQO\FRQVXPPDWHGRQWKHMRXUQH\WR
UHWXUQWKHJLUOWRKHUSHRSOH$VDUHVXOWRIWKLVXQGHUWDNLQJZKLFKWKH0DJLVWUDWH
construes as a moral obligation, Joll accuses him of treason for supposedly
FROOXGLQJZLWKWKHHQHP\DQGOLNHWKHFDSWXUHGEDUEDULDQVKHLVLPSULVRQHGDQG
tortured.
At the same time, the Magistrate is aware of his shortcomings in his role as
administrator: that his relationship with the barbarian girl and what he calls his
³TXHVWLRQDEOHGHVLUHV´:%DUHQRWXQWRXFKHGE\VHOILQWHUHVW±herSDLQGH¿QHV
hisJXLOW\FRQVFLHQFH±DQGQRWXQOLNH0DJGD¶VUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKKHUVHUYDQWVLQIn
the Heart of the Country LVDQDEXVHRISRZHU+HUHDOL]HVWKDWWKHGLVWDQFH
between himself and the vile Joll is therefore not so great. Wounded bodies are
54
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
WH[WVVXEMHFWWREHLQJUHDGWKLVLVWKHFRPPRQDOLW\WKDWEULQJVWKH0DJLVWUDWHDQG
KLVDGYHUVDU\WRJHWKHU³7KRXJK,FULQJHZLWKVKDPH«,PXVWDVNP\VHOIZKHWKHU
… I was not in my heart of hearts regretting that I could not engrave myself on
>WKHEDUEDULDQJLUO@DVGHHSO\´DV-ROOKHVD\V:%3UHSDULQJWKHJURXQG
IRUWKHSURWDJRQLVWVLQWKHODWHUZRUNV'RVWRHYVN\LQThe Master of Petersburg
DQG3URIHVVRU'DYLG/XULHLQDisgraceWKH0DJLVWUDWHVHHVKLPVHOI
³VLQNLQJIXUWKHUDQGIXUWKHULQWRGLVJUDFH´:%MXVWDVWKHWRZQVSHRSOHDUH
GLVJUDFHGE\WKHVSHFWDFOHRIWRUWXUHWRZKLFKWKH\DUHSDUW\:%7KHSRZHU
of the novel lies in part in the Magistrate’s realization that the boundaries between
himself and the dehumanizing regime of Empire and the warped notions of reason
LWSURPRWHVDUHGLVWXUELQJO\XQFOHDU<HWLQKLVSUR[LPLW\WRWKHOLNHVRI-ROORQWKH
one hand and in his imprisonment and torture at the hands of the latter on the other,
WKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VSRVLWLRQRIERWKRSSUHVVRUDQGRSSUHVVHGLVH[SHULHQFHGDVDNLQG
of double consciousness that can only lead to madness.
Michel Foucault’s historicizing in Madness and Civilization denaturalizes
PDGQHVVZKLFKKHDUJXHVLVSUHPLVHGRQERXQGDULHVRQZKDWPDUNVRIIUHDVRQ
that is always already bounded by systems of power from an unreason that resists. In
Europe, civil society’s relation to madness shifts during the course of the Medieval,
³&ODVVLFDO´DQG0RGHUQSHULRGVIURPWKHSHUFHSWLRQRIPDGQHVVRXWVLGHVRFLHW\
WKUHDWHQLQJ LWV OLPLWV )RXFDXOW PDNHV D OHQJWK\ GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH VKLS RI IRROV
of the Renaissance period which contained madness by driving it from society
[Madness@WRPDGQHVVZLWKLQDQGWKHIHDURIFRQWDJLRQ)LQDOO\LQWKHPRGHUQ
HUDPDGQHVVLVREMHFWL¿HGDVPHQWDOLOOQHVVUHJXODWHGE\WKHGLVFRXUVHRIPHGLFDO
VFLHQFH WKH PDG ZHUH QRZ VXEMHFW WR ³UHDVRQDEOH´ PHWKRGV RI WUHDWPHQW DQG
FRQWURO6RFLHW\¶VQHHGIRUERXQGDULHVRIVHOIGH¿QLWLRQQHFHVVLWDWHFRQVWUXFWLQJ
³WKHLQVDQH´DVRWKHUEXWWKLVSURFHVVLVLQKHUHQWO\VHOIUHYHDOLQJ,QBarbarians,
the binaries of reason/unreason and mad/not-mad, are exposed in the context of
(QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJDVFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKDWVHUYHWRPDLQWDLQ(PSLUH¶VSRZHU
:KLOVWPDGQHVVLVWUHDWHGH[SOLFLWO\LQ&RHW]HH¶V¿UVWWZRQRYHOVDusklands
DQG In the Heart of the Country, through the portrayal of psychically
unstable narrator-authors, it is the colonialist fantasies and paranoia named in the
ODWWHU E\ 0DJGD DV ³KRUGHV RI EURZQ KRUVHPHQ´ +& DQG (PSLUH¶V RZQ
³EDUEDURXVÚHJLPHWKDWFRQVWLWXWHPDGQHVVLQWKLVQRYHO$ULI'LUOLNKDVDUJXHG
that those critics of the novel reading Empire as an allegory of the totalitarian state
DUH³PLVVLQJWKHSRLQWHQWLUHO\ÉHFDXVH³&RHW]HH¶V(PSLUHGRHVZKDWLWGRHVWRWKH
EDUEDULDQQRWEHFDXVHLWLVWRWDOLWDULDQUDWKHULWEHFRPHVWRWDOLWDULDQin the process
of dehumanizing the barbarian´HPSKDVLVDGGHG'LUOLNWKLVLVWKHPDGQHVV
RI³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´7KHQDUUDWLYHFULWLTXHV(QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJE\GHPRQVWUDWLQJ
WKDWLWLVLQWKHLQWHUHVWVRI(PSLUHWRFRQVWUXFWWKH³HQHP\´RXWRIWKHEDUEDULDQV
In this way, echoing Cavafy’s poem in which the barbarians provide the Senate
ZLWK³DNLQGRIVROXWLRQ´±(PSLUHPDLQWDLQVFRQWURORYHUWKHFRORQ\DQGFDQ
pursue its uncompromising campaign. Recalling Magda’s fantasy of rape and the
one pervaded by O. Mannoni that Frantz Fanon so bitterly dismisses (“the racialist
whose daughter has suffered an [imaginary] attempted rape at the hands of an
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
55
LQIHULRUEHLQJ´DGGHGWH[W)DQRQ¶VBlack Skin0DQQRQLWKH0DJLVWUDWH
observes:
Once in every generation, without fail, there is an episode of hysteria about the
barbarians. There is no woman living along the frontier who has not dreamed
RIDGDUNEDUEDULDQKDQGFRPLQJIURPXQGHUWKHEHGWRJULSKHUDQNOHQRPDQ
who has not frightened himself with visions of the barbarians carousing in his
KRPH«UDSLQJKLVGDXJKWHUV7KHVHGUHDPVDUHWKHFRQVHTXHQFHRIWRRPXFK
HDVH:%
The colonial mind, festering upon the luxury of free time made possible by the
indenture and enslavement of others, willfully confuses fantasies of rape with
UDSH SURSHU +HUH ZH VHH D WHQVLRQ EHWZHHQ IHPLQL]HG VH[XDO GHVLUH IRU DQG
PDVFXOLQL]HGIHDUDQGMHDORXV\RIWKHUDFLDORWKHUWKHYHUE³WRGUHDPRI´PHDQLQJ
ERWK³GUHDPLQJ´LQDOLWHUDOVHQVHDQG³OXVWLQJDIWHU´DQG³WRIULJKWHQRQHVHOI´
suggestive of both an unconscious fear of otherness and consciously willed fear in
WKHIRUPRIREVHVVLRQDOMHDORXV\
7KHIURQWLHUSHRSOH¶VDQ[LHW\DERXWDWWDFNKRZHYHULVQRWZKROO\XQIRXQGHG
EHFDXVHWKHERGLHVRIWZRGHDGVROGLHUVRQKRUVHEDFNDUHUHWXUQHGE\WKHEDUEDULDQV
strapped to their horses in retaliation of the threat the soldiers’ presence would
present. Attwell observes that it is the manner in which Empire “imagines´WKH
EDUEDULDQWKDWLV LPSRUWDQWRULJLQDOHPSKDVLVJ. M. Coetzee ZKLFKZRXOG
PDNH WKH FRORQL]DWLRQ RI VXEMHFWKRRG WKH QRYHO¶V FHQWUDO WKHPH7R FRQYH\ WKH
limits of the discourses of reason, Barbarians stages an orientalizing process
ZKLFK WKHUHIRUH DV (GZDUG 6DLG DUJXHV ³KDV OHVV WR GR ZLWK WKH µ2ULHQW¶ WKDQ
LW GRHV ZLWK µRXU¶ ZRUOG´ Orientalism WKDW LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI WKLV QRYHO LV
Empire’s colonial outpost. Here, the Occident is inserted within the Orient.
7KHPDGQHVVRIWKHSURWDJRQLVWVLQDOOWKUHHWH[WVLVUHDOL]HGLQWKHLUEUHDNGRZQ
of self (the Magistrate is constructed as mad when Mandel forces him to dress in
D ZRPDQ¶V IURFN DQG RUGHUV D PRFN KDQJLQJ EXW LV DOVR ORRVHO\ DQDORJRXV WR
the unreason of apartheid ideology outlined by Coetzee in his essay “Apartheid
7KLQNLQJ´Giving Offense5REHUW6SHQFHULVVWUXFNE\WKHSUHVFLHQFHRIWKLV
QRYHOLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH³:HVW¶V´³ZDURQWHUURU´DQGLWVGHSOR\PHQWRIPHWKRGV
RI WRUWXUH >³&RORQLDO 9LROHQFH´@ ZKLFK DV WKH SLFWXUHV IURP$EX *KUDLE JDRO
UHYHDO PLJKW EH UHDG DV D NLQG RI PDGQHVV &RHW]HH UHFRJQL]HV WKH SLWIDOOV RI
calling apartheid mad:
to call apartheid mad is by no means to imply that the liberal-capitalist
VHJUHJDWLRQLVPWKDWSUHFHGHGLWZDVVDQH,WPDNHVVHQVHRIDNLQGLQGHHGWR
argue that both were mad … How short-sighted does self-interest have to be
before it ceases to be sane, and how much more short-sighted before it begins
WREHFUD]\"*2
56
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
In these words, upon which I suggest, Barbarians turns, the Magistrate surprises
KLPVHOIWR¿QGWKDWKHLVWKHHPERGLPHQWRIWKLVVHOILQWHUHVWSDUH[FHOOHQFHLQKLV
relationship with the barbarian girl.
8QOLNH PRVW RI &RHW]HH¶V QDUUDWRUV WKH 0DJLVWUDWH RQO\ HQJDJHV PLQLPDOO\
ZLWKWKHSURMHFWRIZULWLQJPRUHDFFXUDWHO\KHLVDQDUFKDHRORJLVWDQDUFKLYLVW
and, above all, a reader of texts and critic of Empire. Not only has he collected a
VHULHVRIH[FDYDWHGSRSODUVOLSVEHDULQJVWUDQJHLQVFULSWLRQVLQWKH¿QDOSDVVDJHV
RIWKHERRNKHVWUXJJOHVWRSUHSDUHDUHFRUGRIWKHVHWWOHUWRZQKDYLQJJDWKHUHG
KLV ³KLVWRULFDO´ UHVRXUFHV LQFOXGLQJ WKH LQVFUXWDEOH EDUEDULDQ JLUO ZLWK ZKRP
he becomes intimate. The passivity of the girl, who nonchalantly accepts his
ULWXDOLVWLF EDWKLQJ RI KHU IHHW UHQGHUV KHU D UHVLVWLQJ XQUHDGDEOH ³WH[W´ EXW WKH
0DJLVWUDWHXQGHWHUUHGSURPLVHVKLPVHOIWKDW³XQWLOWKHPDUNVRQWKLVJLUO¶VERG\
DUHGHFLSKHUHGDQGXQGHUVWRRG,FDQQRWOHWJRRIKHU´:%7KH0DJLVWUDWH
UHDGVWKHJLUODVDEODQNSDJH³VKHLVLQFRPSOHWH´LURQLFDOO\GLVWRUWLQJWKH³GDUN
LQWHULRU´ RI FRORQLDOLVW GLVFRXUVH KH EHOLHYHV ³ZLWK WKLV ZRPDQ LW LV DV LI WKHUH
LV QR LQWHULRU´ /RRNLQJ XSRQ WKH JLUO EHIRUH WKH\ SDUW KH XQZLWWLQJO\ UHYHDOV
that to understand her is to better understand himself: “This is the last time … to
scrutinize the motions of my heart, to understand who she really is… . There is
RQO\DEODQNQHVVDQGGHVRODWLRQWKDWWKHUHKDVWREHVXFKEODQNQHVV´:%
7KHGHSUDYHG-ROOZKRRSHUDWHVZLWKLQDGLIIHUHQWPRUDOFRGHZKLFK,UHDGDV
³PDGÓLNHZLVHSUHVHQWVWKH0DJLVWUDWHZLWKWKHSUREOHPRIUHDGLQJIRULWLVQRW
XQWLOWKHHQGRIWKHVWRU\WKDW-ROOUHPRYHVKLVGDUNPLUURUHGJODVVHVWRUHYHDOKLV
H\HVWKH³ZLQGRZWRWKHVRXO´
Just as he reacts to the girl as inscrutable text, the Magistrate’s imagination
VWDOOVLQIURQWRIWKHEODQNSDJHDVKHWULHVWRVHWGRZQDUHFRUGRIWKHWRZQ³ZKDW,
¿QGP\VHOIEHJLQQLQJWRZULWHLVQRWWKHDQQDOVRIDQ,PSHULDORXWSRVWRUDQDFFRXQW
of how the people of that outpost spent their last year composing their souls as
WKH\ZDLWHGIRUWKHEDUEDULDQV´:%6XFKKLVWRULHVRULHQWDOL]HWKHRWKHUDQG
DUHDOZD\VDOUHDG\XQGHUZULWWHQE\SRZHU,QVWHDGKHWXUQVWRWKH³FKDUP´RIWKH
natural world: to a nomadic symbiosis with the changing seasons, the harvests and
WKH³PLJUDWLRQVRIZDWHUELUGV´:%$SDUWIURPWKLV\HDUQLQJIRU1DWXUHDQG
the pastoral, writing in the novel is couched consistently in negative terms: Joll’s
PDFDEUH LQVFULSWLRQV RQ WKH ERGLHV RI WKH EDUEDULDQ SULVRQHUV WKH 0DJLVWUDWH¶V
XQVXFFHVVIXODWWHPSWVWRZULWHDKLVWRU\RIWKHWRZQDQGHDUOLHUKLVH[SHULHQFHRI
ZULWHU¶VEORFNWKDWLQDIDPLOLDU&RHW]HDQFRQFHLWOLQNVVH[XDOSRWHQF\ZLWKWKH
ÀRZRIWKHSHQ³,WVHHPVDSSURSULDWHWKDWDPDQZKRGRHVQRWNQRZZKDWWRGR
ZLWKWKHZRPDQLQKLVEHGVKRXOGQRWNQRZKRZWRZULWH´:%&RQVFLRXVRI
his obligations to the settlers in any account he sets down, the Magistrate realizes
that not until he has been pushed to the limits of human suffering, as the text
implies the barbarians have, “will [he] abandon the locutions of a civil servant
ZLWKOLWHUDU\DPELWLRQVDQGEHJLQWRWHOOWKHWUXWK´:%$WWKHHQGRIWKH
novel he is confronted by the culmination of these problems of history and ethical
understanding:
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
57
,ZDQWHGWROLYHRXWVLGHWKHKLVWRU\WKDW(PSLUHLPSRVHVRQLWVVXEMHFWVHYHQ
LWVORVWVXEMHFWV,QHYHUZLVKHGLWIRUWKHEDUEDULDQVWKDWWKH\VKRXOGKDYHWKH
KLVWRU\RI(PSLUHODLGXSRQWKHP+RZFDQ,EHOLHYHWKDWWKDWLVFDXVHIRUVKDPH"
:%±
In these penultimate passages the Magistrate struggles for closure, for the end of
(PSLUHDQGWKHUHOLQTXLVKLQJRIDXWKRULW\KH³GUHDPVRIHQGV>@GUHDPVQRWRI
KRZWROLYHEXWRIKRZWRGLH´:%7KHRSSUHVVLYH(PSLUHRQWKHRWKHU
KDQG UHVLVWV REVFXULW\ DQG LWV RZQ GHPLVH WKURXJK FRQTXHVW ZKLFK LV ³$ PDG
YLVLRQ\HWDYLUXOHQWRQH´:%
As a cynical critic of Empire, the Magistrate even politicizes the act of reading.
0RUGDQWO\KHSUHWHQGVWRGHFLSKHUWKHSRSODUVOLSVIRU-ROO¿UVWUHDGLQJWKHVFHQHV
of torture in the opening passages of the novel:
Now let us see what the next one says. See, there is only a single character.
It is the barbarian character war, but it has other senses too. It can stand for
vengeance DQG LI \RX WXUQ LW XSVLGH GRZQ OLNH WKLV LW FDQ EH PDGH WR UHDG
justice7KHUHLVQRNQRZLQJZKLFKVHQVHLVLQWHQGHG7KDWLVSDUWRIEDUEDULDQ
cunning… . [The slips] form an allegory. They can be read in many orders.
Further, each single slip can be read in many ways. Together they can be read as
DGRPHVWLFMRXUQDORUWKH\FDQEHUHDGDVDSODQRIZDURUWKH\FDQEHWXUQHGRQ
their sides and read as a history of the last years of the Empire – the old Empire,
,PHDQ:%
1RWRQO\GRHVWKLVDFWRIUHDGLQJDOORZWKH0DJLVWUDWHWRODXQFKDFRYHUWDWWDFNRQ
-ROOLWDOVRFDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQWKH0DQLFKHDQDOOHJRU\HPSOR\HGE\(PSLUHWRSROLFH
LWVDXWKRULW\%\RIIHULQJDOWHUQDWLYHUHDGLQJVDQGDOOXGLQJWRWKHEDUEDULDQV¶MXVW
ZDU±RUWKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VWUDQVODWLRQRI³ZDU´ZKLFKFDQDOVRPHDQ³YHQJHDQFH´
DQG³MXVWLFH´±WKH0DJLVWUDWHVDWLUL]HVWKHPRQROLWKRI(PSLUH¶VFRORQLDOKLVWRU\
suggesting that truth is far more malleable than such histories would allow. The
0DJLVWUDWH SOD\V XSRQ (PSLUH¶V SDUDQRLD VLQFH WKH VOLSV DUH PRVW OLNHO\ WR EH
innocuous and certainly are not a secret code between him and the barbarians. We
ZLOOQHYHUNQRZWKHLUWUXHPHDQLQJEHFDXVHWKH0DJLVWUDWHVLPSO\PLPHVWKHDFW
RIUHDGLQJ³,GRQRWHYHQNQRZZKHWKHUWRUHDGIURPULJKWWROHIWRUIURPOHIWWR
ULJKW´>:%@SURYLGLQJZLWKVKDUSWRQJXHGLURQ\WKHQDUUDWLYHVRIZDUWKDW
Joll and his cronies crave and which would bolster Empire’s mission.
The novel self-consciously invites allegorical readings, not only here but in
WKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRI(PSLUHDQGWRUWXUHLQWKHJLUODQG-ROODVEODQNWH[WVLQWKH
0DJLVWUDWH¶VDWWHPSWVWRZULWHDKLVWRU\RIWKHVHWWOHPHQWLQWKHGUHDPVHTXHQFHV
Paradoxically, these passages also alert the reader to the dangers allegory engenders
ZKLFK LV ZK\ RQH FULWLF WLWOHV KHU HVVD\ ³$OOHJRU\ RI $OOHJRULHV´ >'RYH\@
SULPDULO\WKHIRUHVWDOOLQJRILPDJLQDWLYHDQGWKXVFULWLFDOHQTXLU\:KDWLVPRUH
DV,KDYHH[SODLQHGDERYHWKH0DJLVWUDWHPDNHVDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQWKLVNLQG
RIUHDGLQJSUDFWLFHDQGWKHZRUNRI(PSLUHZKLFKGLVJXLVHVLWVGHVLUHWRVXEMHFW
58
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
WKHEDUEDULDQSULVRQHUVE\SURIHVVLQJDGHVLUHWR³UHDG´WKHP,WDFKLHYHVWKLVHQG
through torture.
7KDW WKH QRYHO LV VHW LQ DQ XQVSHFL¿DEOH SODFH DQG WLPH OHDGV VRPH FULWLFV
to suggest that it offers a universal ethical message. Susan VanZanten Gallagher
agrees with Anthony Burgess in his review that the novel is about nowhere
DQGWKHUHIRUHDERXWHYHU\ZKHUH³7RUWXUHDQGWKH1RYHO´%XUJHVV &RPPHQWLQJRQWKHXVHRI³(PSLUH´LQWKHWH[W'RPLQLF+HDGVXJJHVWVWKDW³7KH
RPLVVLRQRIWKHGH¿QLWHDUWLFOHKHOSVWRZLGHQWKHFRQQRWDWLRQVRIµ(PSLUH¶ZKLFK
EHFRPHVDYDLODEOHDVDQHPEOHPRILPSHULDOLVPWKURXJKKLVWRU\´J. M. Coetzee
±VHHDOVR$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee$EGXO5-DQ0RKDPHGLVFULWLFDORI
the novel’s political opacity on the grounds that it espouses the universalism of
colonialist literature. The novel,
a deliberate allegory, epitomizes the dehistoricizing, desocializing tendency
RIFRORQLDOLVW¿FWLRQ«>,W@UHIXVHVWRDFNQRZOHGJHLWVKLVWRULFDOVRXUFHVRUWR
PDNHDOOXVLRQVWRWKHVSHFL¿FEDUEDULVPRIWKHDSDUWKHLGUHJLPH7KHQRYHOWKXV
LPSOLHVWKDWZHDUHDOOVRPHKRZHTXDOO\JXLOW\DQGWKDWIDVFLVPLVHQGHPLFWRDOO
VRFLHWLHV³(FRQRP\´
$WWZHOOPDNHVDFDVHIRU³KLVWRU\DVP\WKÉHLQJWKH³IXOFUXP´RIWKHZRUNVXS
to and including Age of Iron EXW LQ Barbarians the focus is history “as
GLVFXUVLYH¿HOG´DQG³DQREMHFWLQLWVHOI´J. M. CoetzeeZKLFKZRXOGVHHPWR
FRUURERUDWH-DQ0RKDPHG¶VSRLQW:HVKRXOGTXHVWLRQZKHWKHU&RHW]HHLVJXLOW\
DV-DQ0RKDPHGFODLPV+RPL%KDEKDLQ³7KH2WKHU4XHVWLRQ´LVRIVNLUWLQJWKH
PDWHULDOUHDOLW\RIFRORQLDOFRQÀLFWWRSULRULWL]HFRORQLDOGLVFRXUVH³DVLILWH[LVWHG
LQDYDFXXP´-DQ0RKDPHG³(FRQRP\´:HPLJKWDVNZKHWKHUBarbarians
HPSOR\V WKH YHU\ PDGQHVV ³EOLQGQHVV´ WR WKH RWKHU WKDW LW PHDQV WR FULWLTXH
This is implied in JanMohamed’s words: “In its studied refusal to accept historical
UHVSRQVLELOLW\WKLVQRYHOOLNHDOOµLPDJLQDU\¶FRORQLDOLVWWH[WVDWWHPSWVWRP\VWLI\
the imperial endeavour by representing the relation between self and Other in
PHWDSK\VLFDOWHUPV´³(FRQRP\´,UHWXUQWRWKLVGHEDWHEHORZ
Given that the novel, which portrays torture and police brutality in the most
graphic terms, was published in 1980, soon after the Soweto uprisings and the
PXUGHURIWKHVWXGHQWOHDGHU6WHYH%LNRZKLOVWLQSROLFHFXVWRG\DVFULWLFVKDYH
DEXQGDQWO\FRPPHQWHGWKHLQWHQWLRQWRFULWLTXHWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\PLOLHXLQ6RXWK
$IULFDLVFOHDU,QGHHGPDQ\RIWKHVHFULWLFVOLQNWKHWRUWXUHRIWKHROGPDQDWWKH
EHJLQQLQJRIWKHQRYHOZLWKWKHGHDWKRI%LNR$WWZHOOULJKWO\FRQWHQGVWKDWWKH
UHDGLQJRI³HWKLFDOXQLYHUVDOLVP´LVQRWZKROO\DFFXUDWHRIDQRYHOWKDWXWLOL]HV
D ³VWUDWHJLF UHIXVDO RI VSHFL¿FLW\´ J. M. Coetzee 3HWHU ' 0F'RQDOG KDV
recently discovered that Barbarians was put before the censors, which would
suggest that, with its allusions to the contemporary situation, it offended the
DSDUWKHLGUHJLPH7KHQRYHOZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\SDVVHGE\WKHFHQVRUVKLSERDUGWKH
Directorate of Publications, because of its apparently universal scope (McDonald
³1RW8QGHVLUDEOH´³7KH:ULWHU´±
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
59
%\ ULGLFXOLQJ -ROO DQG SDURG\LQJ WKH SURFHVVHV E\ ZKLFK (PSLUH NQRZV LWV
VXEMHFWVWKH0DJLVWUDWHH[SRVHVWKH³WUXWKV´RI(PSLUHDQGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\FDOOV
LQWRTXHVWLRQRYHUGHWHUPLQHGUHDGLQJSUDFWLFHV$WWULGJHSRLQWVRXWKRZHYHUWKDW
LWLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKDW6RXWK$IULFDQZULWHUVOLNH&RHW]HHKDYHGHFRQVWUXFWHGWKH
allegorizing process in this way, “[g]iven the extensive suffering caused in South
$IULFDE\GHKXPDQL]LQJFRGL¿FDWLRQV´J. M. Coetzee<HW$WWULGJHDOVRWDNHV
DVWDQG³DJDLQVWDOOHJRU\´LQKLVUHDGLQJRI&RHW]HHWKRXJKKHVWDWHVWKDWKHLVQ¶W
³DJDLQVWDOOHJRU\´DVVXFKKHLV³for reading as an event, for restraining the urge
to leave the text, or rather the experience of the text, behind … for opening oneself
WRWKHWH[W¶VIRUD\VEH\RQGWKHGR[D´J. M. Coetzee7KLVLVMXVWWKHNLQGRI
UHDGLQJWKDWWKH0DJLVWUDWHLVXQDEOHWRPDNHLQKLVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKHJLUO
Whereas Attwell argues that history as discourse is the fulcrum of this text, my
sense is that acts of misreading and misrepresentation as symptoms of colonial
YLROHQFHPDGQHVVDUHFORVHUWRWKHPDUN7KHQDUUDWLYHIRULQVWDQFHSURYLGHV
a transparently bogus police record of the old man’s murder at the hands of Joll
DQG KLV FURQLHV ZKLFK SDURGLHV MXVW VXFK DFFRXQWV JLYHQ FUHGHQFH E\ DSDUWKHLG
law.17KH6RXWK$IULFDQSRHW&KULVWRSKHUYDQ:\N¶VSRHP³,Q'HWHQWLRQ´
highlights the shamelessness of such reports. The poem begins:
+HIHOOIURPWKHQLQWKÀRRU
He hanged himself
He slipped on a piece of soap while washing
He hanged himself
He slipped on a piece of soap while washing
+HIHOOIURPWKHQLQWKÀRRU
He hanged himself while washing
+HVOLSSHGIURPWKHQLQWKÀRRU
+HKXQJIURPWKHQLQWKÀRRU%ULQNDQG&RHW]HHA Land Apart
7KH KHDY\ LURQ\ WKURXJK ZRUGSOD\ PDNHV QRQVHQVH RI ³IDFWXDO´ HYLGHQFH
submitted by the police. Madness manifests itself in the audacity of the lying to
reveal, paradoxically, the truth of apartheid rule. In a similar fashion, the Magistrate
PRFNV -ROO LQ -ROO¶V ODQJXDJH RI [HQRSKRELF VWDWH LGHRORJ\ ³&DQ \RX WHOO XV
ZKHWKHUZHKDYHDQ\WKLQJWRIHDU>IURPWKHEDUEDULDQV@"&DQZHUHVWVHFXUHO\DW
QLJKW"´:%$FWVRIPLVUHDGLQJDQGPLVUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVXFKDVWKLVWKHUHIRUH
convey the, often state-orchestrated, wilful confusion of reason and unreason that
LVV\PSWRPDWLFRIWKHPDGQHVVRI³FLYLOL]DWLRQ´
In Foucault, Coetzee writes, madness and reason are
1
See also Alex la Guma’s In the Fog of the Season’s EndDQG0RQJDQH:DOO\
Serote’s To Every Birth Its Blood IRU RWKHU H[DPSOHV RI QRYHOV WKDW SRUWUD\ VXFK
accounts.
60
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
reduc[ed] … to the status of warring twins. In this perspective, each of the twins
sees the other as possessing an overmastering prestige … which it must at all
costs have for itself. This in turn may help us to see why it is that the actions
RI UHDVRQ FRPH WR ORRN PRUH DQG PRUH OLNH PDGQHVV MXVW DV PDGQHVV DQG
SDUWLFXODUO\ WKH PDGQHVV RI SDUDQRLD ORRNV OLNH DQ H[FHVV RI UHDVRQ EHFDXVH
HDFKLVLPLWDWLQJWKHRWKHU*2
0DGQHVV LV D ODFN RI VHOINQRZOHGJH EXW KHUH SDUDGR[LFDOO\ LW LV WKH SRVW
Cartesian model of reason that tries to distinguish itself from madness. Coetzee
JORVVHV)RXFDXOW³,WGRHVQRWNQRZLWVHOILQWKDWLWFODLPVWREHEDVHGRQIXOOVHOI
NQRZOHGJHRQNQRZOHGJHRILWVHOIDVWKHYRLFHRIWUDQVFHQGHQWUHDVRQZKHUHDV
LWLVLQIDFWRQO\WKHYRLFHRIDFHUWDLQSRZHU´*2)RXFDXOWLVLQWHUHVWHGQRW
LQWKHPHGLFDOGH¿QLWLRQRIPDGQHVVEXWLQWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVWDWHDXWKRULW\
DQGWKHVXEMHFWPDGQHVVLVGH¿QHGE\DXWKRULW\DVXQUHDVRQLQFRQÀLFWZLWKWKH
reasonable discourse of modernity (Madness and Civilization Paradoxically,
because madness is conceptualized as unreason, it is already placed, albeit
QHJDWLYHO\ZLWKLQDV\VWHPRINQRZOHGJH,QWKH¿QDODQDO\VLVUHDVRQLVFROODSVHG
as mad or unreasonable: “madness and non-madness, reason and non-reason are
inextricably involved: inseparable at the moment when they do not yet exist, and
existing for each other, in relation to each other, in the exchange which separates
them´HPSKDVLVDGGHGMadness and Civilization[LL
The Magistrate’s desire for the barbarian girl also should be read as mad given
WKDWLWLVEDVHGRQDODFNRIUHFLSURFLW\VHOILQWHUHVWDQGDQLUUDWLRQDOQHJOHFWRI
WUXWKMXVWL¿HGWKURXJKWKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VZDYHULQJEHOLHILQKLVDOWUXLVWLFPRWLYDWLRQV
IRU WDNLQJ KHU LQ +HUH WKH IHWLVKLVWLF GHVLUH LQ FRORQLDO GLVFRXUVH WR ZKLFK
JanMohamed refers, the desire to be recognized by the other in order to clarify
RQH¶VVHQVHRIVHOIHPHUJHVLQWKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VFRQFHUQIRUWKHJLUO³(FRQRP\´
±6KHLV¿QDOO\UHWXUQHGWRKHUSHRSOHLQKLVZRUGV³DVWUDQJHUDYLVLWRU
IURP VWUDQJH SDUWV QRZ RQ KHU ZD\ KRPH DIWHU D OHVV WKDQ KDSS\ YLVLW´ :%
7KH 0DJLVWUDWH¶V VHOILQWHUHVW LV FOHDUO\ VLJQDOOHG ZKHQ KH PDNHV XVH RI
KHUWRUWXUHGERG\WRVDWLVI\KLVRZQGHVLUHVQRWXQOLNH0DJGD¶VPLVXVHUHDORU
LPDJLQHGRIWKHERGLHVRI+HQGULNDQG.OHLQ$QQDLQIn Heart of the Country.
+HUHDQ\FRPSDULVRQZLWK0DJGDHQGVEHFDXVHWKH0DJLVWUDWHXQOLNH0DJGD
is increasingly conscious of the dubious motives that drive the charity he shows
WKHJLUO(DFKQLJKWXQLQYLWHGWKH0DJLVWUDWHULWXDOO\EDWKHVDQGRLOVKHUEURNHQ
IHHWDQGLQWKHSURFHVVLVOXOOHGLQWRDWUDQFHOLNHVOHHSLURQLFDOO\REOLYLRXVRIWKH
presence of the girl herself. The Magistrate’s somnambulistic state is symptomatic
RIKLVODFNRIHWKLFDOYLVLRQ5HSUHVHQWLQJKLV¿[DWLRQZLWKWKHJLUO¶VYLFWLPKRRG
(which Attwell is right to attribute to a South African liberal consciousness [J. M.
Coetzee@HDFKWLPHKHSDUWDNHVLQWKHULWXDOKHLVVDWLDWHGE\KHUZRXQGHGQHVV
DQGLVRYHUWDNHQE\VOHHS+HLV¿[DWHGZLWKKHUas maimed victim and is driven
WR¿QGRXWWKHWUXWKDERXWKHUWRUWXUHDWWKHKDQGVRI-ROO³SDLQLVWUXWKDOOHOVH
LVVXEMHFWWRGRXEW7KDWLVZKDW,EHDUDZD\IURPP\FRQYHUVDWLRQZLWK&RORQHO
-ROO´:%7KH0DJLVWUDWH¶VHQGHDYRXUWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHJLUORUPRUHSURSHUO\
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
61
to understand himself, through her pain, though continually undermined by his
GHVLUH SDUDGR[LFDOO\ WR REOLWHUDWH LW XOWLPDWHO\ REMHFWL¿HV KHU VHUYLQJ RQO\ WR
SHUSHWXDWHKHURSSUHVVLRQEHJXQDWWKHKDQGVRIKHUWRUWXUHUV7KHPDGQHVV¿JXUHG
in washing therefore resonates with ethnic cleansing. Laura Wright suggests that,
¿JXUHG LQ WKH PHWDSKRU RI KLV ZDVKLQJ WKH JLUO¶V ERG\ WKH 0DJLVWUDWH DWWHPSWV
to wash himself clean from his sense of complicity with Empire “through the
intellectualization of his ambivalent position as a champion of an anachronistic
LPSHULDOLVP´Writing
,Q ³:RXQGHG $WWDFKPHQWV´ :HQG\ %URZQ LGHQWL¿HV D SDUDGR[ LQ OLEHUDO
LGHQWLW\SROLWLFVWKDWLQLWVDWWHPSWWRHPSRZHULGHQWLW\ZRUNVHUYHVWKHIRUFHV
RIPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQ³WKHWULXPSKRIWKHZHDNDVZHDN´>:LOOLDP&RQQROO\TWGLQ
%URZQ@%URZQH[SODLQVWKDW
In its emergence as a protest against marginalization or subordination, politicized
identity … becomes attached to its own exclusion both because it is premised
on this exclusion for its very existence as identity and because the formation of
identity at the site of exclusion, as exclusion, augments or “alters the direction
RIWKHVXIIHULQJ´HQWDLOHGLQVXERUGLQDWLRQRUPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQE\¿QGLQJDVLWHRI
blame for it. But in so doing, it installs its pain over its unredeemed history in the
IRXQGDWLRQRILWVSROLWLFDOFODLPLQLWVGHPDQGIRUUHFRJQLWLRQDVLGHQWLW\
In other words, the foundations of identity politics intended to bolster marginal
identities are built upon wounded attachments. In Barbarians the girl’s is a
³QDUFLVVLVWLFZRXQG´%URZQby proxy. The Magistrate admits, however, that
ZKLOVWKHFDQRQO\NQRZKHUERG\DVZRXQGHGKRZWKHJLUOSHUFHLYHVKHUZRXQGV
LVOLNHO\WREHGLIIHUHQW³VKHKDVSHUKDSVE\QRZJURZQLQWRDQGEHFRPHWKDWQHZ
GH¿FLHQW ERG\ IHHOLQJ QR PRUH GHIRUPHG WKDQ D FDW IHHOV GHIRUPHG IRU KDYLQJ
FODZV LQVWHDG RI ¿QJHUV´ :% %URZQ FKDOOHQJHV LGHQWLW\ SROLWLFV ZKLFK
DUHSUHGLFDWHGRQWKHUHJXODWLRQRIRWKHUQHVVEHWZHHQ³SDUWLFXODULVWLFµ,¶V¶DQGD
XQLYHUVDOµZH¶´6KHWXUQVWR1LHW]VFKHWR¿QGDZD\RXWRIWKLVLPSDVVH
WR WKH ³µYLUWXHV RI IRUJHWWLQJ¶ IRU LI LGHQWLW\ VWUXFWXUHG LQ SDUW E\ UHVVHQWLPHQW
UHVXEMXJDWHVLWVHOIWKURXJKLWVLQYHVWPHQWLQLWVRZQSDLQ«PHPRU\LVWKHKRXVH
RI WKLV DFWLYLW\ DQG WKLV UHIXVDO´ +RZHYHU VKH TXLFNO\ DEDQGRQV 1LHW]VFKH
erasure through forgetting is unviable given that marginalized identities are
W\SLFDOO\DOUHDG\³LQVFULEHGÉ\HUDVXUH%URZQ0RUHRYHULQJHRSROLWLFDO
paradigms such as Empire, erasure and forgetting are not only inappropriate
EXWVKRXOGEHDFWLYHO\FKDOOHQJHG%URZQ¶VVROXWLRQLV³WRFRQ¿JXUHDUDGLFDOO\
GHPRFUDWLF SROLWLFDO FXOWXUH WKDW FDQ VXVWDLQ VXFK D SURMHFW LQ LWV PLGVW ZLWKRXW
EHLQJRYHUWDNHQE\LW´DQGSDUWRIWKLVUHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQZRXOGEHSUHPLVHGXSRQ
H[SUHVVLQJ³GHVLUHV´7KH0DJLVWUDWHJOLPSVHVDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIEDUEDULDQJLUO
when he witnesses her easy interaction and garrulousness with the young men
HQOLVWHGWRPDNHWKHWULSEDFNWRKHUKRPH1RWDEO\WZRRIWKHVHDUHFRQVFULSWV
WKHRWKHULVDORFDOVRWKH0DJLVWUDWHZLWQHVVHVDQLQWHUUDFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQDQGRQH
that is not based upon the Manichaean paradigm.
62
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
The reciprocity between the girl and the Magistrate is consolidated in the
motif of eyes and blindness: not only is the barbarian girl blind – blindness
W\SLFDOO\ V\PEROL]LQJ SKLORVRSKLFDO YLVLRQ ± -ROO¶V GDUN H\H JODVVHV DV D ³QHZ
LQYHQWLRQ´DUHOLQNHGLPSOLFLWO\WRWKHGDZQLQJRIPRGHUQLW\:%0RUHRYHU
WKH0DJLVWUDWHGHVFULEHV-ROO¶VKHQFKPDQ0DQGHODVORRNLQJWKURXJKWKRVH³ORYHO\
EOXHH\HV«DVDQDFWRUIURPEHKLQGDPDVN´:%$VWH[WVWREHUHDGWKH
girl and these servants of Empire are inscrutable: the Magistrate misreads the girl’s
LPSHQHWUDELOLW\IRUEODQNQHVVDQGWKHIDFHLQ-ROO¶VJODVVHVRQHLPDJLQHVLVWKH
0DJLVWUDWH¶VRZQVWDULQJEDFNDWKLP7KHVHDFWVRI³UHDGLQJ´VXJJHVWWKDWLWLV
WKHSURFHVVRIUHDGLQJWKHVHOIWKDW&RHW]HHKROGVXSIRUVFUXWLQ\UDWKHUWKDQWKH
³WH[WV´WKHPVHOYHV
)RXFDXOW TXRWHV WKH Encylopédie¶V GH¿QLWLRQ RI PDGQHVV ³WR GHSDUW IURP
UHDVRQµZLWKFRQ¿GHQFHDQGLQWKH¿UPFRQYLFWLRQWKDWRQHLVIROORZLQJLW¶´7KH
obscuring of truth results in madness, Foucault elaborates. Blindness constitutes a
ODFNRIPRUDOUDWKHUWKDQSK\VLFDOWUXWKDQGKHQFHDNLQGRIPDGQHVV%OLQGQHVV
³UHIHUVDOVRWRLOOIRXQGHGEHOLHIVPLVWDNHQMXGJHPHQWVWRWKHZKROHEDFNJURXQG
RIHUURUVLQVHSDUDEOHIURPWKHPDGQHVV´)RXFDXOWMadness and Civilization 104–
)RXFDXOWGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQSK\VLFDODQGPRUDOWUXWKE\TXRWLQJIURPDQ
article on mania in the Encyclopédie:
“Physical truth consists of the accurate relation of our sensations with physical
REMHFWV´WKHUHZLOOEHDIRUPRIPDGQHVVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RI
DFFHGLQJWRWKLVIRUPRIWUXWK«³0RUDOWUXWK´RQWKHRWKHUKDQG³FRQVLVWV
LQWKHH[DFWLWXGHRIWKHUHODWLRQVZHGLVFHUQHLWKHUEHWZHHQPRUDOREMHFWVRU
EHWZHHQ WKRVH REMHFWV DQG RXUVHOYHV´ )RXFDXOW Madness and Civilization
The blindness to reading observed here by Foucault in Barbarians manifests itself
not in the barbarian girl but in the Magistrate and Colonel Joll. Blindness to physical
WUXWKLQ)RXFDXOW¶VDQDO\VLVLVSV\FKRVLVEOLQGQHVVWRLWVPRUDOFRXQWHUSDUWLVWKH
³PDGQHVVRIFLYLOL]DWLRQ´LQWKHWKUDOORIZKLFKERWK-ROODQGWKH0DJLVWUDWHDUH
KHOG7KRXJK-ROOLVDSURSRQHQWRI³SK\VLFDOWUXWK´±³SDLQLVWUXWK´KHVRFUXHOO\
SURFODLPV:%±KHLVSDWHQWO\GHOXVLRQDOLQPRUDOWHUPVDQGWKH0DJLVWUDWH
despite championing moral truths, is morally suspect in his wounded attachment
WRWKHJLUO¶VEURNHQERG\0DGQHVVOXUNVLQKLVLQDELOLW\WRUHDGKHURXWVLGHWKH
imperious mindset. Nevertheless, the Magistrate is partially redeemed by his
awareness of the self-interested motives behind his decision to house the girl.
1RWRQO\LVWKH0DJLVWUDWH¿[DWHGZLWKWKHJLUOLQKHUSDLQKHLVWRUPHQWHGE\
DVHULHVRIGUHDPVLQZKLFKKHVWUXJJOHVWRUHVROYHWRLQWHUSUHWKLVDPELYDOHQW
relationship with her, but which, in actuality, reinforces the failure of reciprocity
that colours their relationship. Symbolically loaded, as Foucault suggests,
“dreams, madness, the unreasonable can … slip into [an] excess of meaning´
HPSKDVLVDGGHGMadnessZKLFKDOOUHTXLUHLQWHUSUHWLQJ&RORQLDOLVWQRWLRQV
RIVXEMHFWIRUPDWLRQRIZKLFKWKHUHFXUULQJLPDJHRIWKHVQRZPDQLVDPHWDSKRU
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
63
DUHUHDOL]HGLQWKHLOOXVRU\VSDFHRIGUHDPVDQGSDURG\WKH¿FWLRQDOVWDWXVRIWKH
other constructed by colonialist discourse. (Snow not only connotes inhospitability
EXWDOVRLPSHUPDQHQFH7KH¿UVWGUHDPORRNVIRUZDUGWRWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIWKH
EDUEDULDQJLUOLQWKHQDUUDWLYHWKHIDFHRIWKHJLUOLQWKHGUHDPLVEODQNVXJJHVWLQJ
the impossibility of authentic communication with or reading of the other. In a later
GUHDPWKHJLUO¶VIDFHEHFRPHVDQHPEU\RLQDQRWKHUWKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VDWWHPSWV
to communicate with the children that populate it through speech and touch are
thwarted because ice covers both his mouth and hands. The narrative thus presses
WKHODFNRIUHFLSURFLW\EHWZHHQWKH0DJLVWUDWHDQGKLVRWKHUVZKLFKLQWKHGUHDPV
DUHFKLOGUHQ/LNHZLVHWKHVQRZIRUWLVDOZD\VXQSHRSOHGHPSKDVL]LQJWKHODFNRI
FRPPXQLRQ7KH0DJLVWUDWHWKHQGUHDPVRI³WKHJLUO´ZKRPKH¿UVWPLVWDNHQO\
EHOLHYHVWREH³GLJJLQJDZD\LQWKHERZHOVRIWKHFDVWOH´:%RQO\WRUHDOL]H
WKDWVKHLVEDNLQJEUHDGZKLFKVKHRIIHUVWRKLPLQDQDFWRIIHOORZVKLSFDVWLQ
Christian mythology. In one dream the girl’s feet become abstracted from her body,
suggestive of the fetishistic nature of the Magistrate’s interest in her. In general,
read as allegories of the Manichaean struggle, the dreams show how colonialism,
with the Magistrate as its reluctant representative, attempts to construct the
colonial other as a means of clarifying and maintaining notions of the self. As
Attwell points out, “continuity and reciprocity [which] ultimately depend on the
LGHDRIKXPDQFRPPXQLW\´DUHDEVHQWIURPWKHGUHDPVHTXHQFHJ. M. Coetzee,
MXVWDVWKH\DUHDEVHQWLQWKH0DJLVWUDWH¶VZDNLQJVHOI
$UUHVWHGE\-ROOIRUVXSSRVHGO\³WUHDVRQDEO\FRQVRUWLQJZLWKWKHHQHP\´:%
GUHVVHGLQDZRPDQ¶VIURFNDQGJLEEHWHGRQDWUHHWKH0DJLVWUDWHLVUHGXFHG
WRZKDW0DQGHO-ROO¶VKHQFKPDQFDOOVD³FORZQDPDGPDQ´:%0DQGHO
VFDSHJRDWV WKH 0DJLVWUDWH E\ FRQVWUXFWLQJ KLP DV WKH IRRO ¿QDOO\ GHHPLQJ LW
unnecessary, as the result of this construction, to imprison him, Mandel allows
him to roam freely, half-mad, through the town. The construction of the Magistrate
by Mandel as insane corresponds with Foucault’s thesis in Discipline and Punish
RIWKHELUWKRIWKHFULPLQDOVXEMHFWGXULQJWKH(QOLJKWHQPHQW$V)RXFDXOWZULWHV
“From being an art of unbearable sensations punishment has become an economy
RI VXVSHQGHG ULJKWV´ Discipline 0RGHUQ SHQDO PHWKRGV VXFK DV -HUHP\
%HQWKDP¶V3DQRSWLFRQVKLIWHGWKHREMHFWRISXQLVKPHQWIURPWKHSK\VLFDOERG\
to the soul, to the self-regulation and consciousness-raising of the prisoner who,
NHSW DOLYH LV JLYHQ WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR H[SHULHQFH JXLOW UHPRUVH DQG WR UHIRUP
7KH0DJLVWUDWHGHFODUHVWKDW0DQGHO³GHDOVZLWKP\VRXO´:%2IFRXUVH
in Barbarians both the soul and the physical body are disciplined, pointing up,
inadvertently perhaps, Foucault’s prematurely optimistic claim that torture is no
ORQJHUSUDFWLVHGE\WKH³:HVW´
)RXFDXOW¶V HSLVWHPLF FULWLTXH LQ Madness and Civilization demonstrates that
madness, or more accurately, social conceptions of madness, can be historicized
WR EH UHDG SROLWLFDOO\ UHQGHULQJ PDGQHVV ³QRW PDG´ ,Q OLWHUDU\ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV
of the fool madness typically symbolizes sagacity. In this vein Coetzee turns in
³(UDVPXV 0DGQHVV DQG 5LYDOU\´ WR (UDVPXV¶V Praise of Folly ZKLFK
PDSV³WKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDSRVLWLRQIRUWKHFULWLFRIWKHVFHQHRISROLWLFDOULYDOU\´
64
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
a response which, he says, was surprisingly prescient given the rivalry that would
XQIROGDGHFDGHODWHUEHWZHHQWKH3RSHDQG/XWKHU*2(UDVPXVDGRSWVWKH
ZHOONQRZQSROLWLFDOSRVLWLRQRUPRUHSURSHUO\WKH³nonSRVLWLRQ´*2RIWKH
fool, which allows him to challenge opposing sides without reprisal but that often
brings together such rivals in their efforts to overcome him. As both fool and notfool, this split self corresponds with of the dialectic of unreason and reason. Fool
in this context functions as empowered mediator. This constitutes a position not
ZKROO\XQOLNHWKDWRIQRQSDUWLVDQVKLSRXWOLQHGE\(GZDUG6DLGLQKLVPRGHORI
WKHSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOZKRVKRXOGEH³LQGHSHQGHQWDXWRQRPRXVO\IXQFWLRQLQJ´
(RepresentationsH[FHSWWKDW6DLG¶VLQWHOOHFWXDOZLOODFWdespite the threat of
UHSULVDODQGUHMHFWVRXWULJKWQRQSRVLWLRQDOLW\Representations
For Erasmus, the apparently uncommitted position of “mad-but-not-reallyPDG´XQFRPPLWWHGEHFDXVHRILWVUHWUHDWLQWRPDGQHVVLQIDFWIXQFWLRQVDWWKH
OHYHORIHWKLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ&RHW]HHDOHUWVXVWR³DKLJKO\VHOIDZDUHUHÀHFWLRQ
>LQ (UDVPXV@ RQ WKH OLPLWDWLRQVRQ DQ\ SURMHFW VSHDNLQJ RQ EHKDOI RI PDGQHVV´
*2 )RU -DFTXHV 'HUULGD ZULWLQJ DERXW )RXFDXOW KHUH OLHV WKH LPSDVVH
VSHDNLQJUHVSRQVLEO\RQEHKDOIRIPDGQHVVUHSUHVHQWLQJLWVVLOHQFHVQHFHVVDULO\
means passing over to enemy lines, to order and the voice of reason (Writing
*2+HQFHFHQWUDOWR)RXFDXOW¶VDQDO\VLVLVDGLVFRXUVHWKDWUHDGVPDGQHVVRQ
its own terms and this, Derrida argues, “is the most audacious and seductive aspect
of [Foucault’s] venture … But it is also, with all seriousness, the maddest aspect of
KLVSURMHFW´WritingTWGLQ*2
From the outset the Magistrate is conscious of the mechanics of Empire’s
GLVFXUVLYH SRZHU KH DQG -ROO ³SDXVH VDYRXULQJ IURP RXU GLIIHUHQW SRVLWLRQV
WKH LURQLHV RI WKH ZRUG >µFLYLOL]DWLRQ¶@´ :% +LV WRUWXUHUV VKRZ KLP ³WKH
PHDQLQJ RI KXPDQLW\´ :% (PSLUH¶V KHQFKPHQ KH VD\V DUH WKH ³QHZ
EDUEDULDQV´:%7KHQRYHOVXJJHVWVWKDWQXUWXULQJWKHfear of the threat of
WKHEDUEDULDQVLV(PSLUH¶VPHDQVRIGH¿QLQJWKH³FLYLOL]HG´VHOI2IFRXUVHWKH
settler community’s own paranoiac xenophobia is instead exposed. Through a
Foucauldian lens, ambivalence in Barbarians, including the ambivalent discourse
of colonialism and a Janus-faced modernity, lays bare the madness of reason and
WKH³FLYLOL]LQJ´PLVVLRQ
7KH PDGQHVV RI FLYLOL]DWLRQ LV QR PRUH VWDUNO\ DSSDUHQW WKDQ LQ WKH WRUWXUH
FKDPEHU&RHW]HH¶VVXEMHFWLQ³,QWRWKH'DUN&KDPEHU´³5HODWLRQVLQWKHWRUWXUH
room provide a metaphor, bare and extreme, for relations between authoritarianism
and its victims. In the torture room unlimited force is exerted upon the physical
being of an individual in a twilight of legal illegality´ HPSKDVLV DGGHG '3
7KH JUDWXLWRXV QDWXUH RI WKH YLROHQFH HQDFWHG XSRQ WKH 0DJLVWUDWH LQ KLV
PRFNH[HFXWLRQH[SRVHVWKHPDGQHVVRIKLVWRUWXUHU0DQGHO7KLVLVWKH+HJHOLDQ
dialectic rather than the Manichaean allegory that JanMohamed theorizes: tortured
DQGWRUWXUHUDUH¿JXUHGDURXQGDNLQGRILURQLFGRXEOLQJRUdoppelgänger effect.
The Magistrate is paired variously with Joll, Mandel and the barbarian girl, and
WKHVH SDLULQJV IXQFWLRQ DV ³GDUN WZLQV´ RU ³VFKL]RSKUHQLF´ GLVFRXUVH $V WKH
0DJLVWUDWHFRQIHVVHV³ZKRDP,WRDVVHUWP\GLVWDQFHIURP>-ROO@",GULQNZLWK
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
65
KLP,HDWZLWKKLP,VKRZKLPWKHVLJKWV´:%5HIHUULQJWRWKHPRVWH[SOLFLW
scene of torture in the novel, when the barbarian prisoners are beaten mercilessly
XQGHUWKHZDWFKIXOH\HRI-ROOWKHPRUDOO\VLFNHQHG0DJLVWUDWHLQYHUWVWKHREMHFW
of Joll’s vile game from prisoner to Joll himself. Courageously putting his own
IUHHGRPLQMHRSDUG\LQWKHQDPHRIMXVWLFHKHUDLOV³You are the enemy, you have
made the war, and you have given them [the barbarians] all the martyrs they need
±VWDUWLQJQRWQRZEXWD\HDUDJRZKHQ\RXFRPPLWWHG\RXU¿UVW¿OWK\EDUEDULWLHV
KHUH´+HHYHQLQYRNHV+LVWRU\LQKLVGHIHQFH³+LVWRU\ZLOOEHDUPHRXW´:%
<HW WKH WH[W DOZD\V UHWXUQV XV WR WKH 0DJLVWUDWH¶V RZQ LUUDWLRQDOLW\ LQ KLV
relationship with the girl and to his effectively turning a blind eye to the atrocities
of Empire, including the murder of the old man in custody.
7KH0DJLVWUDWH¶VGHVLUHIRUWKHJLUOZKLFKDW¿UVWLVRQO\WKHGHVLUHWRNQRZ
WKHWUXWKRIKHUSDLQ¿OOVKLPZLWKWKHPDGQHVVRIWRUWXRXVVHOIGRXEW&RHW]HH
LPSOLFLWO\OLQNVGHVLUHZLWKPDGQHVVLQWKH(UDVPXVHVVD\
'HVLUH«GRHVQRWNQRZLWVHOI,WSURFHHGVIURPDODFN:KDWWKHGHVLULQJVXEMHFW
ODFNVDQGXOWLPDWHO\GHVLUHVLVIXOOQHVVRIEHLQJ7KHPRGHOLVDGRSWHGDVPRGHO
because it appears endowed with superior being. Imitating the desires of the
model is a way of gaining being … . It is loss of difference rather than difference
LWVHOIWKDWOHDGVWRFRQÀLFW«)URPORVVRIGLIIHUHQFHHPHUJHVULYDOU\«$V
differences dwindle and mimetic violence mounts, there is ultimately nothing
done or felt by one protagonist that is not done or felt by the other. There is no
ZD\RIGLIIHUHQWLDWLQJWKHPWKHSURWDJRQLVWVEHFRPHGRXEOHV*2
The tortured girl in the Magistrate’s eyes distils the truth of Empire and of the
0DJLVWUDWH¶VULYDO-ROO³7KHUHLVQRWKLQJWROLQNPHZLWKWRUWXUHUV«,PXVWDVVHUW
P\GLVWDQFHIURP&RORQHO-ROO,ZLOOQRWVXIIHUIRUKLVFULPHV´KHVD\V:%
However, the Magistrate comes to an awareness that he is not so different from
KLVULYDO-ROODIWHUDOOFRQVFLRXVWKDW³DQLQWHUURJDWRUFDQZHDUWZRPDVNVVSHDN
ZLWKWZRYRLFHVRQHKDUVKRQHVHGXFWLYH´:%DQGODWHUWKDWWKH³GLVWDQFH
EHWZHHQP\VHOIDQG>WKHJLUO¶V@WRUWXUHUV«LVQHJOLJLEOH´:%:LWKJUHDW
HIIRUWWKH0DJLVWUDWHZKRKDVUHPDUNHGXSRQKLVRZQXQDWWUDFWLYHQHVVFDOOVWR
PLQGWKHJLUO¶V³XJOLQHVV´XQWLOWKLVPRPHQWVKHKDVUHPDLQHG³IHDWXUHOHVV´>@
which is mirrored by the settlers’ collective imagining of the barbarian accused of
raping one of their children: “[the girl’s] friends claim a barbarian did it … . They
UHFRJQLVHG KLP DV D EDUEDULDQ E\ KLV XJOLQHVV´ :% 7KH QDUFLVVLVWLF -ROO
wears sunglasses to maintain a youthful appearance, and Mandel is described by
WKH0DJLVWUDWHDV³YDLQ´DQGRQHZKRPLJKW³ÀH[>@KLVPXVFOHVIRU>KLVJLUOIULHQG@
IHHGLQJRQKHUDGPLUDWLRQ´:%7KLVSUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKWKHDHVWKHWLFVRIWKH
ERG\DQGFRQYHUVHO\WKHDEKRUUHQFHRISK\VLFDOLPSHUIHFWLRQUHFDOOVWKHVLQLVWHU
SURPRWLRQRIWKHDWKOHWLFSK\VLTXHLQIDVFLVWGLVFRXUVH7KH0DJLVWUDWH¶VDWWHPSWV
WRXQGHUVWDQGWKHJLUODVPLUURUHGVXUIDFHWRWRXFKKHU³LVOLNHFDUHVVLQJDQXUQ
RUDEDOOVRPHWKLQJZKLFKLVDOOVXUIDFH´>:%@LQIDFWFRQVWLWXWHDPHDQVRI
casting light upon his own identity. The ugliness of the barbarians recalls the often
66
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
cited passage in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, when Marlow, observing the
natives leap and turn, recognizes their humanity, or more properly, his ownODFN
RIFLYLOLW\³:KDWWKULOOHG\RXZDVMXVWWKHWKRXJKWRIWKHLUKXPDQLW\±OLNH\RXUV
«8JO\´±
The scene in Barbarians referred to above depicting the spectacle of torture of
the barbarian prisoners alludes not only to Foucault’s construction of criminality
EXW DOVR WR )UDQ] .DIND¶V ³,Q WKH 3HQDO &RORQ\´ LQ ZKLFK D (XURSHDQ
WUDYHOOHUWRDQXQVSHFL¿HGLVODQGLVLQYLWHGE\WKH&RPPDQGDQWWRZLWQHVVWKHFUXHO
PHWKRGVRISXQLVKPHQWHPSOR\HGE\WKHROGUHJLPH&RHW]HHDQG.DINDGHSLFWWKH
WDLQWLQGXFHGLQZLWQHVVHVRIWRUWXUH&RHW]HH¶V-ROOGUDZVWKHZRUG³(1(0<´RQ
HDFKSULVRQHU¶VGLUWFRYHUHGEDFNDQGWKH\DUHZKLSSHGXQWLOWKHZRUGVDUHZDVKHG
DZD\E\WKHLURZQEORRG,Q.DIND¶VVWRU\WKHRI¿FHUDGPLQLVWHULQJWKHROGPHWKRG
of torture rationalizes acts of seemingly gratuitous violence in the following
WHUPVRQWKHEULQNRIGHDWKWKH³FRQGHPQHGPDQ´XQGHUWRUWXUHH[SHULHQFHVDQ
³HQOLJKWHQPHQW´WKDW³EHJLQVDURXQGWKHH\HV´DVWKHZLQGRZWRWKHVRXO/LNH
.DIND¶VH[SORUHUWKH0DJLVWUDWHLVIRUFHGWRTXHVWLRQKLVFRQVFLHQFHZKHQPDGH
party to the spectacle of torture: ultimately, both characters feel morally impelled
WRVSHDNRXWDJDLQVWWKHEDUEDULW\WKH\ZLWQHVV%RWKKRZHYHUDUHSRUWUD\HGDV
HWKLFDOO\ DPELYDOHQW MXVW DV WKH 0DJLVWUDWH¶V UHODWLRQVKLS WR WKH EDUEDULDQ JLUO
UHYHDOV KLV PRUDO WXUSLWXGH VR WKH H[SORUHU DV KH TXLWV WKH LVODQG GULYHV EDFN
two prisoners as they attempt to board his departing boat. The explorer leaves the
FRORQ\DSSDUHQWO\KDYLQJOHDUQWQRWKLQJIURPKLVMRXUQH\ZKLFKLVDOVRDMRXUQH\
of conscience. Similarly, the explorer reveals a perverse sense of morality when
WKH RI¿FHU¶V LPSOHPHQW RI WRUWXUH WKH ³+DUURZ´ PDOIXQFWLRQV DIWHU WKH RI¿FHU
SODFHVKLPVHOIEHQHDWKLWDQGLVTXLFNO\NLOOHG,QUDWLRQDOWHUPVWKHRI¿FHUVXIIHUV
a merciful death yet the explorer construes the execution differently: “this was
QRH[TXLVLWHWRUWXUHVXFKDVWKHRI¿FHUKDGGHVLUHGWKLVZDVSODLQPXUGHU´
:KLOHWKHRI¿FHULVRYHUWO\IDVFLQDWHGE\WKHWRUWXUHFKDPEHUDV6RXWK$IULFDQ
ZULWHUVZHUHDFFRUGLQJWR&RHW]HHGXULQJDSDUWKHLG>'3@WKHSURWDJRQLVW¶V
YHU\LGHQWL¿FDWLRQLQWKHVWRU\DVH[SORUHUDQGDOLHQWRWKHFRORQ\VXJJHVWVWKDW
KHLVDQH[SORUHULQWRWKHGHSWKVRIKXPDQGHSUDYLW\LQFOXGLQJKLVRZQ.DIND
HYHQFRQWH[WXDOL]HVWKHWDOHZLWKLQDSRVWFRORQLDOSDUDGLJPWKHRI¿FHUDQWLFLSDWHV
the explorer’s criticisms of his methods with statements such as: “In our country
ZHKDYHDGLIIHUHQWFULPLQDOSURFHGXUH´RU³:HKDYHQ¶WXVHGWRUWXUHVLQFHWKH
0LGGOH$JHV´±(YLGHQFHGLQWKLVGDUNVDWLUHRIWKHPRGHUQVWDWH.DIND
doesn’t suffer from the myopia of Foucault.
,QERWK&RHW]HH¶VDQG.DIND¶VVWRULHVWKHSULVRQHULVUHGXFHGE\KLVWRUWXUHU
to animalistic behaviour. In BarbariansWKHEDUEDULDQSULVRQHUVMRLQHGE\DZLUH
FRUG WKURXJK WKHLU PRXWKV DQG KDQGV DUH DFFRUGLQJ WR WKHLU FDSWRUV SDFL¿HG
³PHHN DV ODPEV´ :% WKH 0DJLVWUDWH GHQRXQFHV -ROO¶V LQWHQWLRQ WR NLOO
WKHEDUEDULDQVZLWKDKHDY\KDPPHU³<RXZRXOGQRWXVHDKDPPHURQDEHDVW´
:%.DIND¶VFRQGHPQHGPDQLVVKDFNOHGWRDJXDUG³VROLNHDVXEPLVVLYH
dog that one might have thought he could be left to run free … and would only
QHHGWREHZKLVWOHGIRUZKHQWKHH[HFXWLRQZDVGXHWREHJLQ´3&6HUYLQJ
Madness and Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians
67
(PSLUH¶VGDUNSURMHFWWKHDQLPDOPHWDSKRUVUHQGHUWKHRWKHUOHVVWKDQKXPDQ7KH
prisoners in both narratives function as texts upon which their torturers inscribe
WKHLUPDFDEUHZULWLQJ,QGHHGERWKVWRULHVWDNHDFFRXQWRIWKHRSSUHVVLRQEHKLQG
WKHZLOOWRFRORQL]HLQFOXGLQJWKHDFWRIZULWLQJWKHFRORQLDOVXEMHFWWKURXJKWKH
SDURGLFWUHDWPHQWRI³ZULWLQJ´DQG³DUFKDHRORJ\´LQWKHQDUUDWLYHVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ
the Magistrate’s interest in the slips and his anthropological fascination for the girl.
Nonetheless, and undermining JanMohamed’s Manichean reading, as Foucault
suggests, “Impossible animals, issuing from a demented imagination, become the
VHFUHWQDWXUHRIPDQ´MadnessMXVWDVWKHGHPHQWHGLPDJLQDWLRQRI-ROODQG
WKHRI¿FHUSURMHFWWKHLURZQEHVWLDOLW\RQWRWKHLUSUH\2
³,PDJLQDU\´ OLWHUDWXUHV OLNH Barbarians, according to JanMohamed, not
RQO\ IDLO WR LOOXPLQDWH WKH FRQGLWLRQ RI WKH UDFLDO RWKHU WKH\ UHDI¿UP WKHLU RZQ
³HWKQRFHQWULF DVVXPSWLRQV´ ³LQVWHDG RI DFWXDOO\ GHSLFWLQJ WKH RXWHU OLPLWV RI
µFLYLOL]DWLRQ¶>µLPDJLQDU\¶OLWHUDWXUH@FRGL¿HVDQGSUHVHUYHVVWUXFWXUHVRILWVRZQ
mentality … instead of seeing the native as a bridge towards syncretic possibility,
LW XVHV KLP DV D PLUURU WKDW UHÀHFWV WKH FRORQLDOLVW¶V VHOILPDJH´ ³(FRQRP\´
± +RZHYHU &RHW]HH VHOIUHÀH[LYHO\ VWDJHV WKLV SURFHVV HYHQ HPSOR\LQJ
the motif of the mirrored surface – Joll’s glasses, the girl as mirrored ball – to
express the ethnocentric impulse. Dividing colonial literature into two categories,
WKH³LPDJLQDU\´PHQWLRQHGDERYHZKLFKREMHFWL¿HVWKHRWKHUDQGWKH³V\PEROLF´
ZKLFK VWULYHV WR EUHDN GRZQ WKH 0DQLFKHDQ GLYLGH -DQ0RKDPHG JRHV RQ WR
argue that Joseph Conrad successfully occupies the latter. Heart of Darkness,
-DQ0RKDPHG ZULWHV LV D ³µV\PEROLF¶ QRYHOOD WKDW deliberately thematizes the
OLELGLQDO HFRQRP\ RI WKH µLPDJLQDU\¶´ HPSKDVLV DGGHG <HW DV , KDYH
shown, this is a strategy that Coetzee employs. As JanMohamed stipulates, in the
³µLPDJLQDU\¶WH[WWKHVXEMHFWLVHFOLSVHGE\KLV¿[DWLRQRQDQGIHWLVKLVDWLRQRIWKH
2WKHU´,QBarbarians this is deliberately and self-consciously orchestrated
through the girl as urn and mirrored surface and through the Magistrate’s ritualistic
EDWKLQJ RI KHU IHHW 7KH DXWKRU RI WKH ³V\PEROLF´ ZRUN -DQ0RKDPHG DUJXHV
fruitfully resists the urge to represent the other and “this decision is based on
DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKDW GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ VHOI DQG 2WKHU FDQQRW EH DGHTXDWHO\
WUDQVFHQGHGZLWKLQWKHFRORQLDOFRQWH[W´,QVWHDGVXFKDQDXWKRUZLOOIRFXVRQWKH
³VXEMXJDWLQJSURFHVVDQGRQWKHPHQWDOLW\RIWKHFRQTXHURU´³(FRQRP\´±
$JDLQZHVHH&RHW]HHDWZRUN-DQ0RKDPHGWKHQJRHVRQWRFHOHEUDWH*RUGLPHU
DV DQ DXWKRU RI ³V\PEROLF´ ZRUNV WKDW IURP July’s People onwards “focus on
WKH EDQNUXSWF\ RI WKH OLEHUDO LGHRORJ\ RQ WKH HIIHFWV RI 6RXWK$IULFDQ IDVFLVP
on the liberal consciousness of her white protagonists, and on their progressive
UDGLFDOL]DWLRQ´ 0LVVLQJ IURP WKLV IRUPXODWLRQ LQ Barbarians, I suggest,
LV WKH 0DJLVWUDWH¶V ³UDGLFDOL]DWLRQ´ WKRXJK KH GRHV VSHDN RXW RQ EHKDOI RI WKH
2
While in these scenes Coetzee is faithful to his source, there are a number of clear
GHSDUWXUHVPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWO\LQ.DIND¶VVWRU\WKHFRQGHPQHGPDQLVKLPVHOISRUWUD\HGDV
morally depraved, for when he is freed from the Harrow he is as fascinated by torture as the
RI¿FHUDQGLVKDSS\WRVHHKLVSHUVHFXWRUVXIIHUHYHQPRUHWKDQKHKDV
68
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
persecuted. Yet Barbarians leaves us with the possibility of the Magistrate’s
³HWKLFDO DZDNHQLQJ´ ± WKH WLWOH RI 'RPLQLF +HDG¶V FKDSWHU RQ WKH QRYHO J. M.
Coetzee±,ZRXOGJRIXUWKHU&RHW]HH¶VQRYHODOZD\VFDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQ
its own procedures and encourages an agential reader who engages actively, and
thus critically, in the life of the text. Perhaps this is where its radicality lies. In
IDFW &RHW]HH EUHDNV GRZQ WKH 0DQLFKDHDQ DOOHJRULHV KH HPSOR\V ± EDUEDULDQ
civilized, mad/not-mad, reason/unreason, self/other – which leads me to conclude
that, whilst the servants of Empire struggle to maintain boundaries that can only
be described as Manichean, Hegel’s dialectical relationship, which is “mutually
GDPDJLQJ´+HDGJ. M. CoetzeePRUHDFFXUDWHO\GHVFULEHVWKHSDWWHUQLQJRI
the text and the Magistrate’s own self-doubt.
The efforts of the children, representing future generations, in the closing
GUHDPVHTXHQFHWREXLOGZKDWWKH0DJLVWUDWHHYDOXDWHVDV³QRWDEDGVQRZPDQ´
offer only the barest hope of redemption for the settler community. As Mrs. Curren
in Age of IronLVDZDUH³:HHPEUDFHRXUFKLOGUHQWREHIROGHGLQWRWKHDUPV
RIWKHIXWXUHWRSDVVRXUVHOYHVRQEH\RQGGHDWKWREHWUDQVSRUWHG´$,:KLOH
BarbariansWDFLWO\DVVLJQVFKLOGUHQVXFKYDOXHLWVPHVVDJHLVSURIRXQGO\EOHDNIRU
WKH0DJLVWUDWHQRWHVWKDW³VRPHZKHUHDOZD\VDFKLOGLVEHLQJEHDWHQ´:%
a phrase lifted from Freud’s essay “A Child is Being Beaten: A Contribution to the
6WXG\RIWKH2ULJLQRI6H[XDO3HUYHUVLRQ´7KHLQFRQFOXVLYHQHVVRIWKHQRYHO±WKH
Magistrate confesses that “There has been something staring me in the face, and
VWLOO,GRQRWVHHLW´:%±LVVXJJHVWLYHRIDEOLQGQHVVWRKLVWRU\$IWHUDOO
WKH³WH[WV´WKDWWRJHWKHUIRUPDFRORQLDOKLVWRU\±WKHVOLSVWKHJLUO-ROO±FRQWLQXH
to confound him. However, that he has learnt that he has learnt nothing amounts
WRDQHWKLFDODZDNHQLQJWRWKHPDGQHVVWKDWHQJXOIVKLP
Chapter 4
Cultivating the Margins
in the Trial of Michael K:
³6WUDWHJLHVLQWKH6HUYLFHRI6NHSWLFLVP´
Rousseau was right, in his particular confessional economy, to point out what is
held backPRQH\WKHWUXWKDVEHLQJNH\WRIUHHGRP
-0&RHW]HH³7UXWKLQ$XWRELRJUDSK\´
%XWLQWKHVPDOOHVWDQGJUHDWHVWKDSSLQHVVWKHUHLVDOZD\VRQHWKLQJWKDWPDNHV
it happiness: the power of forgetting, or, in more learned phrase, the capacity of
IHHOLQJ³XQKLVWRULFDOO\´WKURXJKRXWLWVGXUDWLRQ
Fredrich Nietzsche, The Use and Abuse of History 6
The tone of J. M. Coetzee’s fourth novel Life & Times of Michael K LV
set in the opening sentence: “The ¿UVWWKLQJ the midwife noticed about Michael
K when she helped him out of his mother into the world was that he had a hare
lip´HPSKDVLVDGGHG0.6LQFHKLVHDUOLHVWPHPRU\WKHSURWDJRQLVW0LFKDHO
.SDVVLYHO\DFFHSWVKLVPDUJLQDOLW\³<HDUDIWHU\HDU0LFKDHO.VDWRQDEODQNHW
ZDWFKLQJKLVPRWKHUSROLVKRWKHUSHRSOH¶VÀRRUVOHDUQLQJWREHTXLHW´0.±
+LVOLIHLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DVHULHVRIUHMHFWLRQVWKHUHVSRQVHKLVGLV¿JXUHPHQW
HOLFLWVIURPWKRVHKHHQFRXQWHUVUHSUHVHQWLQJDPRUHJHQHUDODOLHQDWLRQ0.
,WLVLURQLFWKDWWKH¿UVWZRPDQLQWKHQRYHOZKRGRHVQ¶WVKXQKLPLVD
prostitute he encounters near the end of the narrative who, when encouraged by
KHUSLPSWRKDYHRUDOVH[ZLWKKLPWKHQNLVVHVKLPIXOORQWKHPRXWK0.
Michael K is marginalized not only by his physical appearance but by race, by his
VRFLRHFRQRPLFVWDWXVDVDGLVHQIUDQFKL]HG³&DSHFRORXUHG´DQGDYDJUDQW³2Q
WKHFKDUJHVKHHWKHZDVOLVWHGµ0LFKDHO9LVDJLH±&0>&RORXUHG0DOH@±±1)$
>1R)L[HG$ERGH@±8QHPSOR\HG¶´>0.@E\KLVSRVLWLRQDVDIDWKHUOHVVFKLOG
DQGE\KLVVLPSOHQHVVDQGRWKHUZRUOGOLQHVV6LJQL¿FDQWO\IRUWKHDUJXPHQW,DP
IRUZDUGLQJ KHUH LQ WKHVH ZRUGV &RHW]HH PDNHV RQO\ YHLOHG UHIHUHQFH WR UDFLDO
identity and in doing so refuses to endorse the obsessive categorization instituted
by the apartheid regime.
Michael K is the epitome of alienation and cultivates his isolation as a means
RIUHVLVWLQJWKHWXPXOWRIWKH³QRZ´DQLPDJLQHGIXWXUH6RXWK$IULFDLQZKLFK
the iron-hard rule of apartheid persists. A life dominated by institutions has
instilled a dread of state regulation, regulation that he struggles to evade: raised
LQDQRUSKDQDJH+XLV1RUHQLXVDVDQDGXOWKHLVLQFDUFHUDWHGLQWKH-DNNDOVGULI
70
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
labour camp and the Kenilworth rehabilitation camp. Yet Michael K is not actively
resistant – and this is the source of much of the criticism of the novel, as I go on to
H[SODLQ±EXWRQHZD\WRUHVLVWDSDUWKHLG¶VV\VWHPRIFODVVL¿FDWLRQDQGVHJUHJDWLRQ
is not to recognize it at all. In this chapter I will argue that Michael K attempts to
stand outside this system by resisting the regime’s regulation of the body by means
of time, space and the land. Writing the body and writing the land are common
topoi in postcolonial literature because it was the colonial state’s regulation of
ERGLHVDQGODQGWKDWVWRNHGWKHFRORQLDOPLVVLRQ7RH[SORUH0LFKDHO.¶VUHVLVWDQFH
&RHW]HH DSSURSULDWHV WKH SDUDEOHV RI )UDQ] .DIND DQG XQZULWHV 'DQLHO 'HIRH¶V
classic fable Robinson Crusoe LQ WKH ZD\ WKH\ SHUWDLQ WR WKH UHJXODWHG
body.1,QWXUQ0LFKDHO.UHVLVWVEHLQJ¿JXUHGLQGLVFRXUVHDVWKHXQUHDGHUO\WH[W
he also resists genre and the allegorizing process. The allegories of gardening/
IDUPLQJIRRGDQGVRRQDUHRUJDQL]HGDURXQGKLPLQYLWLQJ\HWEORFNLQJH[HJHVLV
What is more, he refuses to yield his story despite being repeatedly pressed to do
VR 0. +H HYHQ UHVLVWV ZKDW &RHW]HH FDOOV WKH DWWHPSWV RI WKH
DXWKRUWRSXWD³VWUDQJOHKROG´RQKLP'3ZKLOVWWKHWLWOHRIWKHZRUNLife
& TimesSURPLVHVELRJUDSK\0LFKDHO.ZKRWKLQNV³XQKLVWRULFDOO\´WRERUURZ
IURP1LHW]VFKHSDVVLYHO\UHVLVWVWKHODZVRIJHQUH±LQWKHFDVHRIELRJUDSK\WKH
LQWLPDWHNQRZOHGJHRISHUVRQDOLW\DQGWKHSHUVRQDODQGSXEOLFOLIHRIWKHVXEMHFW
This manoeuvre allows Coetzee to create a tension between himself, as author, and
DFKDUDFWHUZKRUHVLVWVKLVZLOOVLJQDOOLQJLQRWKHUZRUGV&RHW]HHTXHVWLRQLQJKLV
own authority. This is the authority of the white South African writer (cf. Attwell,
J. M. CoetzeeDQG,ZLOODUJXHWKHDXWKRULW\RIWKHZULWHURI³SRVWFRORQLDO´
¿FWLRQ$OWKRXJKDWWKHWLPHRIZULWLQJWKHHDUO\VSRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHVZDVLQ
its infancy, Coetzee issues a prescient warning about the problems of systematizing
WKHSRVWFRORQLDOVXEMHFWZLWKLQLWVRZQGLVFRXUVH
Nonetheless, critics have been vociferous in what they regard as Coetzee’s
REIXVFDWLRQRIEODFNUHVLVWDQFHLQ6RXWK$IULFDDWWKHWLPHWKHQRYHOZDVSHQQHG
&RHW]HH¶VFRPSDWULRW1DGLQH*RUGLPHULVVNHSWLFDORIWKHQRYHO¶VDFKLHYHPHQWV
and of the contexts in which it is set. In Life & TimesZLWKLWVEOHDNSUHGLFWLRQRI
a future South Africa, “Hope is a seed. That’s all. That’s everything. It’s better to
OLYH>OLNH0LFKDHO.@RQ\RXUNQHHVSODQWLQJVRPHWKLQJ´³,GHD´6LPLODUO\
one critic writing in the African CommunistDQGNQRZQRQO\DV=1LVIUXVWUDWHG
1
3DWULFLD 0HULYDOH VXPPDUL]HV .DINDQ UHDGLQJV RI Life & Times as follows:
³:KHWKHUWREHVOLJKWHG:DUG*DOODJKHUSDUHQWKHWLFDOO\UHIXWHG*RUGLPHUWDNHQIRU
JUDQWHG6WHLQHU=DPRUD/D]DUXVDQG$WWZHOOFULWLFL]HG/HKPDQQ+DXSWWKH.DINDQ
³WULEXWHV´DQG³ERUURZLQJV´³DUHRYHUGRQHDQGFDOODQXQQHFHVVDU\DPRXQWRIDWWHQWLRQWR
WKHPVHOYHV´LQÀDWHG%ULQN³>0LFKDHO.@FRPELQ>HV@WKH¿JXUHVRI&KULVWDQG.DIND¶V
.´ RU DOWHUQDWHO\ HYDGHG DQG JUXGJLQJO\ FRQFHGHG E\ &RHW]HH KLPVHOI « GLIIHUHQFHV
RU«VSHFL¿FHFKRHVDQGJHQHUDOUHVHPEODQFHV2OVRQ3RVWRU6pYU\´³$XGLEOH´±
2QDQXPEHURIFRXQWVKRZHYHU0HULYDOHLVVRPHZKDWPLVOHDGLQJ$WWZHOOJLYHVD
UHODWLYHO\GHWDLOHGWUHDWPHQWRI.DINDIRULQVWDQFHDQGUHJDUGLQJ0HULYDOH¶VVXPPDWLRQ
RI%ULQN&RHW]HHGRHVPDNHDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQ&KULVWDQG0LFKDHO.
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
71
E\WKHQRYHO¶VDSSDUHQWODFNRIDFRPPLWWHGSROLWLFDOYLVLRQ³7KHDEVHQFHRIDQ\
meaningful relationship between Michael K and anybody else … means that in
fact we are dealing not with a human spirit but an amoeba, from whose life we
FDQGUDZQHLWKHUH[DPSOHQRUZDUQLQJ´TWGLQ$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee:KDW
unites all these critics is the need to extract the novel’s allegorical meaning. Indeed,
JUDSSOLQJZLWKWKHZLGHUVLJQL¿FDQFHRIDWH[WVRPHWLPHVWKURXJKDOOHJRU\LVD
need that goes to the heart of all reading and that includes an understanding of the
condition humaine.
For Gordimer, the use of allegory in the text, Michael K as the “little man of
KLVWRU\´DQGJDUGHQHUIDOOVZRHIXOO\VKRUWRIKHUFDOOIRUWKHSURWHVWLQJZULWHU¶V
³HVVHQWLDO JHVWXUH´ WR ³GHFODUH KLPVHOI SRVLWLYHO\ DV DQVZHUDEOH WR WKH RUGHU
VWUXJJOLQJWREHERUQÉssential Gesture6KHDUJXHV
7KHXQLTXHDQGFRQWURYHUVLDODVSHFWRIWKLVZRUNLVWKDWZKLOHLWLVLPSOLFLWO\
DQGKLJKO\SROLWLFDO&RHW]HH¶VKHURHVDUHWKRVHZKRLJQRUHKLVWRU\QRWPDNHLW
«7KHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHWUXWKDQGPHDQLQJRIZKDWZKLWHKDVGRQHWREODFN
VWDQGVRXWRQHYHU\SDJH\HWLWGHQLHVWKHHQHUJ\RIWKHZLOOWRUHVLVWHYLO³,GHD´
±
*RUGLPHU DUJXHV WKDW ZKDW *HRUJ /XNiFV LGHQWL¿HV ³DV WKH LQWHJUDO UHODWLRQ
EHWZHHQSULYDWHDQGVRFLDOGHVWLQ\´LQWKHQRYHOLVVNHZHGLQIDYRXURIWKHSULYDWH
WKUHDWHQLQJ³WKHZRUN¶VXQLW\RIDUWDQGOLIH´³,GHD´
/XNiFV¶V WKHRU\ RI WKH V\QFUHWL]DWLRQ RI SULYDWH DQG SXEOLF LV WDNHQ XS LQ D
different fashion by Fredric Jameson in his notorious summation of “Third-World
OLWHUDWXUHVLQWKHHUDRIPXOWLQDWLRQDOFDSLWDOLVP´LQZKLFKDGPLWWLQJWKDWKHLV
PDNLQJD³VZHHSLQJK\SRWKHVLV´KHSURFODLPVWKDW³DOOWKLUGZRUOGOLWHUDWXUHVDUH
QHFHVVDULO\«DOOHJRULFDODQGLQDYHU\VSHFL¿FZD\WKH\DUHWREHUHDGDV«
national allegories´³7KLUG:RUOG/LWHUDWXUHV´+HLGHQWL¿HVDUDGLFDOVSOLWLQ
WKH:HVWHUQUHDOLVWDQGPRGHUQLVWQRYHOXQOLNH/XNiFVKHEUDFNHWVWKHWZREHWZHHQ
the political and the private, because, he argues, sexuality and the unconscious
– the libidinal, private sphere – on the one hand, and economics, class and politics
±WKHSXEOLF±RQWKHRWKHUDUHWKRXJKWLQFRPPHQVXUDEOH,QWKH³7KLUG:RUOG´
context such a distinction cannot be made for “the story of the private individual
destiny is always an allegory of the embattled situation of the public third-world
culture and society´7KHUHH[LVWVLQ³7KLUG:RUOGÓLWHUDWXUHVD³GLIIHUHQWUDWLRRI
WKHSROLWLFDOWRWKHSHUVRQDO´DQGDFFRUGLQJO\³OLELGLQDOLQYHVWPHQW>@LVWREHUHDG
LQSULPDULO\SROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOWHUPV´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV±
7KH³FXOWXUDOUHYROXWLRQ´WRZKLFK³7KLUG:RUOG´WH[WVLQHYLWDEO\DOO\WKHPVHOYHV
Jameson contends, rests upon the Marxist Antonio Gramsci’s notion of subalternity,
“namely the feelings of mental inferiority and habits of subservience and obedience
ZKLFKQHFHVVDULO\DQGVWUXFWXUDOO\GHYHORSLQVLWXDWLRQVRIGRPLQDWLRQ´:KDW
*RUGLPHUZRXOGPDNHRIWKLVDVSHFWRI-DPHVRQ¶VDQDO\VLVLV,WKLQNVHOIHYLGHQW
,PSRUWDQWO\ D VHQVH RI LQIHULRULW\ SURMHFWHG LQ VXFK ZRUNV LVQ¶W D SV\FKRORJLFDO
LVVXHEXWRQHRIDQ³REMHFWLYHDQGFROOHFWLYHVSLULW´D³SV\FKLFVWUXFWXUH´WKDWLV
72
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
PDWHULDOO\DQGHFRQRPLFDOO\GHWHUPLQHG-DPHVRQ³1DWLRQDODOOHJRULHV´FDQ
WKHUHIRUHXVHIXOO\RSHQXSD³FRQFUHWHSHUVSHFWLYHRQWKHUHDOIXWXUH´-DPHVRQ
has been useful in demonstrating how, in postcolonial literatures, the private can
carry the full weight of the political, yet he has also rightly been challenged,
PRVWSURPLQHQWO\E\$LMD]$KPDGIRUKLV³UKHWRULFRI2WKHUQHVV´WKDWLVJXLOW\
RIHVVHQWLDOL]LQJWKH³7KLUG:RUOG´VXEMHFW$KPDG$KPDGGLVSXWHVWKHYHU\
QRWLRQ RI D ³7KLUG:RUOG OLWHUDWXUH´ ³ZKLFK FDQ EH FRQVWUXFWHG DV DQ LQWHUQDOO\
FRKHUHQWREMHFWRIWKHRUHWLFDONQRZOHGJH7KHUHDUHIXQGDPHQWDOLVVXHV«ZKLFK
cannot be resolved at this level of generality without an altogether positivist
UHGXFWLRQLVP´$KPDG$KPDGMRLQVWKDWFRKRUWLQSRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHVWKDWLV
prudently suspicious of the Western-centrism of postcolonial discourse itself. In
WKHOLJKWRI-DPHVRQZKDWLVDWVWDNHLQLife & Times is the way in which Coetzee
engages or, indeed, disengages, with the idea of the national allegory attributed
WRWKHZRUNLQRWKHUZRUGVWKHZD\LQZKLFKWKHQRYHOHQFRGHVWKHUHODWLRQVKLS
between privacy and the political, and, more importantly, what the purpose and
effect of such a strategy might be.
&RHW]HH WDFLWO\ DFNQRZOHGJHV WKH XUJHQF\ RI FRPPLWWHG OLWHUDWXUH GXULQJ
DSDUWKHLGLQ³7KH1RYHO7RGD\É\VWDWLQJWKDWKHGRHVQ¶WDGYRFDWHFXUOLQJ
XS ZLWK D JRRG UHDG RYHU DQG DERYH ³UHYROXWLRQDU\ DUW´ EXW LV OHIW FROG E\
SROLWLFDOODQJXDJHRIDQ\KXH$FFHSWLQJ'DYLG$WWZHOO¶VODEHORI³ODWHPRGHUQLVW´
'3DQGWKHUHE\SODFLQJKLPVHOIRQWKHPDUJLQVRI6RXWK$IULFDQSURJUHVVLYHV
ZKR GXULQJ DSDUWKHLG W\SLFDOO\ DOLJQHG WKHPVHOYHV ZLWK UHDOLVP KH LGHQWL¿HV
/XNiFV¶V DSSHDO WR UHDOLVP DJDLQVW ³PRGHUQLVW GHFDGHQFH´ '3 DV FHQWUDO
WR WKH PRYHPHQW IRU FRPPLWWHG OLWHUDWXUH /XNiFV DUJXHV WKDW LQ WKH PRGHUQLVW
ZRUN ZKLFK KH EHOLHYHV LV SDWKRORJLFDO DQG QDUFLVVLVWLF ³0DQ LV UHGXFHG WR D
VHTXHQFHRIXQUHODWHGH[SHULPHQWDOIUDJPHQWVKHLVDVLQH[SOLFDEOHWRRWKHUVDVWR
KLPVHOI´7KH³LGHRORJ\RIPRGHUQLVP´ZKLFKLVWKHWLWOHRI/XNiFV¶VHVVD\
has important ethico-political implications: “Every human action is based on a
SUHVXSSRVLWLRQRILWVLQKHUHQWPHDQLQJIXOQHVVDWOHDVWWRWKHVXEMHFW$EVHQFHRI
PHDQLQJ>DVLQWKHPRGHUQLVWZRUN@PDNHVDPRFNHU\RIDFWLRQDQGUHGXFHVDUWWR
QDWXUDOLVWLFGHVFULSWLRQ´/XNiFV
Yet in the modernist Life & Times, that encodes a radical disruption of linear
WLPHDQGVHOIUHÀH[LYLW\DV,DPDUJXLQJ³PHDQLQJOHVVQHVV´±RUPRUHSURSHUO\
PHDQLQJWKDWLVHQFU\SWHGLQWH[WV±LWVHOIEHDUVPHDQLQJ$VFULWLFVOLNH1HLO/D]DUXV
KDYHVKRZQLWZRXOGEHZURQJWRGLVUHJDUGPRGHUQLVWZRUNVRQWKHJURXQGVWKDW
WKH\ODFNUDGLFDOSRWHQWLDOLW\6XFKZULWLQJ/D]DUXVDUJXHVLVRSSRVLWLRQDOLQWKH
way that it “enters into history, or more precisely refuses to be encoded seamlessly
into history´ LQ LWV VWDWXV DV OLWHUDU\ WH[W HPSKDVLV DGGHG ³0RGHUQLVP DQG
0RGHUQLW\´&ULWLFLVPVOHYHOOHGDJDLQVWLife & Times – the elusiveness and
REVFXULW\RIWKHSURWDJRQLVWZKRWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUGHVFULEHVDVWKH³REVFXUHVW
RI WKH REVFXUH´ 0. DQG WKH RSDFLW\ RI WKH DOOHJRULHV LW HPSOR\V ± KDYH
FHQWUHG RQ LWV DSSDUHQWO\ TXHVWLRQDEOH SRVWFRORQLDOLW\ 1RQHWKHOHVV WKH WH[W¶V
autocritical mode established by its self-diminishing allegories chimes with the
appeal of a number of progressive South African intellectuals during apartheid,
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
73
including Gordimer, for a self-scrutinizing and thus more ethico-politically
HIIHFWLYHNLQGRIZULWLQJWKDQZKDWWKH\UHJDUGHGDVWKHSROLWLFDOO\GHEDVHGIRUPV
of some committed texts (Nedebele, Rediscovery,WPXVWEHVDLGWKDW6RXWK
$IULFDQOLWHUDWXUHRIDWUDGLWLRQDOO\FRPPLWWHGPRGHZRUNE\$OH[/D*XPDDQG
Mongane Wally Serote, for instance, is also capable of such self-scrutiny.
Coetzee admits in Doubling the Point WR D GLI¿FXOW\ ZLWK ³VWDWLQJ
SRVLWLRQV WDNLQJ SRVLWLRQV´ '3 7KH SDUDOOHOV WKLV ³QRQSRVLWLRQ´ HOLFLWV
between his own marginality and his elusive protagonist hinge upon the subversive
SRWHQWLDORIDOLHQDWLRQ&RHW]HHWDFLWO\DFNQRZOHGJHVKLVRZQVHQVHRIDOLHQDWLRQ
when he comments with some irony, “What is left of Michael K after he has been
H[SODLQHGLQWHUPVRIP\PDUJLQDOLW\LQ$IULFD"´'32IFRXUVHZLWKWZR
%RRNHUSUL]HVDQGWKH1REHO/DXUHDWHEHKLQGKLPZLWKWKHFRPPHUFLDOVXFFHVVRI
DisgraceDQGWKHLQWHQVHJOREDOLQWHUHVWLQKLVZRUNLWZRXOGEHGLI¿FXOWWR
VSHDNDERXW&RHW]HHDVPDUJLQDOWRGD\&RHW]HHSLFNVXSWKHWKHPHRIDOLHQDWLRQ
ZKHQ KH UHIHUV WR .DIND¶V LQÀXHQFH RQ KLV ZULWLQJ LQ Doubling the Point:
³DOLHQDWLRQLV«DVWUDWHJ\LQWKHVHUYLFHRIVNHSWLFLVP´'3+RZHYHUKLV
recoil from the idea that alienation is a “stateDVWDWHRIEHLQJ´DQGWKHLGHDWKDW
“art [can] become[ ] the alienated artist’s private means, his private vice even, for
WXUQLQJODFNDQGZRHLQWRJDLQ´LQWKHVDPHLQWHUYLHZDUHSDOSDEOH)RU&RHW]HH
we might surmise, this attributes too much subversive energy to alienation. Rather,
KHFRQFHGHVWKDWDOLHQDWLRQLVQRWRQO\D³SRVLWLRQÉXWD³SUDFWLFH´'3
This is the crux of a novel in which, though its unloved and loveless protagonist
is not only racially oppressed but is the exemplar of social alienation, Michael
K practices alienation by transgressing the very foundations of apartheid law:
QDPHO\FODVVL¿FDWLRQDQGVHJUHJDWLRQ2QKLVMRXUQH\WRKLVPRWKHU¶VFKLOGKRRG
IDUPKHTXHVWVIRUPHDQLQJEXWWUDSSHGLQDQLJKWPDULVK.DINDQZRUOGRIVWDWH
oppression, the world of the camp and the prison, this meaning must exist beyond
WKHFDPSV0.,QWKHVWUXJJOHWRPDNHVHQVHRIKLVOLIH
0LFKDHO.NQHZWKDWKHZRXOGQRWFUDZORXWDQGVWDQGXSDQGFURVVIURPWKH
GDUNQHVV LQWR ¿UHOLJKW WR DQQRXQFH KLPVHOI +H HYHQ NQHZ WKH UHDVRQ ZK\
because enough men had gone off to war saying the time for gardening was
ZKHQ WKH ZDU ZDV RYHU ZKHUHDV WKHUH PXVW EH PHQ WR VWD\ EHKLQG DQG NHHS
JDUGHQLQJDOLYHRUDWOHDVWWKHLGHDRIJDUGHQLQJ>@0.
,I ZH HTXDWH JDUGHQLQJ ZLWK D GHVLUH IRU DHVWKHWLF SOHDVXUH DQG D VWDWH RI
FRQWHPSODWLRQ WKH OLJKW WKDW EXUQV DW WKH KHDUW RI WKLV ZRUN LW VHHPV LV ZKDW
Dominic Head in a different context has called Coetzee’s “enduring belief in
¿FWLRQ´³%HOLHILQ)URJV´7KLVEHOLHILVIRXQGHGRQWKHZD\VWKDW¿FWLRQ
operating within an autonomous discursive universe, can unsettle other modes of
discourse, history, for example, or apartheid ideology.
,QDIDPLOLDU&RHW]HDQGHYLFHWKLVWUDQVJUHVVLRQRIDSDUWKHLGODZLVDOVR¿JXUHG
WH[WXDOO\E\WKHZRUN¶VDQG0LFKDHO.¶VUHVLVWDQFHWRDOOHJRULFDOUHDGLQJVHYHQ
WKRXJKDVDQXPEHURIFULWLFVKDYHFRPPHQWHGWKHZRUNLVVWUXFWXUHGSDUDGR[LFDOO\
74
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
by allegory (cf. Attridge, J. M. Coetzee+HDGJ. M. Coetzee±6OHPRQ
“Post-&RORQLDO$OOHJRU\´7KLVLVRQHZD\WKDWWKHQRYHOERUURZVIURPWKH
SULQFLSOHRI.DIND¶VParables and ParadoxesZKLFKDVWKHWLWOHVXJJHVWV
is also framed on paradox. This self-diminishing allegorical device is signalled
PRVWWUDQVSDUHQWO\LQWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHU¶VZRUGVWR0LFKDHO.
<RXUVWD\LQWKHFDPSZDVPHUHO\DQDOOHJRU\LI\RXNQRZWKDWZRUG,WZDVDQ
DOOHJRU\±VSHDNLQJDWWKHKLJKHVWOHYHO±RIKRZVFDQGDORXVO\KRZRXWUDJHRXVO\
DPHDQLQJFDQWDNHUHVLGHQFHLQDV\VWHPZLWKRXWEHFRPLQJDWHUPLQLW'LG\RX
QRWLFHKRZZKHQHYHU,WULHGWRSLQ\RXGRZQ\RXVOLSSHGDZD\"0.
6R0LFKDHO.UHVLVWVQRWRQO\VWDWHRSSUHVVLRQEXWDVDFKDUDFWHULQDERRNKH
resists interpretation.
'DYLG,*URVVYRJHOZULWLQJDERXW.DINDLGHQWL¿HVDSUREOHPLQWKHIDEULFRI
WKHSDUDEOHZKLFKLVDNLQGRIPRUDODOOHJRU\LQWKDWLW³DFNQRZOHGJHVLQWHOOHFWXDO
VOLSSDJH D IDLOXUH RI WKH PLQG WR DSSUHKHQG LWV REMHFW « LW PHDQV ERWK same
and resembling±WKDWLVWRVD\LGHQWLFDODQGGLIIHUHQW´$OOHJRU\LVDOVRDNLQG
RI VXEVWLWXWH ERWK WKH ³VDPH DQG UHVHPEOLQJ´ ³HYLGHQF>LQJ@ WKH SHUSOH[LW\ RI
NQRZLQJ´ *URVVYRJHO ,QGHHG WKH FDSDFLW\ IRU VWUDWHJLHV RI VNHSWLFLVP
&RHW]HH DVFULEHV WKH SDUDEOH ZKLFK OLHV LQ WKLV SHUSOH[LW\ FRXOG HTXDOO\ EH
attributed to the Coetzean allegory. The parable, Coetzee argues, is “a mode
favoured by marginal groups – groups that don’t have a place in the mainstream,
LQWKHPDLQSORWRIKLVWRU\±EHFDXVHLWLVKDUGWRSLQGRZQXQHTXLYRFDOO\ZKDWWKH
SRLQWLV´17
:KDWLVLQVWDQWO\VWULNLQJLQLife & Times LVWKDWJUDSKLFDOO\³0LFKDHO.ÓDFNV
WKH IXOO VWRS RI .DIND¶V SURWDJRQLVW ERWK KHLJKWHQLQJ WKH VHQVH RI HOXVLYHQHVV
he embodies and signalling the incompleteness of his story. (The ending of K.’s
story in The Trial>@LVDEVROXWHEHFDXVHKHLVH[HFXWHG³/LNHDGRJ´7KLV
is borne out by Coetzee’s comments on the inconclusiveness of the title of the
ZRUN³7RP\HDUµ7KH/LIH¶LPSOLHVWKDWWKHOLIHLVRYHUZKHUHDVµ/LIH¶GRHVQRW
FRPPLWLWVHOI´0RUSKHW³7ZR,QWHUYLHZV´/LNHKLVQDPHVDNH&RHW]HH¶V
.LVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DODFNRIDJHQF\WKLQJVhappen to him, he allows them to
KDSSHQKLVUHVLVWDQFHWRWKH6WDWHDQGLWVSOD\HUVWRKLVPRWKHUWRWKHZDUWR
KLVWRU\WREHLQJDXWKRUHGDQGWRZULWLQJLVSDVVLYHWDNLQJWKHIRUPRIHOXVLYHQHVV
ERWK UHDO DQG WH[WXDO DV D FKDUDFWHU IXQFWLRQLQJ ZLWKLQ WKH SDJHV RI D ERRN
WRZDUGVWKRVHZKRZRXOGFRQ¿QHKLP
.DIND KDV EHHQ D PDMRU LQÀXHQFH RQ FRQWHPSRUDU\ 6RXWK $IULFDQ ZULWHUV
EHFDXVH.DINDQWKHPHVLQFOXGLQJWKHGLVWUXVWIXOIHDUIXOLQWHUSUHWHUDQGVNHSWLFDO
reading practices, readily capture the paranoiac and brutalizing apartheid mindset.
&RHW]HH¿QGVWKDW.DINDHQGXUHVEHFDXVHRIWKHVLOHQFHWKDWKLV¿FWLRQVSHDNV³,V
LWQRWZKDW.DINDGRHVnotVSHDNUHIXVHVWRVSHDNXQGHUWKDWLQWHUURJDWLRQWKDW
ZLOOFRQWLQXHWRIXHORXUGHVLUHIRUKLP,KRSHIRUHYHU"´'3±7KURXJK
the vehicle of the elusive and reticent Michael K, Coetzee cultivates a reader who
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
75
reads between the lines, attentive to what is left unsaid. In White Writing Coetzee
WUDFHVDFRQWHPSRUDU\DI¿QLW\IRUVLOHQFHZKLFKKH\RNHVWRDPRGHUQLVWSURMHFW
2XUHDUVWRGD\DUH¿QHO\DWWXQHGWRPRGHVRIVLOHQFH:HKDYHEHHQEURXJKWXS
on the music of Webern: substantial silence structured by tracings of sound. Our
craft is all in reading the otherJDSVLQYHUVHVXQGHUVLGHVWKHYHLOHGWKHGDUN
WKHEXULHGWKHIHPLQLQHDOWHULWLHVRULJLQDOHPSKDVLV::
<HW &RHW]HH ZDUQV WKDW HYHQ WKLV NLQG RI UHDGLQJ ³LV LQ SHULO´ EHFDXVH ³OLNH DOO
WULXPSKDQWVXEYHUVLRQ´LWLVLQGDQJHURIEHLQJLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRGRPLQDQWPRGHV
::ZKLFKLVZK\IRU&RHW]HHWKHVNHSWLFLVPRI.DINDLVVRDSSHDOLQJ
Perhaps surprisingly, though Michael K is obscure and frustrates interpretation,
the novel utilizes one of the most recognizably South African settings in the oeuvre,
HYHQLILQZKDW$WWZHOOFDOOVD³IXWXUHSURMHFWLRQ´RIFLYLOZDUDVDUHVSRQVHWRWKH
National Party’s proposals for a new constitution in the early 1980s and foretelling
the South African States of Emergency of 1985–1990 (J. M. Coetzee 7KH
novel engages with contemporary mass resistance to apartheid which had included
QDWLRQZLGH VWULNHV VWXGHQW SURWHVWV DQG FLYLO XQUHVW HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH \HDUV
± ZKLFK VDZ WKH SHDN RI ³UXUDO UHPRYDOV DQG GLVSODFHG XUEDQL]DWLRQ´
%HLQDUW[YLVHHDOVR%HLQDUW±0LFKDHO.VWUXJJOHVWRUHVLVWWKHUHOHQWOHVV
PRPHQWXPRIKLVWRU\EXWDVD³&DSHFRORXUHG´LV¿UPO\URRWHGZLWKLQLWDQGE\
the end of the narrative, having been drawn reluctantly into the war, is wrongly
accused of being partisan to a band of guerrillas who have ensconced themselves
on the Visagie farm.
Since Life & Times exactingly establishes a counter-reading to the allegorical
one it promotes, it alerts the reader to the dangers of allegory, or the reductiveness
that can result from reading allegorically (a criticism levelled at Jameson’s theory
RI QDWLRQDO DOOHJRU\ LQGHHG LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI DSDUWKHLG LW politicizes this very
SUREOHP *URVVYRJHO¶V FRPPHQWV RQ WKH XVH RI WKH SDUDEOH ± D NLQG RI PRUDO
DOOHJRU\±LQ.DINDDUHHQOLJKWHQLQJ
/RQJEHIRUH.DINDWXUQVIRUPDOO\WRWKHSDUDEOHKHKDVDOUHDG\FRQVWUXFWHGD
¿FWLRQWKDWSURYHVLQWKHPXOWLSOHLQVWDQFHVRILWVRZQVOLSSDJHWREHPRUHWKDQ
DPHUH¿FWLRQ$QGLQWKLVHQGHDYRXUKHLVVHFRQGHGE\DQLURQLFIDWHQRQHRI
KLVPDMRU¿FWLRQLVFRPSOHWHLQWKHIRUPZHKDYHRILW«,WLVRQWKLVVKLIWLQJ
ground that contrives the deceptive revelation of a parable whose magnitude is
HTXDOWRWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKH¿FWLRQWKDW.DINDHVWDEOLVKHVDFHQWUDOSDUDEOHWKDW
KLV¿FWLRQWUHDWVDVDSUREOHPDWLFWH[W±DSDUDEOHZKRVHOHVVRQLVWKHGRXEWIXO
QDWXUHRISDUDEOHV
,I .DIND¶V ¿FWLRQ LV PHWDSDUDEROLF &RHW]HH¶V LV PHWDDOOHJRULFDO DQ DOOHJRU\
³ZKRVHOHVVRQLVWKHGRXEWIXOQDWXUH´RIDOOHJRULHVDVWKH\FRQIRUPWRsystems of
meaning1RWDEO\&RHW]HHFKRRVHVWRDSSURSULDWHXQ¿QLVKHGRULQFRPSOHWHWH[WV
adding to this sense of slippage, not only here with The Trial, The Castle
76
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
DQG³7KH%XUURZ´±EXWDOVRLQWaiting for the Barbarians ZLWK
.DIND¶V ³,Q WKH 3HQDO &RORQ\´ DQG LQ The Master of Petersburg ZLWK )\RGRU 'RVWRHYVN\¶V The Possessed ,Q VR GRLQJ Barbarians and
Life & Times JHVWXUHWRZDUGVWKHLQVFUXWDEOHDQGUHVLVWDQWRWKHUDV³WH[W´DQGThe
Master of Petersburg resonates with debates on censorship.
/LNH .DIND¶V SURWDJRQLVW 0LFKDHO . LV UHSHDWHGO\ PLVUHSUHVHQWHG DQG
PLVXQGHUVWRRG PLVUHDG E\ WKRVH ZKRVH SDWK KH FURVVHV RQ KLV MRXUQH\ WR WKH
9LVDJLH IDUP PRVW QRWDEO\ WKH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU ZKR OLNH &DSWDLQ 2RVWKXL]HQ
0. PLVQDPHV KLP ³0LFKDHOV´ $W ¿UVW WKH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU IDLOV WR
recognize the innate sagacity and meaning of Michael K and only later reappraises
his perception, adopting him as both his literal and spiritual guide to beyond the
FDPSV³,KDYHFKRVHQ\RXWRVKRZPHWKHZD\´>0.@*URVVYRJHOÀHVKHV
RXW WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV PLVUHDGLQJ KDV IRU WKH UHDGHU OLQNLQJ .DIND¶V ¿FWLRQ WR
ZKDWKHFDOOVWKH³%RUJHVLDQ´RU³UHÀHFWLQJ´VXUIDFHDWH[WWKDWOLNHD³PLUURU´
³NHHSVKLVUHDGHURXWHYHQDVLWWDONVWRWKDWUHDGHUDERXWKLPDQGKLVSUREOHPDWLF
ZRUOG´7KHFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKLVNLQGRIWH[WLVDVHOIFRQVFLRXVDJHQWLDO
UHDGHUDZDUHRIWKH³GHVLUHWRSHQHWUDWHWKH%RUJHVLDQVXUIDFH´,WWKHUHIRUH
LVSODXVLEOHWKDWWKHRQO\FUHGLEOHUHDGLQJVRI.DINDand Coetzee, confoundingly,
would be misreadings.
Joseph K.’s situation, as a reader impelled to interpret his surroundings, is
UHSURGXFHGLQWKHHPEHGGHGSDUDEOH³%HIRUHWKH/DZ´DWWKHHQGRIThe Trial,
UHFRXQWHGWRKLPE\WKHSULHVW,IDV-DFTXHV'HUULGDKDVVXJJHVWHGWKH³ODZ´LV
a metaphor for literature (Acts±WKHQRYHOVWDJHVLWVRZQDUWL¿FH$ZDLWLQJ
KLV GHDWK VHQWHQFH IRU LQVWDQFH WKH LOOIRUWXQHG -RVHSK . FXUVHV WKH ³/DZ´
³7HQWKUDWHROGDFWRUVWKH\VHQGIRUPH«7KH\ZDQWWR¿QLVKPHRIIFKHDSO\´
7KHGULYHWRLQWHUSUHWLVDOOWKHPRUHH[LJHQWEHFDXVH.VWDQGVWULDOIRUD
crime punishable by death but one that, in the manner of totalitarian authority,
UHPDLQVDP\VWHU\WRKLP(DFKUHDGLQJ.PDNHVRIWKHSULHVW¶VVWRU\LVIUXVWUDWHG
WKH SULHVW LQVWUXFWV KLP E\ DQ LQFRPSOHWHQHVV RU ODFN RI FODULW\ MXVW DV Life &
TimesDQG0LFKDHO.DVWH[WEORFNLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
$OWKRXJK LWV DOOXVLRQV WR WRWDOLWDULDQLVP FUHGLW .DIND ZLWK D 6DLGLDQ
³ZRUOGOLQHVV´6DLG³7H[W´'HUULGDFODLPVWKDW³%HIRUHWKH/DZ´³GRHVQRWWHOO
RUGHVFULEHDQ\WKLQJEXWLWVHOIDVWH[W´(YHQWKRXJKWRP\PLQGWKLVUHDGLQJLV
overdetermined, Derrida is useful when he points out that the parable “guards
LWVHOIPDLQWDLQVLWVHOI«,WLVWKHODZPDNHVWKHODZDQGOHDYHVWKHUHDGHUEHIRUH
WKHODZÁcts±,IWKHSULHVW¶VSDUDEOH³JXDUGVLWVHOI´VRThe Trial frustrates
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQERWKE\-RVHSK.DVUHDGHUDQGE\WKHUHDGHURI.DIND¶VVWRU\7KH
parallels with Life & Times are therefore self-evident. However, Derrida is not
UHDGLQJ WKH ³ODZ´ RU ³OLWHUDWXUH´ LQ WHUPV RI ¿FWLRQ DOOHJRU\ P\WK V\PERO RU
parable (ActsEXWLQWKH)UHQFKVHQVHRIla loiHTXDWLQJLWZLWKWKHWD[RQRPLF
TXDOLWLHV WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]H JHQUH 1RQHWKHOHVV 0LFKDHO . LV D SDUDJRQ RI WKH
UHVLVWDQWWH[WEHFDXVHKHHOXGHVFRGL¿FDWLRQERWKUHDOWKDWRIWKHVWDWHDQGWH[WXDO
E\UHIXWLQJWKHDOOHJRULFDOUHDGLQJVWKDWKLVFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQLQYLWHV
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
77
*URVVYRJHO VXJJHVWV WKDW OLNH WKH 2HGLSXV P\WK .DIND¶V The Trial pivots
XSRQ PLVUHDGLQJ ³7KH JRGV NQRZ WKDW RQH ZD\ RU DQRWKHU 2HGLSXV LV IDWHG
QRWWRXQGHUVWDQG+LVTXLFNZLWDQGLPSHWXRXVQHVVQRWZLWKVWDQGLQJ2HGLSXVLV
WXUQHGLQWRDSORGGLQJDQGDZNZDUGLQWHUSUHWHU´)RU0DXULFH%ODQFKRWWKLV
SUREOHPRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQLQ.DINDLVWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHUHDGHU
:KRHYHUVWD\VZLWKWKHVWRU\SHQHWUDWHVLQWRVRPHWKLQJRSDTXHWKDWKHGRHVQRW
XQGHUVWDQGZKLOHZKRHYHUKROGVWKHPHDQLQJFDQQRWJHWEDFNWRWKHGDUNQHVVRI
ZKLFKLWLVWKHWHOODEOHOLJKW7KHWZRUHDGHUVFDQQHYHUPHHWZHDUHRQHWKHQ
the other, we understand always more or always less than is necessary. True
readings remain impossible. (Work of Fire
Joseph K.’s action of reading the world and the law mirrors the act of reading The
Trial. K. is confounded by the law and, ensnared in the labyrinthine nightmare of
WKH¿FWLRQKHLVWUDSSHG³EHIRUHWKHODZ´(PEHGGHGLQWKHODUJHUWH[W.DIND¶V
SDUDEOHUHSURGXFHVWKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RI.¶VVLWXDWLRQDQGRI³FRUUHFW´RUGH¿QLWLYH
readings.
Coetzee’s novel is framed around the Oedipus myth: Michael K’s Oedipal
UHODWLRQWRWKH)DWKHUWKHODZWKHVWDWHWKHSROLFHWKHZDU>0.@LVRQHRI
suspicion and avoidance and he nurtures the maternal bond, both with his mother
DQGKLVFURS±KLVSXPSNLQVDQGPHORQVZKLFKKHSHUFHLYHVDVKLVFKLOGUHQ7KH
0HGLFDO2I¿FHUHYHQZDUQV0LFKDHO.DZD\IURPKLVPRWKHUZKR³VRXQGVOLNH«
WKHYHU\HPERGLPHQWRIJUHDW0RWKHU'HDWK´0.,QKLVTXHVWIRUPHDQLQJ
0LFKDHO . LV DQRWKHU ³SORGGLQJ DQG DZNZDUG LQWHUSUHWHU´ DQG WKH WH[W KLQJHV
XSRQ³LQFRUUHFWÚHDGLQJV'RPLQLF+HDGLGHQWL¿HV&RHW]HH¶VQRYHODVLQSDUW
a Bildungsroman (J. M. CoetzeeDQG*URVVYRJHO SRLQWVRXWWKDWLQ*HUPDQ
³WULDO´±der Prozess±DOVRWUDQVODWHVDV³SURFHVV´$VDUHDGHULQDQGRIWKH
WH[W0LFKDHO.QHJRWLDWHVKLPVHOIWKURXJKWKHWULDOVRIOLIH+LVQDLYHW\OLNH.¶V
OHDYHV KLP EHZLOGHUHG E\ WKH ZRUOG LQ ZKLFK KH ¿QGV KLPVHOI DQG KH ZUHVWOHV
ontologically with his sense of purpose. As a reader of the text and a sign of textual
practice, he is incorporated into the reading process:
it seemed to him that scene after scene of life was playing itself out before him
and that the scenes all cohered. He had a presentiment of a single meaning upon
ZKLFKWKH\ZHUHFRQYHUJLQJRUWKUHDWHQLQJWRFRQYHUJHWKRXJKKHGLGQRWNQRZ
\HWZKDWWKDWPLJKWEH0.
Life & TimesLQVWDOOVZKDW*URVVYRJHOZRXOGFDOOD³%RUJHVLDQVXUIDFH´DQGDWH[W
and reader – Michael K – who is aware of himself as sign battling to comprehend
KLVVLJQL¿FDWLRQ
A pattern of misreading is established by the text that encourages, indeed
directs, the reader GRZQDVLPLODUSDWK7KH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUPLVUHFRJQL]HV0LFKDHO
.DVD³SRRUVLPSOHWRQ´0.\HW0LFKDHO.UHDOL]LQJWKDWKLVOLIHKDVEHHQ
systematized by apartheid, in fact displays an innate wisdom by affecting simple-
78
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
PLQGHGQHVVZKHQTXL]]HGDWDURDGEORFNE\WKHSROLFH³,I,ORRNYHU\VWXSLGKH
WKRXJKWSHUKDSVWKH\ZLOOOHWPHWKURXJK´0.,WLVWKLVDSSDUHQWVWXSLGLW\KH
believes, that will save him: “At least, he thought, at least I have not been clever …
,ZDVPXWHDQGVWXSLGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJ,ZLOOEHPXWHDQGVWXSLGDWWKHHQG´0.
$VLWLVHOVHZKHUHLQWKHQDUUDWLYHWKHTXHVWLRQ³ZKRVSHDNV"´LVPDVNHGE\
ambiguity: is this the consciousness of Michael K or that of an omniscient narrator
ZKRZRXOGKROGDXWKRULW\RYHUKLP"0LFKDHO.¶VVSHHFKDQGWKRXJKWDUHRQO\HYHU
SUHVHQWHGE\UHSRUWLQWKH¿UVWDQGWKLUGVHFWLRQVRIWKHQRYHO±³KHWKRXJKW´³KH
IRXQG´³KHVDLG´3DUU\³6SHHFKDQG6LOHQFH´±DQGLQWKHVHFRQGVHFWLRQ
KLVVWRU\UHVWVLQWKHKDQGVRIWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHU
Indeed, it is for his adumbration of the other as silent that Coetzee has met
KLV ¿HUFHVW FULWLFLVP :KLOVW *RUGLPHU IRU LQVWDQFH UHSURYHV &RHW]HH¶V IDLOXUH
WR UHSUHVHQW WKH PDQLIHVW RUJDQL]HG EODFN UHVLVWDQFH WR DSDUWKHLG %HQLWD 3DUU\
argues that Michael K is “written as a being without an identity … an exemplar
RIWKHPLQGWXUQHGLQZDUGÍURPDDXWKRULDOSRVLWLRQWKDWLVDOZD\VDOUHDG\WKDWRI
DXWKRULW\DQGSULYLOHJH³JURXQGHGLQWKHFRJQLWLYHV\VWHPVRIWKH:HVW´³6SHHFK
DQG 6LOHQFH´ %XW ZKLOVW VXFK D VWUDWHJ\ PLJKW VXJJHVW 0LFKDHO .¶V
ODFNRIDXWRQRP\UHYHUVLQJWKLVG\QDPLFUHYHDOVLWPLJKWHTXDOO\VLJQDOWKDWWKH
0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU DV 0LFKDHO .¶V VHOIHOHFWHG VSRNHVSHUVRQ DQG HYHQ &RHW]HH
as author, don’t properly know him. This ambiguity that hovers around Michael
.¶V VXEMHFWLYLW\ FRXSOHG ZLWK WKH RYHUW LQFRQVLVWHQFLHV LQ KLV FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ
RXWOLQHG DERYH DOVR OHDYH WKH UHDGHU QRW NQRZLQJ KLP DQG WKHUHIRUH WKURXJK
processes of interpretation and critical analysis, the reader is implicated in his
³WULDO´7KH FRQVHTXHQFHV RI WKLV QDUUDWLYH VWUDWHJ\ DUH FOHDU DV UHDGHUV ZH DUH
obliged to experience the discursive process that has structured Michael K’s life,
DSURFHVVWKDWPLUURUVQRWRQO\WKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQLQVWLWXWHGE\DSDUWKHLGEXWDOVRD
discourse of postcolonial criticism. In this way we are encouraged to recognize the
limitations and ideological problems that encumber such a role.
The reader approaches a text, according to Grossvogel, with a “desire for his
text to have meaning (that is to say an end´DGHVLUHZKLFKDVKHULJKWO\SRLQWV
out, The Trial withstands as it is a text “that adroitly confuses critics and other
UHDGHUV´7KHRGRU$GRUQRDUWLFXODWHVWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUHDGHUDQG
WH[WLQ.DIND¶V¿FWLRQLQDVLPLODUIDVKLRQEXWDGGVWKDWWKHUHDGHUPXVWDOVRWDNH
responsibility for any reading made:
$PRQJ .DIND¶V SUHVXSSRVLWLRQV QRW OHDVW LV WKDW WKH FRQWHPSODWLYH UHODWLRQ
EHWZHHQWH[WDQGUHDGHULVVKDNHQWRLWVYHU\URRWV+LVWH[WVDUHGHVLJQHGQRW
to sustain a constant distance between themselves and their victim but rather to
agitate his feelings to a point where he fears that the narrative will shoot towards
KLP OLNH D ORFRPRWLYH LQ D WKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO ¿OP 6XFK DJJUHVVLYH SK\VLFDO
SUR[LPLW\XQGHUPLQHVWKHUHDGHU¶VKDELWRILGHQWLI\LQJKLPVHOIZLWKWKH¿JXUHV
in the novel… . As long as the word has not been found, the reader must be held
DFFRXQWDEOH³1RWHVRQ.DIND´
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
79
For Adorno, this complex relation is an ethico-political strategy. The idea of
responsible reading, however, is complicated in Life & Times by its allusions to
ZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQOLEHUDOLVPDQGZKLWHJXLOWFRQ¿JXUHGLQWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHU
ZKREHFRPLQJH[DVSHUDWHGZLWK0LFKDHO.SUHVVHVKLPWR³\LHOG´KLVPHDQLQJ
+HFODLPVWKDWKHLVWKHRQO\RQHZKRFDQSURSHUO\³UHDG´0LFKDHO.³,DORQH
VHH \RX DV « D KXPDQ VRXO DERYH DQG EHQHDWK FODVVL¿FDWLRQ D VRXO EOHVVHGO\
XQWRXFKHGE\GRFWULQHXQWRXFKHGE\KLVWRU\´0.
7KHWHUP³OLEHUDO´RIFRXUVHKDVYHU\VSHFL¿FFRQQRWDWLRQVLQ6RXWK$IULFD
because, whilst on a fundamental level disagreeing with apartheid ideology,
liberals were perceived by some to be willing to turn a blind eye to apartheid abuse,
PDNLQJWKHPFRPSOLFLW2 In I Write What I LikeSXEOLVKHGSRVWKXPRXVO\LQ
WKH VWXGHQW OHDGHU 6WHYH %LNR LV GLVSDUDJLQJ RI ³WKDW FXULRXV EXQFK RI >ZKLWH@
QRQFRQIRUPLVWV´³OLEHUDOVOHIWLVWV´ZKR³DUJXHWKDWWKH\DUHQRWUHVSRQVLEOHIRU
ZKLWHUDFLVPDQGWKHFRXQWU\¶VµLQKXPDQLW\WRWKHEODFNPDQ¶´³$JDPHDW
ZKLFKWKHOLEHUDOVKDYHEHFRPHPDVWHUVLVWKDWRIGHOLEHUDWHHYDVLYHQHVV´KHJRHV
on (I Write7KH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUFRQFOXGHVWKDWLIWKH³PHDQLQJ´RI0LFKDHO
.³ZHUHQRPRUHWKDQDODFNLQ>KLP@VHOI>WKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHU@«RIVRPHWKLQJWR
EHOLHYHLQ´KHPLJKWDVZHOOSXW³DEXOOHWWKURXJK>KLVRZQ@KHDG´0.<HW
if thisUHDOL]DWLRQWKDWRWKHUQHVVVLPSO\GH¿QHVWKHVHOIPHUHO\VHUYHVWRSURYHhis
VLQFHULW\WKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUIDLOVRQFHDJDLQ
In perpetually eluding meaning Michael K goes some way to shape his own
GHVWLQ\7KRXJKWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUEHOLHYHV0LFKDHO.LV³QRWDKHURDQGGLGQRW
SUHWHQGWREHQRWHYHQDKHURRIIDVWLQJ´0.KHGRHVRXWZLWKLVJDROHUV
including the author and the reader of the text, in a number of important ways.
)LUVWO\KHHYDGHVKLVWRU\DSODFHLQZKLFKKHZRXOGEHDFFRUGHGKHURLFVWDWXVDQG
VHFRQGO\E\DVVRFLDWLRQKHHYDGHVWLPHZKLFKKHHTXDWHVZLWKFDPSUHJXODWLRQ
This is a story in which little actually happens, where Michael K struggles to stand
outside history and forgets the passing of time. Yet problematically a slowing or
even stopping of time is, for Coetzee, symptomatic of the apartheid condition which
was characterized by reactionary conservatism. Responding to Attwell’s comment
WKDW KLV ¿FWLRQ ³DOORZ>V@ WKH QDUUDWRUV WR UHÀHFW GLUHFWO\ RQ WKHLU H[SHULHQFH RI
WHPSRUDOLW\´'3&RHW]HHH[SODLQV
7KHSDUW\RI$IULNDQHU&KULVWLDQQDWLRQDOLVP«VHWDERXWVWRSSLQJRUHYHQWXUQLQJ
EDFNWKHFORFN,WVSURJUDPVLQYROYHGDUDGLFDOO\GLVFRQWLQXRXVLQWHUYHQWLRQLQWR
time, in that it tried to stop dead or turn around a range of developments normal
LQWKHVHQVHRIEHLQJWKHQRUPLQFRORQLDOVRFLHWLHV,WDOVRDLPHGDWLQVWLWXWLQJ
a sluggish no-time in which an already anachronistic order of patriarchal clans
DQGWULEDOGHVSRWLVPVZRXOGEHIUR]HQLQSODFH'3
2
)RUDEULHIGLVFXVVLRQRIOLEHUDOSROLWLFVDQGLWVRSSRVLWLRQDOREMHFWLYHVVHH%HLQDUW
179–180.
80
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
6R&RHW]HHOLQNVWKHIRUZDUGPRYHPHQWRIWLPHZLWKSURJUHVVZKLFKZDVQRWLQ
WKHLQWHUHVWVRI$IULNDQHUQDWLRQDOLVPRQPDWWHUVRIUDFH
$WHPSRUDOO\LQÀHFWHGPRRGFKDUDFWHUL]HVLife & Times through what Coetzee
LGHQWL¿HVDVLWV³SDFHRIQDUUDWLRQ´ZKLFKKHVXJJHVWVLVWKHQRYHO¶VRYHUULGLQJ
WHFKQLTXH'33DUDGR[LFDOO\WKLVPRRGZKLFKLVPRVWDSSDUHQWLQWKHEXUURZ
scenes when Michael K retreats from the world in his impulsion towards obscurity,
FRUUHVSRQGV WR WKH ³VORZ WLPH´ RI DSDUWKHLG DQG WKHUHIRUH ZRXOG DSSDUHQWO\
FRQ¿UP*RUGLPHU¶VSRLQWDERXWWKHLQHI¿FDF\RI0LFKDHO.¶VUHVLVWDQFH
,QKLVGHWDLOHGDQDO\VLVRIWKHWUHDWPHQWRIWLPHLQ.DIND¶VVWRU\³7LPH7HQVH
DQG$VSHFWLQ.DIND¶Vµ7KH%XUURZ¶´RQHRIVHYHUDOLQWHUWH[WVRILife &
Times&RHW]HHDUJXHVWKDWWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWLPHP\VWL¿HVWKHUHDGHUWKURXJK
defamiliarization. Just as Michael K endeavours to exist beyond time, the meaning
RI³7KH%XUURZ´WXUQVXSRQ
WKHH[SHULHQFHRIDEUHDNGRZQRIWLPHRIWKHWLPHVHQVHRQHPRPHQWGRHV
QRWÀRZLQWRWKHQH[W±RQWKHFRQWUDU\HDFKPRPHQWKDVWKHWKUHDWRUSURPLVH
RIEHLQJQRWEHFRPLQJDWLPHOHVVIRUHYHUXQFRQQHFWHGWRXQJHQHUDWHGE\WKH
SDVW'3
By severing himself from history, Michael K refuses to be moulded by the slow
time of apartheid. He passively resists apartheid’s system of time.
7KLVFDQEHEHWWHUXQGHUVWRRGE\FORVHULQVSHFWLRQRI.DIND7KHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
RIWLPHLQ³7KH%XUURZ´LV&RHW]HHVD\V³EDIÀLQJÉHFDXVHKDELWXDOWLPHPXVW
be reconciled with time that is plottable on a continuum. Time in the story disrupts
QRWRQO\WKHFRQYHQWLRQVRIUHDOLVW¿FWLRQZKLFKUHVWV&RHW]HHSRLQWVRXWRQWKH
ODZVRI1HZWRQLDQSK\VLFVLWDOVRVXEYHUWVWKH*HUPDQWHQVHV\VWHPXVHGE\.DIND
'3:KLOHFKDOOHQJLQJPXFKRI'RUULW&RKQ¶VDQDO\VLVRIWLPHDQGWHQVHLQ
³7KH %XUURZ´ DUJXLQJ WKDW WKH\ FDQQRW EH VFKHPDWL]HG LQ WKH ZD\ WKDW &RKQ
suggests, Coetzee agrees the structuring of time in the story is, in Cohn’s words,
“paradoxical [and] … based on a denial of the distinction between repetitious
DQG VLQJXODU HYHQWV´ TWG LQ '3 6LPLODUO\ &RHW]HH DOVR DI¿UPV &RKQ¶V
³LGHQWLI>LFDWLRQRI@WKHDPELJXLWLHVRISUHVHQWWHQVHYHUEIRUPVDVWKHIRUPDO¿HOG
ZKRVHH[SORLWDWLRQPDNHVWKHKLJKHUOHYHOSDUDGR[HVRIµ7KH%XUURZ¶SRVVLEOH´
'3 DQG ZLWK KHU RYHUDOO DQDO\VLV WKDW WKH QDUUDWLYH LV IUDPHG SULPDULO\
DURXQG ³D FRQVWDQWO\ UHSHDWHG SUHVHQW´ TWG LQ '3 RU DV &RHW]HH SXWV LW
³WLPHH[SHULHQFHGDVFRQWLQXDOFULVLV´'3FI$WWZHOOJ. M. Coetzee
In the burrow scenes in Life & Times0LFKDHO.KLVERG\UDFNHGE\LOOQHVV
becomes disconnected from the passing of time: for the moment, time becomes
LUUHOHYDQW%\HVFDSLQJLQFDUFHUDWLRQZLWKGUDZLQJIURPWKH³QRZ´RIDSDUWKHLG
DQGIURPWKHFRQVWUDLQWVRIKLVWRU\KHOLYHVRXWVLGHWLPH$VKHJURZVZHDNHUKH
³ORV>HV@WUDFNRIWLPH´
6RPHWLPHVZDNLQJVWLÀHG«KHNQHZWKDWLWZDVGD\7KHUHZHUHORQJSHULRGV
ZKHQKHOD\LQDJUH\VWXSRUWRRWLUHGWRNLFNKLPVHOIIUHHRIVOHHS+HFRXOGIHHO
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
81
the processes of his body slowing down. You are forgetting to breathe, he would
say to himself, and yet lie without breathing. He raised a hand heavy as lead and
put it over his heart: far away, as if in another country, he felt a languid stretching
and closing. Through whole cycles of the heavens he slept… . Sometimes he
ZRXOGHPHUJHLQWRZDNHIXOQHVVXQVXUHZKHWKHUKHKDGVOHSWDGD\RUDZHHNRU
a month. It occurred to him that he might not be fully in possession of himself.
<RXPXVWHDWKHZRXOGVD\DQGVWUXJJOHWRJHWXSDQGORRNIRUDSXPSNLQ%XW
then he would relax again, and stretch his legs and yawn in sensual pleasure so
sweet that he wished for nothing but to lie and let it ripple through him… . Then
VWHSE\VWHSKLVVOHHSJUHZWREHOLJKWHUDQGWKHSHULRGVRIZDNHIXOQHVVPRUH
IUHTXHQW+HEHJDQWREHYLVLWHGE\WUDLQVRILPDJHVVRUDSLGDQGXQFRQQHFWHG
WKDWKHFRXOGQRWIROORZWKHP+HWRVVHGDQGWXUQHGXQVDWLV¿HGE\VOHHSEXWWRR
GUDLQHGRIVWUHQJWKWRULVH«7KHUHZDVDWKXQGHUVWRUP0.±
In this passage Coetzee ruptures a linear, forward-moving sense of time in a nonVFKHPDWLFZD\WLPHLQ³FRQWLQXDOFULVLV´7KHEXUURZVFHQHVDQGKLVZLWKGUDZDO
into solitude represent a crisis point for Michael K, who increasingly forgets to
HDWPLUURUHGE\WLPHVHTXHQFHVZKLFKWKHPVHOYHVDUHLQFULVLVHYHUVKLIWLQJWLPH
VORZVTXLFNHQVSDFHDOLWWOHDOPRVWVWDQGVVWLOO-XVWDV0LFKDHO.H[SHULHQFHV
time, the reader is disorientated and defamiliarized from it.
In the burrow scenes a disruption of linear time is realized primarily through a
peculiar and varied verb scheme and temporal clauses that emphasize a change in
SDFHIRULQVWDQFHPDUNLQJLWHUDWLYHGXUDWLRQDVLQ³WKHUHZHUHlong periods when
he lay´RUIUHTXHQF\±³Vometimes … he knew´³VRPHWLPHVÉHLQJQRQVSHFL¿F
DQGWKHUHIRUHYDJXHDQGPDUNLQJDQLQFRQJUXLW\ZLWKWKHVWDWHRINQRZLQJ7KH
modal auxiliary would, signalling reported action, is used in the iterative past (“he
would begin´ ³KH would come out´ IUHTXHQWO\ LQGLFDWHG E\ WHPSRUDO DGYHUEV
(“sometimes KH ZRXOG HPHUJH´ DQG GHQRWLQJ D FRQWLQXRXV RU KDELWXDO DFWLRQ
in-the-past. Modal auxiliaries are used in the past tense to present free indirect
speech (“You must eat, he would say´FRQQRWLQJLWHUDWLYHKDELWXDODFWLRQRYHU
DQH[WHQGHGSHULRGRIWLPHHPSKDVL]HGKHUHE\WKHVXEMXQFWLYHwould, which is
DJDLQVXJJHVWLYHRIXQFHUWDLQW\&ODXVHVVXFKDV³Then step by step his sleep grew
to be lighter and the periods RI ZDNHIXOQHVV more frequent´ H[SUHVV D IRUZDUG
PRYHPHQWRIWLPH±³HYHQW´WLPH(YHQWVWKDWDUH¿QLWHPDUNHGE\DEHJLQQLQJ
and an end, in this instance, “periods of wakefulness”DUHTXDOL¿HGE\WHPSRUDO
clauses expressing repeated and durative action (“grew to be … more frequent´
Tense shifts from past (“He lost track RI WLPH´ lost FRQQRWLQJ D ¿QLWH VWDWH RI
EHLQJWRDKDELWXDOSDVW³Vometimes, ZDNLQJVWLÀHG … he knew´7KHEXUURZ
VHTXHQFH LV SXQFWXDWHG E\ WKH WKXQGHUVWRUP ³7KHUH was D WKXQGHUVWRUP´
WKH HYHQW RI WKH VWRUP EHLQJ PDUNHG E\ WKH VLPSOH SDVW WHQVH 6LPLODUO\ WKHVH
passages are themselves set apart from the rest of the narrative by the use of the
VLPSOHSDVWWHQVH0LFKDHO.³ORVWWUDFNRIWLPH´$SHULRGRIFRQWHPSODWLRQLV
represented through a general slowing of pace. Though already detached from
WKHZRUOGRXWVLGHEHFDXVHRIKLVSK\VLFDOZHDNQHVVKHQRZHQWHUVDVSDFHRIORVW
82
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
time that signals the nadir of his illness. Gestured by the simple past tense, the
VWRUP PDUNV 0LFKDHO .¶V UHHPHUJHQFH IURP WKH EXUURZ LQWR WKH WXPXOW RI WKH
present: the soldiers arrive and he is returned to the camps. Part Two of the novel,
IROORZLQJWKLVLQWHUOXGHDQGWKHDUULYDORIWKHVROGLHUVLVQDUUDWHGLQWKH¿UVWSHUVRQ
E\WKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUZKRV\PEROLFDOO\WDNHVDXWKRULW\RI0LFKDHO.¶VVWRU\
WDNLQJLWXSRQKLPVHOIWRVSHDNRQ0LFKDHO.¶VEHKDOI7KLVVHFWLRQLVPDUNHGE\D
TXLFNHQLQJRIWLPHDQGSDFHKLJKOLJKWLQJWKHVKLIWLQWRWKHFRQVFLRXVQHVVRIDPDQ
ZKRQRWHVWKDW0LFKDHO.LVQRW³ZKROO\RIRXUZRUOG´0.
0DUNLQJKLVIUHHGRPIURPWKHZRUOGRIWKHFDPSDQGWKHSULVRQ0LFKDHO.
ZLWKGUDZVIURPVRFLHW\EHFDXVHDVROLWDU\OLIHLVHDVLHUWRHQGXUHKLVLVODQGRI
LVRODWLRQLVLQSDUWVHOILPSRVHG³+HKDGNHSWQRWDOO\RIWKHGD\VQRUUHFRUGHG
the changes of the moon. He was not a prisoner or a castaway, his life by the dam
ZDVQRWDVHQWHQFHWKDWKHKDGWRVHUYHRXW´0.±6RQRWRQO\GRHVLife &
TimesLQYRNHD.DINDQGHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWLPHLWDOVRLQYHUWVWLPHDVLWVWUXFWXUHV
Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. As Jameson points out, allegory has the “capacity
… to generate a range of distinct meanings or messages, simultaneously, as the
DOOHJRULFDOWHQRUDQGYHKLFOHFKDQJHSODFH´³7KLUG:RUOG/LWHUDWXUH´3HQQHG
GXULQJWKH]HQLWKRI(XURSHDQPHUFDQWLOHH[SDQVLRQDQGDPRYHE\WKH³:HVW´
to colonize other places, Robinson Crusoe is framed on the myths of Calvinistic
LQGLYLGXDOLVPDQGFRORQLDOLVPWKHFDVWDZD\&UXVRHGLOLJHQWO\ZRUNVWKHODQGDQG
WDNHVLWXSRQKLPVHOIWRSURYLGHWKHPRUDODQGVSLULWXDOJXLGDQFHRI)ULGD\ZKRP
he enslaves. Imperiously and unselfconsciously, he instructs Friday in Christianity:
³DQGWKXVE\GHJUHHV,RSHQHGKLVH\HV´Robinson Crusoe2QDUULYLQJRQ
the island, Crusoe experiences a sense of urgency to rein in time as he retrieves
VWRFNIURPWKHVXQNHQYHVVHODQGVWUXJJOHVWREXLOGKLVPDNHVKLIWKRPHZKLFK
WHOOLQJO\KHQDPHV³P\&DVWOH´³,KDGQRWLPHWRORVH´³ZLWKRXWORVLQJWLPH´³,
KDGORVWQRWLPH´³LI,KDGKDGPRUHWLPH´DQG³7KLVFRVWPHDJUHDWGHDORIWLPH´
(Robinson Crusoe&UXVRHWKHHSLWRPHRIWKHPRGHUQVHOI
PDGHPDQZKROLYHVE\WKHSULQFLSOHVRI(QOLJKWHQPHQWDQGD&DOYLQLVWLFZRUN
ethic, next sets about organizing and rationalizing his days cast away to allay his
IHDURIORVLQJWUDFNRIWLPHDQGE\DVVRFLDWLRQKLVSRZHUVRIUHDVRQ³LQJHQHUDO
it may be observed that I was very seldom idle … having regularly divided my
WLPHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHVHYHUDOGDLO\HPSOR\PHQWVWKDWZHUHEHIRUHPH´Robinson
Crusoe:KLOHIRU&UXVRHWKHFKDUWLQJRIWKHSDVVDJHRIWLPHLVQRWVLPSO\
DPHDQVRINHHSLQJDWDOO\RIWKHGD\VEXWZLOODOVRFRQWULEXWHWRKLVOHJDF\KH
PHWLFXORXVO\UHFRUGVKLVGD\VRQWKHLVODQGLQKLVMRXUQDO0LFKDHO.ZKRORVHV
WUDFNRIWLPHUHVLVWVFRPPLWWLQJKLPVHOIWRKLVWRU\RUWRDFROOHFWLYHFRQVFLRXVQHVV
and stands outside apartheid law.
Michael K’s pathetic ruminations are an attempt to pre-empt racist discourse
and the suffering it engenders:
,DPQRWEXLOGLQJDKRXVH«WRSDVVRQWRRWKHUJHQHUDWLRQV:KDW,PDNHRXJKW
WREHFDUHOHVVPDNHVKLIW«6RWKDWLIHYHUWKH\¿QGWKLVSODFH«DQGVD\WRHDFK
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
83
RWKHU:KDWVKLIWOHVVFUHDWXUHVKRZOLWWOHSULGHWKH\WRRNLQWKHLUZRUNLWZLOO
QRWPDWWHU0.
&DVW DGULIW LQ WKH YHOG KH UHDOL]HV WKDW XQOLNH &UXVRH KH PXVW learn the habit
RI ³LGOHQHVV´ D ORDGHG WHUP LQ 6RXWK$IULFD VLQFH LW ZDV DSSURSULDWHG E\ HDUO\
colonizers, by the apartheid state and by racists generally as a means of stereotyping
and thereby regulating racial difference. He “was learning to love idleness,
idleness no longer as stretches of freedom reclaimed by stealth here and there from
LQYROXQWDU\ODERXU«EXWDVD\LHOGLQJXSRIKLPVHOIWRWLPH´0.
In White Writing Coetzee argues that in early white South African literature
³UHODSVHLQWRVORWKLVDEHWUD\DORIWKHKLJKSDVWRUDOLPSXOVH´::³>1@HLWKHU
SOHDVHGQRUGLVSOHDVHGZKHQWKHUHZDVZRUNWRGR´0.0LFKDHO.LVQRW
FKDOOHQJLQJ D ZRUN HWKLF UDWKHU KH \HDUQV XQFRQVFLRXVO\ WR VWDQG RXWVLGH WKH
WLPHRIWKHFDPSVRIDSDUWKHLGDQGRI6RXWK$IULFD¶VEOHDNKLVWRU\LQWKHPDNLQJ
Here, because Michael K cultivates his social alienation, we are reminded of
*RUGLPHU¶VFULWLFLVPRIWKHQRYHOTXRWHGDERYHWKDW&RHW]HHZHLJKWVZKDW/XNiFV
GH¿QHVDVWKHWH[WXDOV\PELRVLVEHWZHHQWKHSULYDWHDQGSXEOLF±LQ*RUGLPHU¶V
ZRUGV³SULYDWHDQGVRFLDOGHVWLQ\´±LQIDYRXURIWKHSULYDWH0LFKDHO.¶VVWDWXV
DV ³UHVLVWLQJ WH[W´ DOVR ZRUNV DW WKH OHYHO RI UHVLVWLQJ WKH QRUPDWLYH PRGHV RI
postcolonial theory, in which, in the case of Jameson, the public-political always
WDNHV FHQWUH VWDJH YLD WKH SULYDWH OLELGLQDO VSKHUH )RU -DPHVRQ WKH SULYDWH
translates as national allegory. Michael K’s private resistance highlights the very
SROLWLFVWKHWH[WSUHVVHVDJDLQVWGUDZLQJWKHZRUNQRQHWKHOHVVDQGSDUDGR[LFDOO\
LQWRWKHUHDOPVRISROLWLFDOFULWLTXH
Coetzee argues that early European travel writers neglected to draw parallels
EHWZHHQWKH³LGOH+RWWHQWRW´.KRLVDQDQGWKH³SDVWRUDOSODWLWXGHRIWKHZDQGHULQJ
VKHSKHUGZLWKKLVPHDJHUSRVVHVVLRQVDQGKLVHDVLO\VDWLV¿HGZDQWV>ZKRUHYHDOV
D@ ZD\ RI HVFDSLQJ IURP WKH FDUHV RI FLYLOL]DWLRQ´ :: ,QGHHG PDNLQJ
the appropriation of Defoe’s fable all the more incisive, Coetzee contextualizes
PLVUHDGLQJVRI³LGOHQHVV´LQWKHQRYHOP\RSLFVLQFHWKH\IDLOWRFRQQHFWLGHDVRI
FRQWHPSODWLRQZLWKSK\VLFDOTXLHWXGHDVD³ZDURQVRFLDOSDUDVLWLVP´RQJRLQJLQ
Europe during the Reformation, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, largely
through the doctrine of Calvinism and, during the Enlightenment, the evolution of
WKHFRQFHSW³ZRUN´::±³/HLVXUH´LQHDUO\WUDYHOZULWLQJDERXW6RXWK
Africa, on the other hand, is the preserve of the bourgeoisie during this period:
“Leisure holds the promise of the generation of all those differences that constitute
FXOWXUHDQGPDNHPDQ$QWKURSRORJLFDO0DQLGOHQHVVKROGVQRSURPLVHVDYHWKDW
RI VWDVLV´ :: 7KH UKHWRULF RI LGOHQHVV SURSDJDWHG GXULQJ WKH (XURSHDQ
Enlightenment is uncritically mapped in the Discourse of the Cape of early
travel writing so that the indigenous people’s active refusal to enter the colonial
HPSOR\PHQW V\VWHP LV RYHUORRNHG :: ,PSRUWDQWO\ &RHW]HH DUJXHV ³ROG
FRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNV´ZHUHLQDGHTXDWHIRUWKLVQHZVLWXDWLRQ::0LFKDHO
Moses draws on Rousseau’s Reveries to compare Michael K to Rousseau’s “solitary
ZDONHU´7KLV OHDGV 0RVHV WR UHDG ³LGOHQHVV´ DV D SHULRG RI UHYHULH UDWKHU WKDQ
84
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
VORWK³/LNH5RXVVHDX0LFKDHO.¿QGVWKDWKLVH[LVWHQWLDOVXEPHUVLRQLQWKHF\FOH
of the days and seasons, his sense of an endlessly repeating present, produces in
KLPDIHHOLQJRIXWWHUFRQWHQWPHQW´³6ROLWDU\:DONHUV´
0LFKDHO.¶VUHWUHDWWRWKHYHOGZKLFKOLNH.DIND¶V+XQJHU$UWLVWLQYRNHV-HVXV¶V
forty days in the wilderness, brings him close to death and to an enlightenment (“A
+XQJHU$UWLVW´3DOEHLWRIIDLOXUHKLVHUHPLWLFOLIHXQOLNH&UXVRH¶VLVQRWD
WLPHRIPDVWHU\RIVSDFHIRUKHUHDOL]HVGROHIXOO\WKDW³,OHWP\VHOIEHOLHYHWKDW
this was one of those islands without an owner. Now I am learning the truth. Now
,DPOHDUQLQJP\OHVVRQ´0.
Michael K sets about writing the land, not only through the inversion of
&UXVRH¶VFRQTXHVWRIWLPHDQGVSDFHEXWDOVRWKURXJKWKHLQYHUVLRQRIWKHLGHRORJ\
XQGHUSLQQLQJWKH$IULNDQHUplaasroman or farm novel. In the plaasroman, rather
WKDQWXUQLQJWRWKH$IULFDQ³ZLOGHUQHVV´RUQDWXUHWKHZULWHUIRFXVHVRQDQRVWDOJLF
UHWXUQWRWKH³FKLOGKRRGIDUP´::ZLWKLWVLPSOLHGFODLPRQWKHODQG)RU
WKH$IULNDQHU&RHW]HHREVHUYHVWKH³IDUPUDWKHUWKDQQDWXUHKRZHYHUUHJLRQDOO\
GH¿QHGLVFRQFHLYHGDVWKHVDFUDOSODFHZKHUHWKHVRXOFDQH[SDQGLQIUHHGRP´
::7KHIDUPLVW\SLFDOO\WKH³VRXUFHRIPHDQLQJ´WRZKLFKWKHQDUUDWLYH
SURJUHVVHV::WKHVRXUFHWRZKLFK0LFKDHO.LVMRXUQH\LQJ,Q8\V.ULJH¶V
SRHP³3ODDVKHNÍDUPJDWH4 for instance, Coetzee argues,
The wanderer return[s] to the farm where he was born and experienc[es] in the
act of opening the farm gate the same intimation of a return to the true self and
primitive moral sources that Wordsworth feels in returning to the dales and fells.
::
,Q KLV TXHVW IRU PHDQLQJ H[SHULHQFLQJ VXFK DQ HSLSKDQ\ 0LFKDHO . ZULWHV
XSRQWKHODQGE\JDUGHQLQJUDWKHUWKDQIDUPLQJKLVVHHGV0.DQGUHOLVKHV
VXEVLVWLQJRIIWKHODQG0.+HIDLOVIXOO\WRUHDOL]HKLVYLVLRQKRZHYHUVLQFH
KHHDWVIURPDWURXJKRQ³FUXVKHGPHDOLHVDQGERQHPHDO´>0.@*DUGHQLQJ
HYRNHV³WKH-XGDHR&KULVWLDQP\WKRI(GHQ´::EXWWKLVLVWKH*DUGHQWKDW
LQ (XURSHDQ H\HV KDV GHJHQHUDWHG LQWR ZKDW &RHW]HH FDOOV DQ ³DQWL*DUGHQ´
³ZKHUHWKHZLOGHUQHVVWDNHVURRWRQFHDJDLQLQPHQ¶VKHDUWV´::
Although Michael K symbolically reclaims the Visagie farmland, he prefers
WR HNH RXW D IHUDO H[LVWHQFH LQ KLV EXUURZ UDWKHU WKDQ LQ WKH GHUHOLFW IDUPKRXVH
DEDQGRQHGE\LWVIRUPHURZQHUV'XULQJWKHFRXUVHRIKLVMRXUQH\ZKLFKLVERWK
SK\VLFDODQGPHWDSK\VLFDOKHOHDUQVWRDSSUHFLDWHWKH6RXWK$IULFDQODQGVFDSH
in African terms rather than in the mode which his employment as a gardener has
tutored him. Coetzee’s device is one of counterpoint and inversion: the land as
¿JXUHGLQHDUO\ZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQOLWHUDWXUHZKLFKLVSUHVHQWHGLQDQDUUDWLYHRU
chronological form, is revised spatially into scenes which capture description. What
3
,Q.DIND¶VSDUDEOH³$+XQJHU$UWLVW´WKHSURWDJRQLVWPDNHVDSURIHVVLRQRIIDVWLQJ
+LVIDVWVZKLFKUHQGHUKLVERG\VSHFWDFXODUDOZD\VODVWIRUW\GD\V
4
0\WKDQNVWR.DL(DVWRQIRUWKLVWUDQVODWLRQ
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
85
&RHW]HHFDOOVWKH³'LVFRXUVHRIWKH&DSH´ZKLFKDVZLWKDOOGLVFRXUVHLVLQKHUHQWO\
normative, not surprisingly creates “Eurocentric conceptual schemes in favour of
DVFKHPHEDVHGRQQDWLYHFRQFHSWXDOFDWHJRULHV´DQGEHFRPHV³PHUH narrative
rather than a comprehensive description´ :: &RHW]HH HODERUDWHV ³7KH
FULSSOLQJZHDNQHVVRIDQWKURSRORJLFDOQDUUDWLYHDVFRPSDUHGZLWKDQWKURSRORJLFDO
GHVFULSWLRQLVWKDWLQUHYHUWLQJWRFKURQRORJLFDOVHTXHQFHLWIRUJRHVDFFHVVWRWKH
DFKURQRORJLFDOVSDWLDO*RG¶VH\HRUJDQL]DWLRQRIFDWHJRULFDOGHVFULSWLRQ´::
7KHDSSURSULDWLRQRI.DIND¶VXVHRIWHQVHWRGLVUXSWOLQHDUWLPHRYHUFRPHV
this problem as Michael K inserts himself into the ecology of the land. In the veld
0LFKDHO.GLVSOD\VDQDI¿QLW\IRUKLVHQYLURQPHQWZKHQKHOLNHQVKLPVHOIWR³D
WHUPLWHERULQJLWVZD\WKURXJKDURFN´0.D³VSHFNXSRQWKHVXUIDFHRIDQ
HDUWKWRRGHHSO\DVOHHSWRQRWLFHWKHVFUDWFKRIDQWIHHWWKHUDVSRIEXWWHUÀ\WHHWK
WKHWXPEOLQJRIGXVW´0.³OLNHDÀRZHU´0.D³SDUDVLWHGR]LQJLQWKH
JXW´D³OL]DUGXQGHUDVWRQH´0.5HMHFWLQJWKHFRORQL]HU¶VSURMHFWRIODQG
DFTXLVLWLRQ³KHFRXOGQRWLPDJLQHKLPVHOIVSHQGLQJKLVOLIHGULYLQJVWDNHVLQWRWKH
JURXQGHUHFWLQJIHQFHVGLYLGLQJXSWKHODQG´>0.@KHEHFRPHVK\SHUDZDUH
of his habitat, and exists, if only temporarily, in symbiosis with it.
Coetzee effects an anti-pastoral moment in Life & Times when, alone in the
ZLOGHUQHVVRIWKHYHOG0LFKDHO.UHDOL]HVWKDW:\QEHUJ3DUNZKHUHKHKDGEHHQ
HPSOR\HGODQG³WDPHGÉ\WKHFRORQL]HULV³PRUHYHJHWDOWKDQPLQHUDO«,KDYH
ORVW P\ ORYH IRU WKDW NLQG RI HDUWK « ,W LV QR ORQJHU WKH JUHHQV DQG WKH EURZQ
WKDW,ZDQWEXWWKH\HOORZDQGWKHUHG´0LFKDHO.¶VGD\VLQWKHYHOGWHDFKKLP
to read the landscape in a different way, beyond the Eurocentric schema to which
KLVH\HKDVEHHQWUDLQHG³,DPEHFRPLQJDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIPDQ´0.7KLV
reading is lent weight by Moses’s comparison of Michael K to Rousseau’s solitary
ZDONHULQFRQWHPSODWLYHPRRGZKLFKQRQHWKHOHVVLPSOLFLWO\\RNHV0LFKDHO.WR
WKHLPDJHRIWKH1REOH6DYDJH³,Q>DQ@DWHPSRUDOVWDWHWKHVROLWDU\ZDONHU¿QGV
WKDWKHFDQHQMR\Dprimordial experience which is covered over and hidden from
KLPZKHQKHOLYHVLQVRFLHW\WKHSXUHDQGUDUH¿HGVHQVDWLRQRIPHUHO\H[LVWLQJ´
HPSKDVLVDGGHG³6ROLWDU\:DONHUV´
On a secondary allegorical level, the garden is an antidote to the prescriptive
UHTXLUHPHQWVRIFXOWXUHGXULQJWKHDSDUWKHLGHUD0LFKDHO.HQYLVDJHVWKHJXHUULOOD
soldiers who pass through the farm telling him that the time has come when energies
VKRXOGEHFKDQQHOOHGLQWRZDUZRUNQRWSUHWWLI\LQJWKHODQGVFDSH$QDORJRXVO\DUW
ZDVH[SHFWHGWRVKRZ³UHOHYDQFHDQGFRPPLWPHQW´WKRXJK*RUGLPHUWRZKRP
this mantra is ascribed, was herself opposed to conforming to orthodoxies of
conformity, even in anti-apartheid writing (Essential Gesture7KH0HGLFDO
2I¿FHULQKLVIUXLWOHVVDWWHPSWVWRSHUVXDGH0LFKDHO.WR³\LHOGKLVVWRU\´RIIHUV
an alternative meaning:
The garden for which you are presently heading is nowhere and everywhere
except in the camps. It is another name for the only place where you belong …
where you do not feel homeless. It is off every map, no road leads to it that is
PHUHO\DURDGDQGRQO\\RXNQRZWKHZD\
86
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
)RU WKH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU 0LFKDHO .¶V ³VDFUHG DQG DOOXULQJ´ JDUGHQ ³SURGXFHV
WKHIRRGRIOLIH´QDPHO\IUHHGRP0.+LVZRUGVUHFDOO.DIND¶VSDUDEOH
³0\ 'HVWLQDWLRQ´ ZKRVH SURWDJRQLVW VHWV RXW RQ D MRXUQH\ WR UHDFK ³$ZD\
)URP+HUHWKDWLVP\GHVWLQDWLRQ´VXJJHVWLYHRIDVSLULWXDOTXHVWIRUVHOI³0\
'HVWLQDWLRQ´
7KHPRWLIVRIJDUGHQLQJDQGIDUPLQJDUHWKHUHIRUHLQÀHFWHGE\WKRVHRIIRRG
DQG KXQJHU FRQ¿JXUHG LQ WKH SRVWFRORQLDO WRSRV RI ZULWLQJ WKH ERG\ :KHQ
Michael K spreads the ashes of his mother, fertilizing the ground where he will
SODQWKLVSXPSNLQVHHGVKH³EHJLQVKLVOLIHDVDFXOWLYDWRU´0.DQGLWLVIURP
this point that he begins to resist the authoring of his body:
It is because I am a gardener, he thought, because that is my nature … The
LPSXOVHWRSODQWKDGEHHQUHDZRNHQLQKLPQRZ«KHIRXQGKLVZDNLQJOLIH
bound tightly to the patch of earth he had begun to cultivate and the seeds he had
SODQWHGWKHUH0.
From severing the maternal bond through death springs Michael K’s inscription
RQ WKH ODQG KLV SURJHQ\ RI IUXLWV UHFODLPHG DV DQ $IULFDQ (GHQ RI WKH NLQG
Pauline Smith depicts in The BeadleDQGWKDW&RHW]HHODEHOVXWRSLDQDQGDQ
XQDWWDLQDEOHLGHDO::±$NLQWR0LFKDHO.¶VUHODWLRQWRKLVPRWKHUWKLV
ERQGPXVWEHVHYHUHG7KH³WH[W´±KHUH0LFKDHO.¶VFURS±LVWKXVUHOHDVHGIURP
WKHERQGVRIDXWKRUVKLSFRQ¿JXUHGLQ0LFKDHO.³7KHUHZDVDFRUGRIWHQGHUQHVV
WKDWVWUHWFKHGIURPKLPWRWKHSDWFKRIHDUWKEHVLGHWKHGDPWKDWPXVWEHFXW´0.
,QHYLWDEO\0LFKDHO.ZLOOHDWKLV³FKLOGUHQ´MXVWDVWKHSUHVHQFHRIKLVPRWKHU
consumed him. Overriding the patriarchal notion of fathering stories, Michael K
LVPRWKHUWRKLVWH[WZKLOHKHLVHQWKUDOOHGZLWKHDWLQJWKHÀHVKRIWKHIUXLWVRIKLV
ODERXUDQGRI0RWKHU(DUWKKHUHMHFWVWKHIRRGRIWKH)DWKHUUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKH
war, the law, the State, the institution and authorship.
,W LV LQ &RHW]HH¶V LQWHUWH[WV ³$ +XQJHU $UWLVW´ DQG ³7KH +XQJHU 6WULNH´
recalled in the burrow scenes, that the motifs of writing, food and fasting converge.
Michael K expresses autonomy by means of his physicality. Indeed, he cultivates
his position of alterity: his body becomes increasingly insubstantial as he forgets
RUPRUHSURSHUO\ORVHVWKHZLOOWRHDW.DIND¶V³7KH+XQJHU6WULNH´RSHQVZLWK
the words: “The most insatiable people are certain ascetics, who go on hungerVWULNH LQ DOO VSKHUHV RI OLIH WKLQNLQJ WKDW LQ WKLV ZD\ WKH\ ZLOO VLPXOWDQHRXVO\
DFKLHYHWKHIROORZLQJ´³7KH+XQJHU6WULNH´FRXQVHOVWKDWLWLVWKHwill to
starve – a philosophy of fasting – that is paramount in the desire to fast, rather
WKDQWKHDFWRIIDVWLQJLWVHOI0LFKDHO.WKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUEHOLHYHVKXQJHUV
³IRUDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIIRRGIRRGWKDWQRFDPSFRXOGVXSSO\´DQGVLJQL¿HGE\
WKHFURSRIPHORQVDQGSXPSNLQV0LFKDHO.KDVQXUWXUHGWKLVLVWKH³EUHDGRI
IUHHGRP´0.±.DIND¶V³0\'HVWLQDWLRQ´ sheds light on Michael
K’s spiritual sustenance:
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
87
³<RX KDYH QR SURYLVLRQV ZLWK \RX´ >WKH VHUYDQW@ VDLG ³, QHHG QRQH´ , >WKH
0DVWHU@ VDLG ³WKH MRXUQH\ LV VR ORQJ WKDW , PXVW GLH RI KXQJHU LI , GRQ¶W JHW
anything on the way. No provisions can save me. For it is, fortunately, a truly
LPPHQVHMRXUQH\´³0\'HVWLQDWLRQ´
7KH 0DVWHU XQGHUVWDQGV KLV MRXUQH\ LQ OLWHUDO WHUPV DV DQ HWHUQDO MRXUQH\
WHPSRUDOO\DQGVSDWLDOO\DQGWKHUHIRUHKLVVNHZHGVHQVHRIORJLFWHOOVKLPQR
DPRXQWRIIRRGFRXOGSRVVLEO\VXVWDLQKLP2IFRXUVH³KHUH´DOZD\VWUDYHOVZLWK
XVVRLWLVDQLQ¿QLWHPHWDSK\VLFDOMRXUQH\DQGSHUKDSVLWZLOOWDNHDVORQJIRUWKH
Master to realize it.
.DIND¶VKXQJHUDUWLVWOLNH0LFKDHO.³ZLWKGUDZ>V@GHHSLQWRKLPVHOISD\LQJ
QR DWWHQWLRQ WR DQ\RQH RU DQ\WKLQJ QRW HYHQ WR WKH DOOLPSRUWDQW VWULNLQJ RI
WKHFORFN´³+XQJHU$UWLVW´/LNH0LFKDHO.XQGHUWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHU¶V
ZDWFKIXO JD]H WKH KXQJHU DUWLVW LV REMHFWL¿HG DV D VSHFWDFOH RI IDVWLQJ DQG KH
eventually dies unnoticed. His withered corpse is replaced by a panther whose
vital, “noble body, furnished almost to the bursting point with all that it needed,
VHHPHGWRFDUU\IUHHGRPDURXQGZLWKLWWRR´+LVGHDWKLVEURXJKWDERXW
ironically, because his body is no longer spectacular, though he is on display
LQ KLV FDJH IRU DOO WR VHH$V LQ WKH ÀDZHG SUHPLVH RI OLEHUDO LGHQWLW\ SROLWLFV
%URZQ³:RXQGHG$WWDFKPHQWV´KHLVSDWKRORJLFDOO\GH¿QHGQXUWXUHGDQG
VXEMHFWHGE\KLVRZQRSSUHVVLRQ
:KLOH $WWZHOO VXJJHVWV WKDW &RHW]HH WXUQV WR .DIND¶V ³$ +XQJHU $UWLVW´
IRU 0LFKDHO .¶V ³SURGLJLRXV FDSDFLW\ IRU VXUYLYDO´ '3 SDUDGR[LFDOO\ DV
0HULYDOHFRQWHQGVDVD³µ+XQJHU$UWLVW¶0LFKDHO.VKDSHVKLVEHLQJE\QHJDWLQJ
LWE\OLYLQJPLQLPDOO\E\DFFHSWLQJQRIRRG´³$XGLEOH3DOLPSVHVWV´$V
0LFKDHO.VHWVWRZRUN³ZLWKWKHEXVLQHVVRIPDNLQJDGZHOOLQJ´0.±
at the same time he begins to lose his sense of hunger: “Hunger was a sensation
KH GLG QRW IHHO DQG EDUHO\ UHPHPEHUHG ,I KH DWH HDWLQJ ZKDW KH FRXOG ¿QG LW
ZDVEHFDXVHKHKDGQRW\HWVKDNHQRIIWKHEHOLHIWKDWERGLHVWKDWGRQRWHDWGLH´
0.0LFKDHO.¶VORVVRIKXQJHUUDWKHUWKDQRIDSSHWLWHLVLQGLFDWLYHRIKLV
ODFNRIwillWRVWDUYHKLPVHOIWRVWULNH3DUDGR[LFDOO\KLVYHU\UHVLVWDQFHWRHDWLQJ
¿JXUHVDPLQLPDOOHYHORIDXWRQRP\HYHQLIRQO\QHJDWLYHO\¿UVWO\E\IRUJHWWLQJ
WRHDWZKHQOLYLQJRQWKHYHOGZKHUHKHDOVRORVHVWUDFNRIWLPHDQGVHFRQGO\
E\ UHIXVLQJ IRRG LQ WKH SULVRQ KRVSLWDO7KH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU LPDJLQHV ZDUQLQJ
Michael K: “The laws are made of iron, Michaels, I hope you are learning that. No
PDWWHUKRZWKLQ\RXPDNH\RXUVHOIWKH\ZLOOQRWUHOD[7KHUHLVQRKRPHOHIWIRU
XQLYHUVDOVRXOV´0.,WPLJKWQRWEHWRRIDUIHWFKHGWRVXJJHVWWKDWLQWKLV
appeal to universalism through the representation of a liberal character who is so
REYLRXVO\FULWLTXHG&RHW]HHDQWLFLSDWHVWKRVHFULWLFVZKRFRQGHPQKLPIRUDODFN
of political vision.
In Freudian terms, the Father – the iron laws, the institution, authorship – is
DEMHFWHG E\ 0LFKDHO . WKURXJK KLV UHMHFWLRQ RI IRRG RU WKH IRRG RI WKH 6WDWH
Instead, he aspires to live off the land, eating only the food of Mother Nature.
+XQJHUZKLFKV\PEROL]HVKLVLQVXEVWDQWLDOLW\LVDVWDWH0LFKDHO.KDVNQRZQ
88
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
VLQFHFKLOGKRRGKLVZLOOKDVDFTXLHVFHGWRSDVVLYLW\³7KHQKHKDGJURZQROGHU
and stopped wanting. Whatever the nature of the beast that had howled inside
KLP LW ZDV VWDUYHG LQWR VWLOOQHVV´ 0. (DWLQJ LV H[SOLFLWO\ LQYHVWHG ZLWK
power in the text since it is employed as an analogue for the colonial relation:
WKHLQPDWHVDW-DNNDOVGULIDUHFRPSDUHGE\DSROLFHFDSWDLQWRD³QHVWRISDUDVLWHV
KDQJLQJIURPWKHQHDWVXQOLWWRZQHDWLQJLWVVXEVWDQFH´0LFKDHO.RQWKHRWKHU
KDQG ³O\LQJ LGOH LQ KLV EHG´ VHHV EH\RQG WKH UDFLVP LPSOLHG LQ WKH FDSWDLQ¶V
words because “it was no longer obvious which was host and which parasite,
FDPSRUWRZQ´0.
:ULWLQJGHDWKWKHDEMHFWLRQRIIRRGDQGUHVLVWDQFHWRWLPHDUHHTXLYDOHQFHV
LQ 0LFKDHO .¶V UHVLVWDQFH WR FODVVL¿FDWLRQ IRU DV WKH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU ZDUQV
him,
You are going to die, and your story is going to die too, forever and ever, unless
you come to your senses and listen to me… . We have all tumbled over the lip
into the cauldron of history … only you … have managed to live in the old way,
drifting through time … no more trying to change the course of history than a
grain of sand does… The truth is that you are going to perish in obscurity … and
no one is going to remember you but me, unless you yield and at last open your
mouth. I appeal to you Michaels: yield0.±
%\WKHYDULRXVPHDQVVNHWFKHGDERYH0LFKDHO.DXWKRUVKLVRZQERG\DERG\WKDW
FRORQLDODQGDSDUWKHLGGLVFRXUVHKDYHVRXJKWWRLQVFULEHGH¿QHDQGUHJXODWH)RU
0LFKDHO.WRKDYHPHDQLQJLPSORUHVWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUKHPXVWUHOLQTXLVKKLV
VWRU\RWKHUZLVHKHZLOOGLHIRUJRWWHQIRUKHZLOOVXUHO\GLH0LFKDHO.UHSUHVHQWV
ERWKWKHDEVHQFHVLQWKHWH[WDVWKH³KROHLQWKHQDUUDWLYH´0.±)
and its very existence, as text. Michael K’s silence might be explained by Laura
Wright’s suggestion that language is “the medium of communication that cannot
be trusted as it problematizes access to the narrative of suffering whose text is the
ERG\´Writing
It is from the authority suffering bestows, claims Coetzee, that the body in pain
GHULYHVLWVSRZHUIRUWKHSDLQRIWKHERG\FDQQRWEHGLVSXWHG'30LFKDHO
K’s resistance to time, to the food of the State and to the land, all regulated by
apartheid and apartheid discourse, also constitutes his resistance to writing, even
if apartheid’s metaphorical writing the body. Michael K therefore not only resists
being read, he also resists writing his story under the conditions of apartheid, which
DOZD\VXQWLOQRZZDVWKHVWRU\SHQQHGE\WKHRSSUHVVRU8QOLNH&UXVRHLQ'HIRH¶V
QRYHOKHKDVQRGHVLUHWROHDYHKLVVWRU\WRSRVWHULW\MXVWDVKHKDVQRGHVLUHWR
remember his days in the veld because, according to this logic, writing would
entail bending to the very ideology that oppresses him: “There will be not a grain
OHIWEHDULQJP\PDUNV´0.:KDWLVPRUH0LFKDHO.LVFRQVFLRXVRIWKH
³ODFN´KHHPERGLHV³$OZD\VZKHQKHWULHGWRH[SODLQKLPVHOIWRKLPVHOIWKHUH
remained a gap, a hole … His was always a story with a hole in it: a wrong story,
DOZD\VZURQJ´0.±$OWKRXJK0LFKDHO.VLJQL¿HVDEVHQFHDQGDWURSK\
Cultivating the Margins in the Trial of Michael K
89
SDUDGR[LFDOO\WKLVODFNOLNH:HEHUQ¶VVLOHQFHVLVLWVHOIVXEVWDQWLDO0LFKDHO.¶V
KXQJHU±DNLQGRIDWURSK\±LVWKHKXQJHUIRURQWRORJLFDOPHDQLQJIRUDVHQVHRI
SXUSRVHLQDWLPHRIKLVWRULFDOFULVLV,WLVWKHVLOHQFHVHQMR\HGE\WKHSULYLOHJHGZKR
FDQH[WULFDWHWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKHFKDRVRIWKH³QRZÉ\³IHQFH>LQJ@WKHPVHOYHV
LQZLWKPLOHVDQGPLOHVRIVLOHQFH´WKDWKHHQYLVDJHVEHTXHDWKLQJWRKLVSURJHQ\
0.
,WGDZQVXSRQWKH0HGLFDO2I¿FHUWKDWKHKDVEHHQPLVUHDGLQJ0LFKDHO.DOO
along. He
began to see the originality of the resistance you [Michael K] offered. You were
not a hero and did not pretend to be, not even a hero of fasting. In fact you did
not resist at all … you had failed because you had exhausted your resources of
REH\LQJXV0.
)L[DWHG RQ XQFRYHULQJ WKH WUXWK DERXW 0LFKDHO . WKH 0HGLFDO 2I¿FHU SXUVXHV
³WUXWKV´ ³0LFKDHOV PHDQV VRPHWKLQJ DQG WKH PHDQLQJ KH KDV LV QRW SULYDWH
WR PH´ :LWK D JURZLQJ HWKLFDO DZDUHQHVV KRZHYHU KH DFNQRZOHGJHV WKDW WKH
meaning of Michael K should not illuminate his own shortcomings or his “hunger
IRUEHOLHI´0.
Without offering narrative closure, Coetzee chooses to end the novel with a
parable: imagining a homecoming to the war-torn farm, Michael K envisages
subsisting using a teaspoon to draw water from a well. He “would lower it down
the shaft deep into the earth, and when he brought it up there would be water in
WKHERZORIWKHVSRRQDQGLQWKDWZD\KHZRXOGVD\RQHFDQOLYH´0.±
7KXVKHFRQWHPSODWHVOLYLQJLQDPLQLPDOLVWIDVKLRQWDNLQJIURPWKHHDUWK
RQO\WKDWZKLFKKHUHTXLUHVWRVXEVLVW%\VPDOOGHHGVFRPHWKHZLOOWRH[SDQVLYH
gestures. As Head points out, the narrative is drawn full-circle with this motif,
“since it was a teaspoon with which the infant hare-lipped Michael K was fed,
DJDLQE\ZD\RILPSURYLVDWLRQ´HQIRUFLQJ0LFKDHO.¶VUHVLVWDQFHPHUHO\WKURXJK
being (J. M. Coetzee3UHVHQWHGDVDIXWXUHLQWKHSDVWWKHSDVVDJHUHIXVHVWR
disclose Michael K’s end, his probable death.
$OWKRXJKFULWLFVOLNH*RUGLPHUDUHULJKWWRDUJXHWKDWLife & Times privileges
SULYDWHGHVWLQ\RYHUSROLWLFDOHQGHDYRXULQWKH¿JXUHRI0LFKDHO.VXFKFULWLFV
RQ DQRWKHU OHYHO DUH DOVR PLVVLQJ WKH SRLQW ,Q D ERRN WKDW ³DGURLWO\ FRQIXVHV´
its reader through its self-diminishing allegories, the powerful achievement of
Life & TimesLVLWVSUHVFLHQWDXWRFULWLTXHZRUNWKDWLVQHFHVVDU\LIRSSRVLWLRQDO
discourses, ones that are truly interventionist, are to remain credible. Ahmad,
in his challenging analysis of Jameson’s national allegory, comes to the painful
UHDOL]DWLRQWKDWRQUHDGLQJ-DPHVRQ¶V³$OOWKLUGZRUOGWH[WVDUHQHFHVVDULO\«´
³ZKDWZDVEHLQJWKHRUL]HGZDVDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVP\VHOI´³-DPHVRQ¶V5KHWRULF´
±,QLife & Times, attempts are self-consciously staged to theorize Michael K
DV³7KLUG:RUOG´VXEMHFW+LVEHOLHIWKDW³3HUKDSVWKHWUXWKLVWKDWLWLVHQRXJKWR
be out of the camps … [p]erhaps that is enough of an achievement for the time
EHLQJ´VLJQDOVQRWRQO\DQH[LJHQWUHVLVWDQFHWRVWDWHUHJXODWLRQEXWDOVRWRWKH
90
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
GLVFRXUVHVLQZKLFKDVWKHHPERGLPHQWRIVRFLDODOLHQDWLRQKHLQHYLWDEO\¿QGV
KLPVHOI ZULWWHQ +LV UHVLVWDQFH LV FUHGLEOH LI DV &RHW]HH ZULWLQJ DERXW -DFTXHV
Rousseau’s Confessions, says, “what is held back«>LV@NH\WRIUHHGRP´³7UXWK´
:K\thisDFWLYLW\RIZLWKKROGLQJLVLPSRUWDQWIRUWKHRUL]LQJWKH³7KLUG:RUOG´
which, according to Jameson, is built upon the crippling dynamic of subalternity
LQIHULRULW\PDUJLQDOLW\VXERUGLQDWLRQLV,EHOLHYHPDQLIHVW
Chapter 5
Bodying Forth the Other:
)ULGD\DQGWKH³'LVFXUVLYH6LWXDWLRQ´LQFoe
,Q ³7KH 7H[W WKH :RUOG WKH &ULWLF´ (GZDUG 6DLG SXWV IRUZDUG WKH DXGDFLRXV
proposition that:
Texts are fundamentally facts of power, not of democratic exchange. They
compel attention away from the world even as their beginning intention as
texts, coupled with the inherent authoritarianism of the authorial authority (the
repetition in this phrase is a deliberate emphasis on some tautology within all
WH[WV VLQFH DOO WH[WV DUH LQ VRPH ZD\ VHOIFRQ¿UPDWRU\ PDNHV IRU VXVWDLQHG
SRZHU±
- 0 &RHW]HH¶V ¿IWK QRYHO Foe RQH RI KLV PRVW PHWD¿FWLRQDO WR GDWH
GHFRQVWUXFWVWKLV³GLVFXUVLYHVLWXDWLRQ´ZKLFKDV6DLGFODUL¿HV³IDUIURPEHLQJ
DW\SHRILG\OOLFFRQYHUVDWLRQEHWZHHQHTXDOV>DV5LFRHXUZRXOGKDYHLW@LVPRUH
XVXDOO\ RI D NLQG W\SL¿HG E\ WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRORQL]HU DQG FRORQL]HG WKH
RSSUHVVRUDQGWKHRSSUHVVHG´³7H[W´±,QWKLVYHLQWKHUHDGHURIFoe is
called upon to be mistrustingly mindful of the relationship between author and text.
$V&RHW]HHSXWVLW³µWKHQDWXUHDQGSURFHVVHVRI¿FWLRQ¶PD\DOVREHFDOOHGWKH
TXHVWLRQRIwho writes":KRWDNHVXSWKHSRVLWLRQRISRZHUSHQLQKDQG"´TWGLQ
Kossew 7KLV³GLVFXUVLYHVLWXDWLRQ´LVUHDOL]HGLQFoe, as I will argue, in the
¿JXUHRI)ULGD\DFKDUDFWHUERUURZHGIURP'DQLHO'HIRH¶VFODVVLFIDEOHRobinson
Crusoe\HWSDUDGR[LFDOO\)ULGD\DOVRUHVLVWVEHLQJ¿JXUHGLQGLVFRXUVH
He is a substantial body not simply the substance of a story. (For the purposes of
P\DUJXPHQWVXEVWDQFHZLOOFRQQRWHGLVFXUVLYH³ZRUOGOLQHVV´DQGVXEVWDQWLDOLW\
ZLOOFRQQRWHERGLO\PDWHULDOLW\&UXVRWKH³H´GLVDSSHDUVLQ&RHW]HH¶VYHUVLRQ
also features and the name of a third protagonist, Susan Barton, is derived from the
KHURLQH5R[DQDLQDQRWKHURI'HIRH¶VZRUNVRoxanaZKRVHUHDOQDPHLV
Susan. Roxana’s daughter is also named Susan. In Coetzee’s Robinsonade, Cruso
VWUXJJOHVWRPRXOG)ULGD\DVFRORQLDOVXEMHFWKHLVVHHPLQJO\XWWHUO\VXEMHFWHG
ZKHUHDV%DUWRQVHWVKHUVHOIWKHWDVNRIUHOHDVLQJKLPIURPKLVERQGV<HWFUXFLDOO\
she misconstrues his bodily substantiality for his substance as story: he is nothing,
she believes, until his is fashioned in discourse.1
1
%DUEDUD (FNVWHLQ PDNHV D UHDGLQJ RI ³VXEVWDQFH´ LQ Foe, but reads a substance/
VXEMHFWGLDOHFWLFLQWRWKHWH[WFROODSVLQJVXEVWDQFHZLWKVXEVWDQWLDOLW\6KHZULWHV³,VRODWHG
with Foe’s writing tools, Barton fears that as storyteller she is part of the story and not
92
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
.H\WRXQORFNLQJWKHVHFUHWVLOHQFHVLQFoe, including the silence of authorial
erasure, is an understanding of how Coetzee, in the tradition of postcolonial
ZULWLQJ³XQZULWHV´KLVFRORQLDOLQWHUWH[WVEXWDOVRKRZWKHVHWH[WVLPSLQJHXSRQ
HDFKRWKHU2IFRXUVHWKHUHLVDGDQJHULQ³XQZULWLQJV´VXFKDVWKLVDV-RKQ0DU[
points out, that they will “tend to reinforce the centrality of Western writing by
GHIDXOW´DQGWKLVLVDSUREOHPWKDWDQXPEHURIFULWLFVKDYHSLFNHGXSRQLQWKHLU
readings of Foe. Marx concludes, nevertheless, that “treating canonical texts
DV D VRXUFH RI UDZ PDWHULDO FRXOG QRW KHOS EXW WUDQVIRUP WKHP´ ³3RVWFRORQLDO
/LWHUDWXUH´
6KLSZUHFNHG RQ D GHVRODWH DQG XQLGHQWL¿HG LVODQG LQKDELWHG RQO\ E\ &UXVR
and Friday, Barton is designated the main narrator of FoeVKHQDUUDWHVWKH¿UVW
WKUHHRIIRXUSDUWVZKLOVW&UXVRWKHHVVHQWLDOFRORQL]HULQRobinson Crusoe, is
relegated to the margins of Coetzee’s story: not only is he supplanted by Barton
as narrator and author of the adventure, he also dies in the early stages of the
QDUUDWLYH QHYHU PDNLQJ WKH LGHRORJLFDOO\ DOOLPSRUWDQW MRXUQH\ KRPH ,I WKH
island motif provides what Peter Hulme calls “a simplifying crucible in which
FRPSOH[LWLHVFDQEHUHGXFHGWRWKHLUHVVHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWV´DSODFHWR³FRPSRVH´
the self (Colonial EncountersLWLV&UXVRH¶VUHFRQVWLWXWHGVHOIWKDWmust
UHWXUQKRPHWR(QJODQGWRIXO¿OWKHFRORQL]LQJSURPLVH&UXVRHRIFRXUVHZLOO
JRRQWRKDYHIXUWKHUFRORQLDODGYHQWXUHVLQIDUÀXQJSODFHV,QFoe not only is
&UXVR LPSOLFDWHG LQ WKLV LGHQWLW\ ZRUN EXW %DUWRQ DQG )ULGD\ ± ZKR LQ 'HIRH
VHUYHVWKH(QOLJKWHQPHQWSURMHFWRIRIIVHWWLQJWKHHSRQ\PRXV³PRGHUQ´&UXVRH±
are too. (It is therefore unsurprising then that Foe has invited a number of feminist
DVZHOODVSRVWFRORQLDOLVWUHDGLQJV1RWXQOLNHWKHVWUXFWXUHRIWKHVWRU\IDYRXUHG
E\&RHW]HH¶VDXWKRU)RH'HIRHPLQXVWKHSUHWHQWLRXVSUH¿[ZKLFKLVWKHVWRU\
of Barton’s lost daughter, in Robinson Crusoe the story of the island is merely one
part of the larger narrative. As Benita Parry points out, “Crusoe [in Defoe’s novel]
… has a life before and after his years on the island, and the story of this rehearses
WKHVWDJHVRIFRORQLDOLVPSULRUWRIRUPDOHPSLUH´FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\DQ³DJJUHVVLYH
PHUFDQWLOLVPÝLUXOHQWO\VXSSRUWHGE\WKHVODYHWUDGHDQGFRORQLDORXWSRVWVLQ$VLD
and Latin America (“Robinson Crusoe´QSDJ
As in Defoe’s version, Friday is Cruso’s slave, but the nature of this colonial
encounter departs from its source in a number of important ways. Robinson Crusoe
SURYLGHVXVZLWKWKHFRORQLDOHQFRXQWHUZKLFKLVWKHVWXIIRIWKH³P\WKLFEHJLQQLQJ´
+XOPH)ULGD\IDPRXVO\VXEMHFWVKLPVHOIE\SODFLQJKLVKHDGXQGHU&UXVRH¶V
foot. When Barton arrives on the island in Foe Friday is by now enslaved, colonial
violence already done, with the effect, problematically, of essentializing Friday
DVVODYHEHFDXVHZHNQRZQRWKLQJRIKLVOLIHEHIRUH&KRRVLQJWRGRDZD\ZLWK
a being with substance. Closing her eyes she tries to send to Foe a vision of the island
ZKLFKLVµDsubstantialERG\¶)DQGHQWUHDWVKLPWRUHWXUQKHUsubstanceWRKHU)
,QKHUVWUXJJOHVKHUHWDLQVKHUGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQVLOHQFHDQGVWRU\±µDVWRULQJSODFHRI
PHPRULHV¶)±DQGDGGVWRLWWKLVGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQsubstance and story´HPSKDVLV
DGGHG³,FRQLFLW\´QSDJ
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
93
the myth of beginnings, Coetzee refocuses the story on the silences that envelop
Friday. Perhaps most crucially, the Friday of Robinson CrusoeQRWRQO\FDQVSHDN
&RHW]HH¶V)ULGD\LVPXWHEHFDXVHKLVWRQJXHKDVEHHQULSSHGRXWKHDOVRTXLFNO\
JDLQV D ZRUNDEOH JUDVS RI (QJOLVK E\ ZKLFK LURQLFDOO\ DV Foe so pointedly
demonstrates, he can be shaped by his master: in Robinson Crusoe Crusoe teaches
)ULGD\WRVD\³0DVWHU´RobinsonDQGLQFoe Cruso admits to teaching Friday
RQO\WKHZRUGVWKDW&UXVREHOLHYHVZLOOHTXLSKLPLQKLVUROHDVVODYH
In Foe it is the silence of Friday’s tongue that gradually overwhelms the
narrative. The novel was penned at the height of apartheid oppression, in the
years of the States of Emergency, beginning in 1985, so Friday’s muteness readily
DVVRFLDWHVLWVHOIZLWKWKHVLOHQFLQJRI6RXWK$IULFD¶VEODFNSHRSOHVZKRQRWOHDVW
were denied the rights of free citizens and a voice in matters of the state. For Neville
Alexander, Foe is testimony to this oppression: “The apparent inaccessibility of
)ULGD\¶VZRUOGWRWKH(XURSHDQVLQWKLVVWRU\LVDQDUWLVW¶VGHYDVWDWLQJMXGJHPHQW
RIWKHFULSSOLQJDQWLKXPDQLVWFRQVHTXHQFHVRIFRORQLDOLVPDQGUDFLVPRQWKHVHOI
FRQ¿GHQWZKLWHZRUOG´TWGLQ$WWZHOOJ. M. CoetzeePlea)ULGD\LQ
FoeLVSUREDEO\DEODFN$IULFDQVODYHD³1HJURZLWKDKHDGRIIX]]\ZRRO´)
ZKLOVWLQLWVLQWHUWH[W)ULGD\LV$PHULQGLDQDQGVSHFL¿FDOO\notD³QHJUR´'HIRH¶V
Crusoe describes him as a “comely, handsome fellow … he had all the sweetness
DQGVRIWQHVVRIDQ(XURSHDQ«+LVKDLUZDVORQJDQGEODFNQRWFXUOHGOLNHZRRO«
KLVQRVHVPDOOQRWÀDWOLNHWKH1HJURHV´Robinson7KDW)ULGD\LQRobinson
Crusoe is perceived as facially similar to a European, and pointedly not African,
KDVWKHHIIHFWRIOHVVHQLQJWKHWKUHDWWR&UXVRH¶VSV\FKRVRFLDOLQWHJULW\LQGHHG
there are brief interludes in the narrative when Crusoe recognizes a common
KXPDQLW\EHWZHHQKLPVHOIDQG³KLVPDQ´%\GLVWLQJXLVKLQJ)ULGD\LQWKLVZD\
in Foe &RHW]HH GHVLJQDWHV KLP D VODYH VKLSZUHFNHG HQ URXWH RQ WKH 0LGGOH
Passage, from Africa to the Americas. By this means, Coetzee unravels the ways
in which Friday, as character, is constituted by colonialist discourse. One aspect of
WKHQDUUDWLYHWKDWRIWHQJHWVRYHUORRNHGLQUHDGLQJVRIFoeLVWKDWOLNH&UXVRDQG
Barton, Friday is also a castaway. As Barton at least has the perspicacity to realize,
³6KLSZUHFNLVDJUHDWOHYHOOHU´),QFoe it is Friday and Barton, rather than
Friday and his master, who travel to England after the island adventure and it is
in England that Barton will have her epiphany about her own role in Friday’s
³HGXFDWLRQ´DQGWKDW)ULGD\ZLOOWDNHDVWDQGDJDLQVWEHLQJLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKH
imperialist-colonialist system of representation.
Nevertheless, it is the story of Robinson Crusoe’s island, rather than the return
to England, that for today’s audiences has endured, evidenced in the plethora of
Robinsonades that Defoe’s novel has spawned (in literature, William Golding’s
Lord of the Flies [1954] and Michel Tournier’s Friday and Robinson [1977]
DQGLQ¿OP1LFRODV5RHJ¶VCastaway>@DQG5REHUW=HPHFNLV¶VCast Away
>@2 As discussed above, Hulme argues that in Robinson Crusoe this framing
2
)RU D GLVFXVVLRQ RI ³QHROLEHUDO´ JOREDO VXEMHFWIRUPDWLRQ LQ Cast Away, see Li,
9LFWRU³*OREDOL]DWLRQ¶V5RELQVRQDGH´
94
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
GHYLFH ¿JXUHV WKH ³P\WKLF´ JHQHVLV RI FRORQLDOLVW LGHRORJ\ /HZLV 1NRVL
in “Robinson Crusoe&DOO0H0DVWHU´GUDZVRQWKLVP\WKLFTXDOLW\E\FODLPLQJ
that English readers “cannot read Robinson CrusoeSURSHUO\MXVWDVWKH\FDQQRW
read The Tempest for what it is, because they cannot read themselves into the
ERRN´Home and Exile LQRWKHUZRUGVWKH\ODFNWKHHWKLFDOYDQWDJHSRLQW
WKDW HPSDWKL]LQJ SURSHUO\ ZLWK WKH ³QDWLYH´ UHTXLUHV DQG DUH EOLQGHG WR FRUUHFW
readings of colonial myth because they are always already embedded within it.
6DLGH[WHQGVWKHLGHDRIWKH³ZRUOGOLQHVV´RIWH[WVLQKLVODWHUZRUNCulture
and ImperialismLQZKLFKKHDUJXHVWKDWWKH³IDFWVRIHPSLUH´SURYLGHWKH
³VWUXFWXUHRIDWWLWXGHDQGUHIHUHQFH´LQQRYHOVOLNH-DQH$XVWHQ¶V0DQV¿HOG3DUN
&KDUORWWH %URQWs¶V Jane Eyre DQG RI FRXUVH 'HIRH¶V Robinson
Crusoe. In Said’s words, Robinson Crusoe is the “prototypical modern realistic
QRYHO>WKDW@FHUWDLQO\QRWDFFLGHQWDOO\«LVDERXWD(XURSHDQZKRFUHDWHVD¿HIGRP
IRU KLPVHOI RQ D GLVWDQW QRQ(XURSHDQ LVODQG´ Culture [LLL 7KH FRORQLDOLVW
FRQWH[WVRIWKHVHZRUNV6DLGREVHUYHVSURYLGHWKHVRFLDODQGPRUDOIDEULFIRUWKH
imperial state (Culture, ±DQGWKLVFDQEHEURXJKWWROLJKWE\UHDGLQJ
FRQWUDSXQWDOO\7KHWDVNRIWKH³FRQWUDSXQWDOÚHDGHULVQRWWRORVHVLJKWRIHLWKHU
WKHZRUOGO\RUOLWHUDU\DVSHFWVRIWKHDQDO\VLVWRVFUXWLQL]HWKHFRQWH[WVRIWKHZRUN
ZKLOVWNHHSLQJLQPLQGLWVQDUUDWLYHSOHDVXUHVLQWKHFDVHRI$XVWHQ¶V0DQV¿HOG
Park, for instance, a deftly crafted comedy of manners.3 In 0DQV¿HOG 3DUN the
fortune of Sir Thomas Bertram, gentleman-father to Tom and Edmund, is built on
WKHEDFNRIVODYHU\WKHQRYHOK\SHUGLVFUHHWO\LQDYHU\$XVWHQLDQZD\UHIHUHQFHV
the family’s slave plantation in Antigua. Said suggests that from our modern
perspective, Sir Thomas’s successes and failures in the colonies derive from “the
PXWHG QDWLRQDO H[SHULHQFH RI LQGLYLGXDO LGHQWLW\ EHKDYLRXU DQG µRUGLQDWLRQ¶´
(Culture
3UHIHUULQJWRIRFXVRQWKHLVODQGDGYHQWXUH)WKHVHFUHWRIZKLFK)ULGD\
doggedly guards, Barton inadvertently chooses the myth of the colonial encounter
as the framing device of her story. By staging the process of the privileging, the text
WUDFHVKHUJUDGXDOUHDOL]DWLRQWKDWWKHSURMHFWVKHKDVHQJDJHG)RHWRZULWHVLPSO\
reproduces colonialist doxa: “If [Friday] was not a slave, was he nevertheless not
WKHKHOSOHVVFDSWLYHRIP\GHVLUHWRKDYHRXUVWRU\WROG"´)
As I have suggested in my discussion of In the Heart of the Country
LQ&KDSWHU:HVWHUQFHQWULFIHPLQLVPLQ&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQULVNVVXEVXPLQJWKH
SROLWLFV RI UDFLDO RWKHUQHVV DQ RWKHUQHVV ¿JXUHG KHUH LQ SHUKDSV LWV PRVW VWDUN
form, the mute slave. Barton, who at the outset believes it is her voice that has
EHHQVXSSUHVVHGOLNHQVKHUVHOILQWKHVFHQHRIZULWLQJWRDVODYH)DQGWRD
QHZERUQ)DVVKHKDVOLNHQHG)ULGD\WRDQ³XQERUQ´)<HWKHUODFN
LVTXLFNO\VXSSODQWHGE\WKDWRI)ULGD\LWLVWKHVXEVWDQFHRIKLV³YRLFH´WKDWLV
KLV DJHQF\ WKDW XOWLPDWHO\ LV QRW KHDUG 5HWUDFLQJ &RHW]HH¶V VWHSV ZH VHH WKDW
3
Director Patricia Rozema’s adaptation of 0DQV¿HOG 3DUN PDNHV D GDULQJ
if to my mind heavy-handed, Saidian reading of the text by foregrounding its colonialist
substructure.
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
95
in Foe the colonialist discourse of Robinson CrusoeLVRIIVHWE\WKH³IHPLQLVP´
of RoxanaWKHWZRUHDOL]HGDVFRPSHWLQJGLVFRXUVHV%DUWRQQRWRQO\UHMHFWVWKH
GDXJKWHU¿JXUHZKRP)RHKDVWULHGWRIRLVWXSRQKHUDQGZKRPVKHXWWHUO\UHMHFWV
as her own, but also inverts the femininity attributed to her as Muse by becoming
ERWK³JRGGHVVDQGEHJHWWHU´RIKHUWDOH)'HVSLWHHQOLVWLQJ)RHWRIDVKLRQKHU
DFFRXQWVKHPDLQWDLQVWKH³IDWKHU¶VÚLJKWWRLWVFRQWURO)DQGV\PEROLFDOO\
gestures this authority when she mounts Foe as she has sex with him, reducing him
WR³IHPLQLQH´VXEPLVVLRQ$V$WWZHOOVXJJHVWVERWK5R[DQDDQG%DUWRQZLVKWR
EH³DXWKRURI>WKHLU@OL>YHV@«FRQWURO>OLQJWKHLU@GHVWLQ\´J. M. Coetzee
The protagonist of RoxanaZKRVHUHDOQDPHLV6XVDQDQGZKROLNH%DUWRQ
OLYHVDVDVHOIVW\OHGPLVWUHVVRU³ZKRUH´WRDVWULQJRIZHDOWK\PHQDGYRFDWHV
what today would be considered a feminist attitude towards marriage, surprisingly
SUHGDWLQJWKHZRUNVRI0DU\:ROOVWRQHFUDIWEWRZKRVH0DULDRIMaria,
or, the Wrongs of Woman SXEOLVKHGSRVWKXPRXVO\LQVKHIUXLWIXOO\PLJKW
EHFRPSDUHG³5R[DQD´VKXQV6LU5REHUW&OD\WRQ¶VPDUULDJHSURSRVDOLQWHUPVWKH
ODWWHUUHIHUVWRDV³DPD]RQLDQ´
0\KHDUWZDVEHQWXSRQDQLQGHSHQGHQF\RIIRUWXQHDQG,WROGKLP,NQHZQR
VWDWHRIPDWULPRQ\EXWZKDWZDVDWEHVWDVWDWHRILQIHULRULW\LIQRWRIERQGDJH«
,ZRXOGEHDPDQZRPDQIRUDV,ZDVERUQIUHH,ZRXOGGLHVRRoxana
+RZHYHU QRW XQOLNH :ROOVWRQHFUDIW¶V SROHPLFDO QRYHO Roxana reinstalls
D SDWULDUFKDO PRUDO FRGH VLQFH LW LV IUDPHG DURXQG 5R[DQD¶V ³IDOO´ DQG KHU
VXEVHTXHQW UHWXUQ WR SLHW\ ZKHQ VKH JLYHV XS KHU GLVVROXWH OLIH IRU PDUULDJH
Nevertheless, Roxana’s moral failings are tempered by self-scrutiny, and the
UHDGHU LV HQFRXUDJHG WKURXJK WKH ¿UVWSHUVRQ QDUUDWLYH WR HPSDWKL]H ZLWK KHU
in her disgrace which, as in the case of Barton, is induced by dire economic
circumstance. Barton, however, who the text implies may have been a prostitute,
doesn’t suffer the same anxieties about her femininity and is not afraid to
challenge both Foe’s authorial and sexual authority.
In Defoe’s novel Crusoe is meticulous in his attention to the minutiae of
KLVFRORQLDODGYHQWXUHZKLFKKHUHOLJLRXVO\VHWVGRZQLQKLVMRXUQDOVZKHUHDV
for this Cruso it is enough to have built his terraces. (Barton is perplexed, she
explains in her letters to Foe, by Cruso’s apparent apathy towards recording his
WLPHRQWKHLVODQG<HWHYHQWKHWHUUDFHVLQ%DUWRQ¶VH\HVGLVSOD\³DIRROLVK
NLQG RI DJULFXOWXUH´ EHFDXVH QRW RQO\ GRHV &UXVR ODFN WKH VHHGV WR SURGXFH D
FURS KH VHHPV FRQWHQW WR ODERXU RQ WKHP WR ¿OO KLV LQWHUPLQDEOH GD\V RQ WKH
LVODQG ) 7KHUHIRUH ZKLOVW &UXVRH GLOLJHQWO\ ZRUNV WKH ODQG LQ Robinson
Crusoe, which typically is read as an allegory of economic individualism (Watt
LQFoe&UXVR¶VDFWRI³ZULWLQJWKHODQG´KRQHVWKHFRORQLDOLVWDFTXLVLWLRQRI
VSDFHIUXLWOHVVO\VWDNLQJRXWKLVWHUULWRU\&UXVRDVVHUWVKLVGRPLQLRQUDWKHUWKDQ
productivity. Barton perceptively draws an analogy between the blood of slaves
spent in building the Egyptian tombs and the building of the terraces, which in
WKHVHWHUPV\RNHODQGWRFRORQLDOLVWYLROHQFH$GGUHVVLQJWKHXQUHVSRQVLYH)ULGD\
96
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Barton imparts³7KHIXUWKHU,MRXUQH\IURP>&UXVR¶V@WHUUDFHVWKHOHVVWKH\VHHP
WRPHOLNH¿HOGVZDLWLQJWREHSODQWHGWKHPRUHOLNHWRPEV´)±6LPLODUO\
RQ WKH LVODQG ZKHUH WKH WRROV RI ZULWLQJ KDYH EHHQ UHMHFWHG )ULGD\¶V ERG\ KDV
EHHQ³ZULWWHQXSRQÉ\FRORQLDOLVPDQGFRORQLDOLVWGLVFRXUVHVLQFHQRWRQO\KDV
he been enslaved and his tongue cut out, he may also have been castrated. In
Coetzee, where sexual potency is aligned with writerly production, this last act
would signify not only Friday’s inability to sire children, therefore removing one
threat to colonial authority, but also the attempt to divest him of the power to
author his own life.
But perhaps the most radical departure from its intertext is the mode in which
Foe is delivered. The lyrical opening, at Barton’s point of entry into the story and
WKHLVODQGDGYHQWXUH±³:LWKDVLJKPDNLQJEDUHO\DVSODVK,VOLSSHGRYHUERDUG´
) ± KDXQWV WKH QDUUDWLYH ) ± DQG UHWXUQV XV UHSHDWHGO\ WR
WKHVLWHRIWUDXPDWKHVXQNHQVODYHVKLSZKLFKOLHVEXULHGDWWKHERWWRPRIWKH
sea. Whilst Coetzee pays homage to Defoe’s verisimilitude through an archaic
syntax and through the epistle-style writings (this time Barton’s letters to Foe
rather than in Robinson Crusoe&UXVRH¶VMRXUQDOWRSRVWHULW\KHUHWKHVW\OLVWLF
comparison ends. Defoe’s novel, Hulme contends, puts the constituents of “formal
UHDOLVP´ WRJHWKHU ³EXW WR DQ DOPRVW HPEDUUDVVLQJ GHJUHH´ Robinson Crusoe is
so DXWKHQWLF WKDW WKH QDUUDWLYH ³WKUHDWHQV´ WR GHSDUW IURP EHLQJ OLWHUDWXUH DW DOO
ZKLFK+XOPHSRLQWVRXWLVPRVWREYLRXVO\FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\SORW&UXVRH
UHFRUGVWKHPLQXWHVWGHWDLORIKLVDGYHQWXUHRQWKHLVODQGLQKLVMRXUQDOLQSDUW
WR NHHS WUDFN RI WLPH ,W ZDV WR EH H[SHFWHG JLYHQ WKH QRYHO¶V K\SHUUHDOLVP
that contemporary readers would be duped into believing they were reading a
WUDYHORJXH(YHQUHFHQWDQDO\VHVRIWKHZRUNDV+XOPHQRWHVKDYHWHQGHGWRDUJXH
that “Robinson CrusoePLPHVWKHWH[WXUHRIGDLO\H[SHULHQFHVRDFFXUDWHO\WKDW´
Hulme suggests, “only the most careful rereadings will perceive the underlying
VSLULWXDOSDWWHUQVWKDWJLYHVWKHQDUUDWLYHLWVWUXHVLJQL¿FDQFH´+XOPHDQG
other postcolonialists prefer to read Defoe’s realism as adventure and, in turn,
FRORQLDOURPDQFH³$GYHQWXUH´FRQIHUVGXDOPHDQLQJ¿UVWO\LQLWV³SXUHÍRUPDV
WKHVWXIIRIKHURLFHQGHDYRXUW\SLFDOO\FHQWULQJRQWKHTXHVWIRUWUHDVXUHVHFRQGO\
DV LQ ¿QDQFLDO YHQWXUH ³PHUFKDQW DGYHQWXUHU ± DQ\RQH LQYHVWLQJ RYHUVHDV´ WR
³DGYHQWXUHFDSLWDOLVPWKHDVVHWVWULSSHU´7KHVHWZRNLQGVRIDGYHQWXUHSHUVRQDO
DQG¿QDQFLDODUHFRWHUPLQRXVLQWKHFRORQLDOQDUUDWLYH$WWKHHQGRIKLVHVFDSDGH
RQWKHLVODQG&UXVRH¿QGVKHKDVDPDVVHGODQGDQG¿QDQFLDOLQYHVWPHQWVLQWKH
%UD]LOVRIVRPHFRQVLGHUDEOHDPRXQW+XOPH1HYHUWKHOHVVWKRXJK'HIRH¶V
narrative is seemingly realistic, Crusoe’s island is not. As Hulme points out, “the
$PHULQGLDQVZRXOGFHUWDLQO\QRWKDYHLJQRUHG&UXVRH¶VUHPDUNDEO\IHUWLOHLVODQG
unless they had been driven off by the European competition for Caribbean land
ZKLFKZDVLQIXOOVZLQJE\´
+XOPHDUJXHVWKDWWKH³UHDOLVWLFGHWDLO´RIWKHQDUUDWLYH
obscures elements of the narrative that … would have to be called mythic
>&UXVRHLVOHIW³WROLYHRXWDORQHKLVUHSHWLWLRQRIFRORQLDOEHJLQQLQJV´@LQWKH
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
97
sense that they have demonstrably less to do with the historic world of the midseventeenth-century Caribbean than they do with the primary stuff of colonialist
LGHRORJ\ ± WKH (XURSHDQ KHUR¶V ORQHO\ ¿UVW VWHSV LQWR WKH YRLG RI VDYDJHU\
+XOPH LGHQWL¿HV SRLQWV RI ³UDGLFDO WH[WXDO GLVWXUEDQFH´ DURXQG WKH FRORQLDO
³EHJLQQLQJ´ LQ WKH QDUUDWLYH SDUWLFXODUO\ DURXQG WKH IHDU RI EHLQJ HDWHQ E\
FDQQLEDOV WKDW UXSWXUH WKH FRQYHQWLRQV RI UHDOLVP DQG WKDW LQ WXUQ SRLQW WR WKH
SUREOHPVRI³FRPSRVLQJ&UXVRH¶VVHOIĆolonial,PSRUWDQWO\IRU+XOPH
&UXVRH DUULYHV RQ WKH LVODQG HTXLSSHG ZLWK D VHW RI ³LGHRORJLFDO DQG FXOWXUDO
SUHVXSSRVLWLRQVĆolonialWKXVPDNLQJKLPQRWWKHUDZXQIRUPHGVHOIRI
³QDWXUDOPDQ´QRUWKH³LQLWLDOXQLWRIDPDUNHWHFRQRP\LQWHUDFWLQJĆolonial
EXWD¿JXUHZKRZLOOUHSURGXFH(QJODQG¶VFRORQLDOPLVVLRQLQ³PLQLDWXUH´
(Colonial
:KLOVW KRQRXULQJ 'HIRH¶V OLWHUDU\ DFKLHYHPHQWV FI '3 &RHW]HH¶V
QDUUDWLYH PRGH VHWV DERXW GHFRQVWUXFWLQJ WKH FRORQLDO ³WUXWKV´ RI WKLV HDUOLHU
text, a text which, according to Hulme, hovers around Crusoe’s “benevolent
GHVSRWLVP´ ,W DFKLHYHV WKLV E\ FLUFOLQJ WKH TXHVWLRQ ³ZKDW LV WUXWK"´
%DUWRQSHUVLVWHQWO\WDONVDERXWSUHVHUYLQJWKH³WUXWK´RIKHUDFFRXQW>)
126] which she believes can only be achieved by unleashing the silenced story
RI)ULGD\¶VWRQJXH)$FFRUGLQJWR$WWZHOOWKHQDUUDWLYHIRUPVWKH³HQGOHVV
FKDLQ´RIFRQIHVVLRQ&RHW]HHLGHQWL¿HVLQ³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´
As Attwell elaborates, “Each new section gets behind the preceding one until,
at the point of closure, we have an unnamed narrator who seems to stand for the
QDUUDWLYHIXQFWLRQSHUVH´7KH³FRQVWDQW´QRWVXEMHFWWRWKLVHQGOHVVUHHYDOXDWLRQ
DQGUHDSSUDLVDO$WWZHOOVXJJHVWV³PDUNLQJWKHOLPLWRIVHOINQRZOHGJHLQ6XVDQ¶V
FDVH DQG RYHUZKHOPLQJ WKH QDUUDWRU DW WKH QRYHO¶V FORVH LV )ULGD\´ '3 Friday’s substantiality might be constant but, as I am arguing here, his substance,
RUWKHZD\VKHLVSHUFHLYHGE\RWKHUVWKDWLVFRQVWUXFWHGLQGLVFRXUVHFHUWDLQO\
is not. If Robinson CrusoeEHTXHDWKHGWKHPDQWOHRI³IDWKHU´RIWKH(QJOLVKQRYHO
RQ'HIRH&RHW]HH¶VWH[WZRUNVWRXQSDFNWKHFRORQLDOLGHRORJ\WKDWIUDPHVLWV
LQWHUWH[WE\GHOHJLWLPDWLQJWKHDXWKRULW\RIWKHFRORQLDOLVWDXWKRU¿JXUH±KHUH
not only Defoe and Cruso, but also Barton and Coetzee himself – through this
endless chain.
Foe W\SLFDOO\ LV UHDG DV SRVWPRGHUQLVW EXW WKLV KDV EHHQ D WKRUQ\ VXEMHFW
IRU VRPH SRVWFRORQLDO FULWLFV ZKR KDYH TXHVWLRQHG WKH SURSULHW\ RI XWLOL]LQJ D
postmodern mode to address postcolonial problematics because postmodernism,
through its apparent preoccupation with surface and by destabilizing meaning,
is premised supposedly on a refusal to engage politically. For Graham Pechey,
Coetzee appropriates a postmodern mode to convey postcolonial issues: “the
HWKLFDOO\ FKDUJHG SRVWPRGHUQ NQRZOHGJH ZKLFK >&RHW]HH¶V ¿FWLRQ@ \LHOGV KDV
OHVVWRGRZLWKVRPHJHQHUDOL]HGµSRVWPRGHUQLVW¶WH[WXDOLW\WKDQZLWKLWVKLJKO\
VHOIFRQVFLRXV SRVWFRORQLDOLW\´ ³3RVWDSDUWKHLG´ +HOHQ 7LI¿Q SLFNV XS WKH
TXHVWLRQ RI DXWKRULW\ DQG IRUP ZKHQ GLVFXVVLQJ WKH 1LJHULDQ DXWKRU &KLQXD
98
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart'HVSLWHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRISRVWPRGHUQIRUP
manifesting themselves in Things Fall Apart, she argues, “this [novel] is very
different from, indeed, is antithetical to, many of the intellectual titillations of
formal experiments in fragmentation that are symptomatic of the post-modern crisis
RI(XURSHDQDXWKRULW\DµFULVLV¶ZKRVHRZQWHUPVEHWUD\LWVPRWLYDWLRQ´³3RVW
FRORQLDOLVP3RVWPRGHUQLVP´$WWZHOORQWKHRWKHUKDQGLQFRQYHUVDWLRQ
ZLWK&RHW]HHLGHQWL¿HVHWKLFDOWHQGHQFLHVVXFKDVWKHVHZKLFKPLJKWEHUHDGDV
“continuingVRPHRIWKHFRQFHUQVRIPRGHUQLVP«LQWRQHZVLWXDWLRQV´$QHZ
NLQGRISRVWPRGHUQOLWHUDWXUHZRXOGUHOHDVHLWVHOIIURP³WKHWDLQWRI(XURFHQWULF
LQGXOJHQFH´KHFRQWHQGV,PSRUWDQWO\OLNH7LI¿Q$WWZHOOGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQ
Anglo-American and postcolonial strands, though Coetzee, in response, is not so
GLVPLVVLYHRIWKHIRUPHU$WWZHOOLVUHIHUULQJWRD³PDMRULW\RSLQLRQ´WKDWUHJDUGV
$QJOR$PHULFDQSRVWPRGHUQLVPDV³RQO\IHHEO\DQWLFDQRQLFDO´>'3@,SUHIHU
P\DOLJQP\VHOIWRWKRVHFULWLFVOLNH$WWULGJHDQG/D]DUXVZKRUHDG&RHW]HH¶VVHOI
FRQVFLRXVHWKLFDOLW\DVDVLJQRIWKHPRGHUQLVWLQÀHFWLRQLQKLVZULWLQJ$WWULGJH
J. M. Coetzee±/D]DUXV
7KHPHWD¿FWLRQDODVSHFWVRIWKHZRUNDUHEURXJKWWRJHWKHULQWKHVXEVWDQFH
VXEVWDQWLDOLW\ GLDOHFWLF $V ¿JXUHV RQ WKH PDUJLQV %DUWRQ DQG )ULGD\ ODFN
substance in discourse because their powers of self-representation are impeded.
Yet they are substantial somatically in their suffering: Barton as a prostitute and
)ULGD\ DV D VODYH ³SDLQ LV WUXWK´ WKH 0DJLVWUDWH LQ Waiting for the Barbarians
WDNHVIURPKLVFRQYHUVDWLRQVZLWKWKHWRUWXUHU&RORQHO-ROO:%%DUWRQ
is preoccupied with the substance of her adventure in the hands of the author, Foe.
In one of the letters she addresses to him, she writes,
:KHQ,UHÀHFWRQP\VWRU\,VHHPWRH[LVWRQO\DVWKHRQHZKRFDPHWKHRQH
who witnessed, the one who longed to be gone: a being without substance, a
JKRVWEHVLGHWKHWUXHERG\RI&UXVR,VWKDWWKHIDWHRIDOOVWRU\WHOOHUV"<HW,ZDV
DVPXFKDERG\DV&UXVR,DWHDQGGUDQN,ZRNHDQGVOHSW,ORQJHG
+HUHVXEVWDQFHUHIHUVWRDNLQGRIYHULVLPLOLWXGHDQGDIDLWKIXOQHVVWRKHUVWRU\
6KHDVNV)RHWR³5HWXUQWRPHWKHVXEVWDQFH,KDYHORVW«)RUWKRXJKP\VWRU\
JLYHV WKH WUXWK LW GRHV QRW JLYH WKH VXEVWDQFH RI WKH WUXWK´ ) ,Q WKH OHWWHU
of the following day she imagines “send[ing] out a vision of the island to hang
before [Foe] like DVXEVWDQWLDOERG\´HPSKDVLVDGGHG)DQGODWHURIPDNLQJ
WKH³DLUDURXQG>)ULGD\@WKLFNZLWKZRUGV´1RWHKHUHWKDW%DUWRQVSHDNVDERXW
only a representation of the island, one that is only like a substantial body. Barton
convinces herself that through the stories she tells him, Friday might construct
DQ LVODQG WKDW LVQ¶W D ³EDUUHQ DQG D VLOHQW SODFH´ ) 6KH FRQIXVHV ERGLO\
substantiality with the substance of a story, misguided in the notion that through
VWRULHVDQGZRUGVVKHFDQERG\IRUWK)ULGD\DVRWKHU6KHUHFRJQL]HVWKDWVKHODFNV
the art of storytelling, which is the reason she turns to Foe, in whose hands, she now
EHOLHYHVWKHNHUQHORIWKHVWRU\ZLOOEHIRUHYHUORVW7KH³WUXHVWRU\´LVWKHVWRU\
of Friday’s silence, of which she remains ignorant. For Barton, her substantiality
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
99
KDVEHHQWKHFKDLQVRIKHURSSUHVVLRQIURPZKLFKVKHLVWU\LQJWREUHDNIUHH³,
could return in every aspect to the life of a substantial body, the life you [Foe]
UHFRPPHQG%XWVXFKDOLIHLVDEMHFW,WLVWKHOLIHRIDWKLQJ$ZKRUHXVHGE\
PHQLVXVHGDVDVXEVWDQWLDOERG\´)±:LWKWKHLVODQGVHUYLQJDVDVSDFH
IRUVXEMHFWreFRQVWLWXWLRQ%DUWRQVWUHVVHVKHUQHHGWRWDNHFRQWURORIKHUVWRU\
DQGWRUHMHFWWKHVWRU\RIKHUSDVWZKLFKLVRQHFRQVWUXFWHGE\VRFLHW\%DUWRQDV
SURVWLWXWH$WWULGJHDUJXHVWKDW%DUWRQUHDOL]HVVKHLV³GHWHUPLQHGQRWE\KHUVHOI
EXWE\WKHFXOWXUHZLWKLQZKLFKVKHVHHNVDQLGHQWLW\´J. M. Coetzee6KHHYHQ
FRQÀDWHVERGLO\VXEVWDQWLDOLW\ZLWKWH[WXDOVXEVWDQFH³,DPDsubstantial being
with a substantial history in the world … for I am a free woman who asserts her
IUHHGRPE\WHOOLQJKHUVWRU\DFFRUGLQJWRKHURZQVWRU\´HPSKDVLVDGGHG)
Foe reminds her, however, that she has omitted Friday from her account: Friday
FDQQRWEHVXEVWDQWLDOLQWKHH\HVRI%DUWRQEHFDXVHKHODFNVWKHWRROVRIODQJXDJH
WRDVVHUWRUDXWKRUL]HKLVVWRU\7KHERRNZLOOWU\WRUHIXWHWKLVVXSSRVLWLRQDV,JR
on to explain: Friday, in his pain, is a substantial body, yet he resists being reduced
WRDVWRU\RUEHLQJGH¿QHGFRQ¿QHGE\:HVWHUQFHQWULFGLVFRXUVH
Grappling for control of the narrative, Barton and Foe debate the role of stories
and of storytellers. To Barton’s annoyance, who has turned to Foe as ghost-writer
WR FUDIW KHU WDOH LQWR D PDUNHWDEOH QDUUDWLYH )RH VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH VWRU\ RI WKH
island be relegated to a minor role within a larger plot, which, he asserts, should
IRFXVRQWKHVHDUFKRIDPRWKHU%DUWRQIRUKHUORVWGDXJKWHU):KLOVWWKH
DXWKRU¿JXUH)RHHPEOHPRIWKH³:HVWHUQ´FDQRQZRXOGPDUJLQDOL]HWKHVWRU\
of Friday, it is this story that the liberal-minded Barton endeavours to exhume
in order that the legacy of colonialism might be properly confronted. Foe sets
VHQWLPHQWDJDLQVWUHDVRQZKHQKHTXLFNO\GLVSHOVKLVGHVLUHIRUDVWRU\WKDWHPRWHV
±KHLQLWLDOO\VSHDNVDERXWWKH³KHDUWRIWKHVWRU\´±DQGLGHQWL¿HVLWVNHUQHOLQVWHDG
ZLWKDZDWFKIXOH\H)WKDWPLJKWEHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKUDWLRQDOLW\DQGZKLFKKH
OLQNVWRWKHVLWHRIPRXUQLQJDQGWKHDFWRIZLWQHVVLQJWKHVXQNHQVODYHVKLSZLWK
LWV³H\HVWDULQJXSDW>)ULGD\@IURPWKHERWWRPRIWKHVHD´)%DUWRQRQWKH
RWKHUKDQGSHUFHLYHVLWDVDPRXWK)DQGGHWHUPLQHGO\GUDZVLWEDFNWRWKH
PDWWHURI)ULGD\¶VWRQJXHDQGWKHTXHVWLRQRIDJHQF\³LIWKHVWRU\VHHPVVWXSLG
WKDWLVRQO\EHFDXVHLWVRGRJJHGO\KROGVLWVVLOHQFH7KHVKDGRZZKRVHODFN\RX
IHHOLVWKHUHLWLVWKHORVVRI)ULGD\¶VWRQJXH´)$OWKRXJKVKHDFNQRZOHGJHV
that it is Friday alone who can reveal the truth of his story, she believes she is
morally obligated to teach Friday to communicate this: “The true story will not be
KHDUGWLOOE\DUWZHKDYHIRXQGDPHDQVRIJLYLQJYRLFHWR)ULGD\´)7KH
SRVWFRORQLDOHQGHDYRXUWRSRUWUD\DQGSUREOHPDWLFDOO\HYHQVHHNRXWRWKHUQHVV
LV FDSWXUHG LQ WKH SXQ RQ ³DUW´ FRQQRWLQJ LQYHQWLRQ DV ZHOO DV ZULWHUO\ VWHDOWK
Barton guards what she construes as the essence of the story, her adventure on the
island. She admonishes Foe,
You err most tellingly in failing to distinguish between my silences and the
silences of a being such as Friday. Friday has no command of words and
therefore no defence against being re-shaped day by day in conformity with the
100
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
GHVLUHVRIRWKHUV,VD\KHLVDFDQQLEDODQGKHEHFRPHVDFDQQLEDO,VD\KHLV
DODXQGU\PDQDQGKHEHFRPHVDODXQGU\PDQ:KDWLVWKHWUXWKRI)ULGD\"<RX
will respond: he is neither cannibal nor laundryman, they are mere names, they
do not touch his essence, he is a substantial body, he is himself, Friday is Friday.
%XWWKDWLVQRWVR1RPDWWHUZKDWKHLVWRKLPVHOILVKHDQ\WKLQJWRKLPVHOI"
±KRZFDQKHWHOOXV"what he is to the world is what I make of him. Therefore
the silence of Friday is a helpless silence. He is the child of his silence, a child
unborn, a child waiting to be born that cannot be born. Whereas the silence I
NHHSUHJDUGLQJ%DKLDDQGRWKHUPDWWHUVLVFKRVHQDQGSXUSRVHIXOLWLVP\RZQ
VLOHQFHHPSKDVLVDGGHG)±
In these words Barton states her commitment to the power of discourse and, in
fact, Enlightenment: Friday’s substantiality is meaningless unless it has substance,
which Barton hopes to achieve by giving him access to language and learning.
%DUWRQLVZURQJRQWZRFRXQWV¿UVWO\VKHLQWHQGVLPSRVLQJWKHODQJXDJHRI
WKHFRORQL]HURQ)ULGD\:LOOLDP6KDNHVSHDUH¶V&DOLEDQLQThe Tempest, one of
Foe¶VLQWHUWH[WVLVDOOWRRDZDUHRIWKHRSSUHVVLYHPHFKDQLVPVDWZRUNLQVXFKD
PDQRHXYUHEHFDXVHODQJXDJHVHUYHVRQO\WR³HQOLJKWHQ´KLPRQKLVHQVODYHPHQW
³<RXWDXJKWPHODQJXDJHDQGP\SUR¿WRQ¶W,V,NQRZKRZWRFXUVH´$FW6FHQH
6HFRQGO\DVWKHQRYHOODWHUUHYHDOV)ULGD\DFWLYHO\chooses silence when he
refuses to be tutored in reading and writing by Barton. She imperiously assumes
Friday has no language, perceiving him as unformed, “only a turmoil of feelings
DQGXUJHV´)$VWKH³FKLOGZDLWLQJWREHERUQWKDWFDQQRWEHERUQ´)ULGD\¶V
silence – his story – is metaphorically bodied forth in the corpse of the dead baby
which he and Barton discover at the edge of a road on their travels from London
WR%ULVWRO7KLVFKLPHVZLWKWKH³ORVWGDXJKWHU´QDUUDWLYHWKDWSUHRFFXSLHV)RH
Nonetheless, as female other, Barton also deems herself “ignorant as a newborn
EDEH´>)@XQIRUPHGDQGODFNLQJVXEVWDQFHLQWKLVZD\LQDGYHUWHQWO\DOOXGLQJ
to hers and Friday’s shared humanity that has been excluded from the discourses
the novel presses against.
Foe recounts two parables to Barton that illustrate his investment in
DXWKRUVKLS 6XVDQ¶V UHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKHP VLWXDWHV KHUV ZLWKLQ D SRVWFRORQLDO
SDUDGLJP$FFRUGLQJWR)RHWKHPRUDORIWKH¿UVWWKDWWHOOVRIDZRPDQZLVKLQJ
WRFRQIHVVWRDFULPHLV³WKDWWKHUHFRPHVDWLPHZKHQZHPXVWJLYHUHFNRQLQJRI
RXUVHOYHVWRWKHZRUOGDQGWKHQIRUHYHUDIWHUEHFRQWHQWWRKROGRXUSHDFH´7KH
VHFRQG SDUDEOH LV DERXW D FRQGHPQHG ZRPDQ ¿QGLQJ VRODFH LQ WKH NQRZOHGJH
that her memory will live on in her child, whom she places in the safe hands of
D V\PSDWKHWLF JDROHU ) ± ,Q VXP WKH SDUDEOHV DGGUHVV WKH SUREOHPV RI
QDUUDWLYHFORVXUHDQGRIGUDZLQJWKHTXHVWIRUVHOIWUXWKVWRDQHQG$FFRUGLQJ
WR&RHW]HHLQ³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´WKLVVHQVHRIDQHQGLQJULVNV
EHLQJXQDWWDLQDEOHLQFRQIHVVLRQ¶VF\FOHRI³VHOIUHFRJQLWLRQDQGVHOIDEDVHPHQW´
'3MXVWDV)RHVXUPLVHVWKDW%DUWRQLVXQDEOHWRUHOLQTXLVKKHUTXHVWIRU
the truth of Friday’s tongue (which actually supersedes her own loss of autonomy
VLQFH)ULGD\¶VVSHHFKOHVVQHVVPDUNVherYRLFHDQGMXVWDVWKHQDUUDWLYHRIFoe,
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
101
ZLWK LWV UHSHDWHG GLYHV LQWR WKH ZUHFN VHHNV EXW GHQLHV FORVXUH WRR :KDW )RH
UHJDUGVDV%DUWRQ¶VIXWLOHTXHVWIRUWUXWKLVKHUDWWHPSWDOEHLWPLVJXLGHGDQGWKXV
self-deceiving, to establish an ethical relation to her story, to be accountable to it.
Whilst Barton’s conscience is troubled by the ethics of literary embellishment,
)RH¶VFRQFHUQUHPDLQVVWHDGIDVWO\ZLWKKLV¿FWLRQ
,QKHUTXHVWWROHDUQWKHWUXWKDERXW)ULGD\¶VWRQJXH%DUWRQGUDZVWZRVNHWFKHV
inviting Friday through pointing to disclose which represents the truth of the
PDWWHU+RZHYHUE\SURYLGLQJWZRYHUVLRQVVKHLPDJLQHVPD\KROGWKHNH\WRKLV
VHFUHWVKHLQDGYHUWHQWO\UHLPSRVHVWKHYHU\VLOHQFHVVKHLVWU\LQJWRXQORFN6KHLV
confounded by her realization that the picture itself could be misinterpreted, that
the portrayal of Cruso cutting away Friday’s tongue, from a different perspective,
FRXOGUHVHPEOH³DEHQH¿FHQWIDWKHUSXWWLQJDOXPSRI¿VKLQWRWKHPRXWKRIFKLOG
)ULGD\´ ) ± Barton’s pictures are exposed as a series of contextually
and ideologically inscribed signs. In a familiar Coetzean conceit, the process of
allegorical reading is itself parodied and the reductiveness that allegorical reading
can induce laid bare.
It is the silences Foe guards that have most troubled critics of the novel. In
KHUJURXQGEUHDNLQJDUWLFOH³6SHHFKDQG6LOHQFHLQWKH)LFWLRQVRI-0&RHW]HH´
Benita Parry, for example:
SXW>V@IRUZDUGWKHSROHPLFDOSURSRVLWLRQWKDWGHVSLWHWKH¿FWLRQV¶GLVUXSWLRQVRI
colonialist modes, the social authority on which the rhetoric relies and which
it exerts is grounded in the cognitive systems of the West. Furthermore … the
FRQVHTXHQFHRIZULWLQJWKHVLOHQFHDWWULEXWHGWRWKHVXEMXJDWHGDVDOLEHUDWLRQ
IURPWKHFRQVWUDLQWVRIVXEMHFWLYLW\«FDQEHUHDGDVUHHQDFWLQJWKHUHFHLYHG
GLVSRVDORIQDUUDWLYHDXWKRULW\
Parry contends that in Foe Coetzee fails not only to move beyond a Eurocentric
VWDJHEXWLQDGYHUWHQWO\UHLPSRVHVWKHYHU\DXWKRULW\KHHQGHDYRXUVWRFULWLTXH
She wonders “whether the reverberations of Coetzee’s intertextual transpositions,
DVZHOODVWKHORJLFDQGWUDMHFWRU\RIKLVQDUUDWLYHVWUDWHJLHVGRQRWLQDGYHUWHQWO\
UHSHDW WKH H[FOXVLRQDU\ FRORQLDOLVW JHVWXUHV ZKLFK WKH QRYHOV DOVR FULWLFL]H´
7KLVKDVWKHHIIHFWVKHDUJXHVRI³VXVWDLQLQJWKH:HVWDVWKHFXOWXUHRI
UHIHUHQFH´:KDW3DUU\FDOOVIRUUHFUXLWLQJ7]YHWDQ7RGRURYLVKHWHURORJ\
ZKLFK³PDNHVWKHGLIIHUHQFHRIYRLFHVKHDUG´7RGRURYTWGLQ3DUU\³6SHHFK
DQG6LOHQFH´3DUU\FDOOVWRWDVNWKRVHFULWLFVOLNH*D\DWUL6SLYDNZKRUHDG
)ULGD\¶V VLOHQFH DV UHVLVWDQW 6SLYDN DUJXHV WKDW ³µ7KH QDWLYH¶ ZKDWHYHU WKDW
might mean, is not only a victim, he or she is also an agent. He or she is the
FXULRXVJXDUGLDQDWWKHPDUJLQ´³7KHRU\LQWKH0DUJLQ´7KLVSRVLWLRQLV
UHYLVHGIURP6SLYDN¶VQRWRULRXVDQGHPSKDWLFFODLPWKDWLQOLWHUDWXUHVXEDOWHUQV
FDQQRWVSHDNEHFDXVHWKH\DUHDOZD\VDOUHDG\FDXJKWEHWZHHQWKHGLVFRXUVHRI
LPSHULDOLVW DQG QDWLRQDOLVW HOLWHV$ VXEVHTXHQW YHUVLRQ RI ³&DQ WKH 6XEDOWHUQ
6SHDN"´DSSHDUHGLQA Critique of Postcolonial ReasonLQZKLFK6SLYDN
102
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
LVOHVVXQHTXLYRFDO1HYHUWKHOHVV3DUU\LVDGDPDQWWKDWWKRXJK&RHW]HH
may well attempt to refuse
WRH[HUFLVHWKHDXWKRULW\RIWKHGRPLQDQWFXOWXUHWRUHSUHVHQWRWKHUDQGVXEMXJDWHG
FXOWXUHV«WKH¿FWLRQVGRMXVWWKLVEHFDXVHRIZKLFK(XURSHDQWH[WXDOSRZHU
UHLQVFULEHGLQWKHIRUPDOV\QWD[UHTXLUHGRI/LWHUDWXUHVXUYLYHVWKHDWWHPSWHG
VXEYHUVLRQRILWVGRPLQLRQ³6SHHFKDQG6LOHQFH´
This exercise of authority is a move of which Barton is guilty, suggesting, therefore,
that Coetzee may well be second-guessing his critics.
In Doubling the Point&RHW]HHPDNHVFOHDUWKDWKHXWWHUO\GLVWUXVWVSRVLWLRQDOLW\
'3:ULWLQJIURPDVLWHRISULYLOHJHDVZKLWH6RXWK$IULFDQDQGPDOHKH
self-consciously effects his own authorial silence in Foe, which is imperative in
the debates the novel stages. His silence on matters of politics is not dissimilar
to Albert Memmi’s argument in The Colonizer and the ColonizedWKDWLQ
recognition of the hegemony of the colonizer, the colonialist intellectual “who
UHIXVHVÍDFHVWKHPRUDOFKRLFHRITXLWWLQJWKHFRORQLHVRUUHPDLQLQJVLOHQW7KH
FRORQL]HUZKRTXLWV³ZLOOSXWDQHQGWRKLVFRQWUDGLFWLRQDQGXQHDVLQHVV´0HPPL
±6KHLOD5REHUWVQRWLFHVSDUDOOHOVEHWZHHQWKHVWRU\RI)ULGD\¶VWRQJXHDQG
Memmi’s grievance that his mother tongue (which metonymically also represents
FXOWXUH KDV EHHQ VXSSUHVVHG E\ WKH FRORQL]HU ³,Q WKH OLQJXLVWLF FRQÀLFW ZLWKLQ
the colonized, his mother tongue is that which is crushed. He himself sets about
GLVFDUGLQJ WKLV LQ¿UP ODQJXDJH KLGLQJ LW IURP WKH VLJKW RI VWUDQJHUV´ 0HPPL
TWGLQ5REHUWV³+RXVHRI)ULGD\´,QFoe silence is Janus-faced for it not
only signals Friday’s oppression but also his autonomy. Occupying the metaphoric
³KROHLQWKHQDUUDWLYH´))ULGD\DVPXWHQRWRQO\UHSUHVHQWVWKHRSSUHVVHG
voice of the colonial other, conversely, he is also autonomous in his refusals to
GLVFORVHKLV³VHOI´ZKHQELGGHQ7KDWKHLVaccorded this right by his author, as
3DUU\¶VDQDO\VLVVKRZVVLJQDOVWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIDGHTXDWHWKDWLVWRVD\HWKLFR
political, representation.
Moreover, Friday is triply silenced because not only is he silent as mute and
silenced by colonial discourse, he is also misread by Cruso, Barton and Foe, who,
WKHPVHOYHV VXEMHFW WR GLVFRXUVH IDLO WR UHFRJQL]H KLV UHVLVWDQFH WR WKH LPSHULDO
mindset. Ironically, therefore, he is effectively silenced by those – primarily
%DUWRQ EXW DOVR )RH ± ZKR XQGHUWDNH WR JLYH KLP YRLFH 2Q WKH LVODQG %DUWRQ
surreptitiously observes him casting petals over the sea, which she construes as
an exotic religious rite only for it later to transpire that he is performing an act
RI UHPHPEUDQFH DW WKH VLWH RI WKH VXQNHQ VODYH VKLS RQ ZKLFK ZH DVVXPH KH
ZDVFDUJR)±±%DUWRQODWHUGHFLSKHUVWKLVULWXDODVDPHPRULDOWR
WKHORVWIDPLO\RUIULHQGVRQVXFKDVKLS>)@/LNH&UXVRDQG)RH%DUWRQLV
also susceptible to racist fantasies since she has suspicions that Friday practises
FDQQLEDOLVP+HUSUHMXGLFHFRPHVWRWKHIRUHZKHQWUDYHOOLQJDFURVV(QJODQGZLWK
Friday, she encounters the body of the dead baby girl wrapped in swaddling at the
VLGHRIWKHURDGVKHIHDUVWKDWOHIWDORQHZLWKWKHWLQ\FRUSVH)ULGD\PLJKWUHYHUW
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
103
to his savagery. As in Robinson Crusoe, these fantasies are apparently unfounded,
though Defoe’s Crusoe does come upon human remains that purportedly have
been eaten by natives. Crusoe clings to the belief that through his efforts Friday
has been saved from his barbarousness (Robinson Crusoe ,QGHHG +XOPH
VXJJHVWVWKDWWKLVODFNRISURRILQRobinson Crusoe, that “the ungrounded fear of
FDQQLEDOV DOZD\V RXWZHLJKV &UXVRH¶V DFWXDO H[SHULHQFHV´ UHYHDOV D ³SV\FKRVLV
DWWKHKHDUWRIWKH(XURSHDQSHUFHSWLRQVRI$PHULQGLDQFXOWXUHLQWKH&DULEEHDQ´
± :KDW LV PRUH LQ WKH VFKHPD RI (QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJ PDSSHG
earlier, this pathological fear of being eaten by cannibals is in fact a fear of the
ORVVRI³FRUSRUHDOLQWHJULW\´+XOPH$V+XOPHREVHUYHV)ULGD\¶VDFFRXQW
in Robinson Crusoe of the practice of cannibalism is in fact very different from
&UXVRH¶VIDQWDV\³7KH&DULEVDFFRUGLQJWR)ULGD\GRHDWKXPDQÀHVKEXWRQO\
WKHÀHVKRIWKRVHWKDWRIIHUDJJUHVVLRQLWVHHPVWKDWVRPHWKLQJOLNHWKH/DZRI
1DWLRQV RSHUDWHV LQ WKH QDWLYH &DULEEHDQ´ ,Q WKLV UHVSHFW Foe stages not
RQO\WKHFRORQLDOLVWIDQWDVLHVDERXWEODFNERGLHVWKDWDSSHDULQLWVLQWHUWH[WEXW
also those explored in the earlier novels, In the Heart of the Country and Waiting
for the Barbarians.
The island motif prepares the ground for Barton’s desire to construct Friday as
VXEMHFWDQGFHUWDLQO\%DUWRQ¶VHIIRUWVDUHDPHDQVRIKHU¿QGLQJVHOINQRZOHGJH
VLQFH RWKHUQHVV LV GH¿QHG LQ LWV UHODWLRQ WR WKH VHOI DV ³DOZD\V perspectival …
always produced ´ $WWULGJH ³7UXVWLQJ WKH 2WKHU´ )LUVWO\ %DUWRQ WHDFKHV
)ULGD\WRZULWH³$IULFD´ZKLFKFDQRQO\EHWKH$IULFDRI%DUWRQ¶VLQYHQWLRQWKH
substance of myth, since she has never set foot on African soil. Yet she has the
SUHVXPSWLRQWRWHDFK)ULGD\IRUZKRPWKHLQVFULSWLRQ³$IULFD´KROGVQRPHDQLQJ
DERXW LW$FFRUGLQJ WR 6SLYDN WKH LGHD RI$IULFD LV P\WKRORJLFDO DQG DQ ³HIIRUW
rich in meaning and its limits … Africa LV RQO\ D WLPHERXQG QDPLQJ OLNH DOO
SURSHUQDPHVLWLVDPDUNZLWKDQDUELWUDU\FRQQHFWLRQWRLWVUHIHUHQWDFDWDFKUHVLV´
³7KHRU\ LQ WKH 0DUJLQ´ 2I KLV RZQ YROLWLRQ )ULGD\ WKHQ GUDZV D VHULHV
RI ³R¶V´ ZKLFK )RH SUHPDWXUHO\ EHOLHYHV LV WKH ³EHJLQQLQJ´ RI KLV HGXFDWLRQ
“Tomorrow you must teach him a´ ) )RH LV ZURQJ EHFDXVH ³R´ LQ IDFW
UHSUHVHQWV )ULGD\¶V UHVLVWDQFH DV 6SLYDN SRLQWV RXW WKH OHWWHU ³R´ LQ Robinson
CrusoeLVSLGJLQIRU³SUD\HU´DQGWKHUHIRUHVLJQL¿HVDUHPHPEHULQJRISUHFRORQLDO
FXOWXUHLWVHOIDJHVWXUHRIDQWLFRORQLDOUHVLVWDQFH³7KHRU\LQWKH0DUJLQ´
³2´DOVRVLJQDOV)ULGD\¶VXQUHDVRQ6SLYDNFODLPVDQGLVSURRIWKDWMXVWDV%DUWRQ
admits her failure to teach Friday, Crusoe fails in his religious instruction (“Theory
LQWKH0DUJLQ´$WWKHHQGRIFoe³R´LVWKH³VRXQG´WKDWLVVXHVIURP)ULGD\¶V
mouth and washes over the island in a gestural recuperation of colonial territory
and the oppressed voice.
,IZHFRPSDUHWKH³R´SURGXFHGE\)ULGD\ZLWKWKH³2´WKDWFRQ¿JXUHV0DJGD¶V
ODFNLQIn the Heart of the Country, we can see an emergent resistance in Friday,
who holds the author and reader – Cruso, Barton, Foe, Coetzee, us as readers – out.
+LWKHUWRVLPSO\PLPHWLFDOO\UHSURGXFLQJ%DUWRQ¶VHIIRUWV)ULGD\IUHHO\WDNHVXS
WKHFKDONDQGGUDZV³URZXSRQURZRIH\HVXSRQIHHWZDONLQJH\HV´5HIXVLQJ
Barton’s demands to give up the drawing board, he wipes the slate clean, both
104
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
OLWHUDOO\DQGPHWDSKRULFDOO\)±,QWKHYHLQRI)UDQW])DQRQ¶Vtabula raza
in The Wretched of the EarthWKLVDFWFDOOVIRUHQWLUHO\QHZEHJLQQLQJVWKH
EODQNVODWHWKDWSUH¿JXUHVWH[WVDV³IDFWVRISRZHU´7KLVLVD)DQRQLDQPRGHORI
decolonization whereby “the proof of success lies in a whole social structure being
changed from the bottom up´HPSKDVLVDGGHGWretched
Deciphering Friday’s inscriptions proves exacting. As subaltern he is not only
silenced by the colonial oppressor, but refuses the demands made of him to divulge
KLVFRUHKLVVXEMHFWLYLW\3HUKDSVWKHH\HVUHSUHVHQWKLVZDWFKIXOQHVVEXWDOVRKLV
IUHHGRPWR³UHDG´KLVHQYLURQPHQWIRUDVWKHVDGLVWLF&RORQHO-ROOLQWaiting for
the Barbarians says, “Only the eyes have power. The eyes are free, they reach out
WRWKHKRUL]RQDOODURXQG1RWKLQJLVKLGGHQIURPWKHH\HV´':KDW)RHFDOOV
WKH³H\H´RIWKHVWRU\LQWKHIRXUWKDQG¿QDOVHFWLRQRIWKHQRYHOLVSUHVLGHGRYHU
by the mute Friday. The feet Friday draws might represent his ability to escape, the
foot, according to Attwell, being the signature of Friday in Robinson Crusoe (J. M.
Coetzee%DUEDUD(FNVWHLQRQWKHRWKHUKDQGSHUVXDVLYHO\VXJJHVWVWKDWWKH
rows of eyes upon feet represent the “literal vantage point of slaves in a hold …
EHQHDWKWKHVDLORUV¶IHHW´³,FRQLFLW\´6SLYDNZRQGHUVLIWKHH\HV¶³VHFUHW>LV@
WKDWWKH\KROGQRVHFUHWDWDOO´³7KHRU\´DQGLVWKHUHIRUHDQRWKHUNLQGRI
ZLWKKROGLQJ6KRXOGWKHH\HVEHHTXDWHGZLWKUHDVRQDV,KDYHDOUHDG\VXJJHVWHG
then Friday in wiping the slate clean gestures the repudiation of the Enlightenment
discourses that have sanctioned his enslavement.
As Marcus Wood points out, “Muteness and blindness are dominant metaphors
LQ&RHW]HH¶VUHQGHULQJRI)ULGD\DQGWKH¿QDOPXWHQHVVDQGEOLQGQHVVDUHSODFHG
ZLWKLQWKH:HVWHUQFRQVFLRXVQHVV´LQLWVLQDELOLW\WRIXOO\FRPSUHKHQGRU
³UHDG´WKHVODYHRWKHU8QGHUWKHVXEKHDGLQJ³:KDWDUHZHORRNLQJDWZKDWFDQ
ZHVHH"´:RRGGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHXQTXHVWLRQLQJZD\WKH³:HVWHUQ´H\HKDV
regarded slavery:
/RRNLQJDVRSSRVHGWRUHDGLQJKDVQRWLQWKHFRQWH[WRIVODYHU\EHHQGHVFULEHG
as an exceptionally problematic activity … Maybe this is because there is still
DQLUUDWLRQDOEHOLHIWKDWSLFWXUHVVSHDNIRUWKHPVHOYHVLQDZD\WKDWZRUGVGR
QRW
,Q %DUWRQ¶V DWWHPSWV WR NQRZ )ULGD\ WKURXJK ORRNLQJ XSRQ KLV ERG\ )ULGD\ LV
REMHFWL¿HGVRWKDWWKHPDVWHUVODYHGLDOHFWLFWKDW%DUWRQWKLQNVVKHLVGLVPDQWOLQJ
is simply reproduced in the colonizing effect of the gaze. Earlier, Barton comes
XSRQ)ULGD\VSLQQLQJLQDGHUYLVKOLNHIUHQ]\GUHVVHGLQ)RH¶VUREHVRIDXWKRUVKLS
Just as she is morbidly fascinated with Friday’s tongue, she is intrigued by the
possibility that he has been castrated: “In the dance nothing was still and yet
everything was still… . What had been hidden from me was revealed. I saw, or, I
VKRXOGVD\P\H\HVZHUHRSHQWRZKDWZDVSUHVHQWWRWKHP´)%DUWRQWKXV
convinces herself that she still has failed to unearth the truth of Friday because,
though she is presented with the corporeal substantiality of Friday’s body, she
LVQRWSUHVHQWHGZLWKWKHVWRU\WKHVXEVWDQFHWKLVERG\KROGV,QWKHFRQWH[WRI
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
105
the customary analogy between artistic production and sexual potency, ambiguity
VKURXGV)ULGD\¶VHPDVFXODWLRQZKLFKLVERWKOLWHUDODQG¿JXUDWLYH%\FKRRVLQJ
not to disclose Friday’s genital mutilation, Coetzee refuses to engage with the
VDPH VH[XDOL]HG IDQWDVLHV DERXW EODFN ERGLHV LQ ZKLFK KLV FKDUDFWHU %DUWRQ
participates. It is only through Barton’s lurid imagination when she draws pictures
of the missing tongue that this story is graphically depicted.
:RRG UHIRFXVHV WKH LPSHWXV RI ORRNLQJ E\ TXHVWLRQLQJ WKH UHVLGXDO HIIHFWV
of aestheticizing the tortured body. Representation is both artistically and often
institutionally problematic, he argues: assuming the authority to represent the
slave’s body is to declare authenticity and access to “a memory which lies outside
WKHREYLRXVUHVRXUFHVRI:HVWHUQDHVWKHWLFV´7KHLGLRV\QFUDWLF(OL]DEHWK
&RVWHOOR LQ &RHW]HH¶V ³7KH 3UREOHP RI (YLO´ UHSXEOLVKHG DV RQH RI WKH HLJKW
³OHVVRQV´LQElizabeth Costello>@DUJXHVWKDWZHDUHWDLQWHGE\RXUFRQWDFW
ZLWKHYLOUHSUHVHQWLQJDFWVRIHYLOGHJUDGHVDUWLVWDQGUHDGHUDOLNH3UREOHPDWLFDOO\
the graphic scenes of torture and violence in DusklandsDQGWaiting for the
Barbarians, as well as the contentious depiction of Lucy Lurie’s rape in Disgrace
WKRXJKWKHUHDGHULVRQO\SDUW\WRWKHDWWDFNRQKHUIDWKHU'DYLG, converse
with the very devils that Costello reviles.
'H¿QLQJ FRPPLWWHG DUW DV WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI D FHUWDLQ HWKRV UDWKHU WKDQ
tendentiousness, Theodor Adorno addresses the problem of evil from a different
perspective: all art, even committed forms, is produced to satiate the senses, to
EULQJEHDXW\DQGSOHDVXUHLQWRWKHZRUOGKHQFHKLVIDPRXVPD[LPWKDW³WRZULWH
O\ULFSRHWU\DIWHU$XVFKZLW]LVEDUEDULF´³&RPPLWPHQW´$GRUQRDVVHUWVWKDW
“The so-called artistic representation of the sheer physical pain of people beaten to
WKHJURXQGE\ULÀHEXWWVFRQWDLQVKRZHYHUUHPRWHO\WKHSRZHUWRHOLFLWHQMR\PHQW
RXWRILW´³&RPPLWPHQW´ Yet, reminding us of the paradox of postcolonial
DXWKRUVKLS ZLWK ZKLFK &RHW]HH¶V ¿FWLRQ FRQVLVWHQWO\ HQJDJHV WKLV SUHVHQWV XV
Adorno maintains, with a conundrum because “This suffering … also demands
WKHFRQWLQXHGH[LVWHQFHRIDUWZKLOHLWSURKLELWVLWLWLVLQDUWDORQHWKDWVXIIHULQJ
FDQVWLOO¿QGLWVRZQYRLFHFRQVRODWLRQZLWKRXWLPPHGLDWHO\EHLQJEHWUD\HGE\
LW´ ³&RPPLWPHQW´ 5HSUHVHQWLQJ WKH RWKHU WKURXJK ³ORRNLQJ´ HYHQ LQ WKH
FRQWH[WRIORRNLQJDWFXOWXUDODUWHIDFWVRQGLVSOD\WKHUHIRUHQHFHVVDULO\IDOOVEDFN
on the double bind that delineates postcolonial authorship.
3DLQVLJQL¿HVSK\VLFDOEHLQJVXEVWDQWLDOLW\DV&RHW]HHHORTXHQWO\REVHUYHV
in Doubling the Point:
:KDWHYHUHOVHWKHERG\LVQRW³WKDWZKLFKLVQRW´DQGWKHSURRIWKDWLWis is in
the pain that it feels. The body with its pain becomes a counter to the endless
trials of doubt… . it is not that one grants the authority of the suffering body: the
suffering takesWKLVDXWKRULW\WKDWLVLWVSRZHU'3
(OOHNH%RHKPHUDUJXHVQHYHUWKHOHVVWKDWFRORQLDOLVPLQVFULEHVPHDQLQJXSRQWKH
body of the other and reads this body within its own ideological parameters:
106
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
In colonial representation, exclusion or suppression can often literally be seen
DV³HPERGLHG´«WKH2WKHULVFDVWDVFRUSRUHDOFDUQDOXQWDPHGLQVWLQFWXDO
raw, and therefore also open to mastery, available for use, for husbandry, for
numbering, branding, cataloguing, description or possession … . The body
of the Other can represent only its own physicality, its own strangeness.
³7UDQV¿JXULQJ´±
The paradox of any literary representation of the enslaved or indentured other
± ZKLFK %RHKPHU VXJJHVWV LV ³PDGH WR DGYHUWLVH LWV RZQ XQNQRZQQHVV DQG
VDYDJHU\´±LVWKDWLWZLOOERWK³GLVWDQFHDQG«VDQLWL]H´WKHRWKHU³7UDQV¿JXULQJ´
<HW OLNH &RHW]HH %RHKPHU LGHQWL¿HV WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI WKH FRORQL]HG
³UHFXSHUDWH>LQJ@´ WKHLU VXEMHFWHG ERGLHV WKURXJK WKLV REMHFWLI\LQJ SK\VLFDOLW\
WKXVHQDEOLQJ³VHOIDUWLFXODWLRQ´,Q%RHKPHU¶VZRUGV³5HIXV>LQJ@WRPHDQZLWKLQ
WKHRSSUHVVRU¶VV\PEROLFV\VWHP´³7UDQV¿JXULQJ´)ULGD\GDQFHVSOD\VWKH
ÀXWH DQG VFULEHV KLHURJO\SKLFV ZKLFK DUH DOO VWUDQJH WR WKH FRORQL]HU ± &UXVR
Susan, Foe and, indeed, Coetzee.
In The Body in Pain (ODLQH 6FDUU\ FODLPV WKDW ³3K\VLFDO SDLQ GRHV
not simply resist language but actively destroys it, bringing about an immediate
UHYHUVLRQWRDVWDWHDQWHULRUWRODQJXDJHWRWKHVRXQGVDQGFULHVDKXPDQEHLQJPDNHV
EHIRUHODQJXDJHLVOHDUQHG´)RU6FDUU\VLOHQFHZKLFKLV³WKHLQH[SUHVVLELOLW\
RISDLQ´DVVXPHVRQO\LWVUHSUHVVLYHRURSSUHVVLYHTXDOLWLHVSDLQ¶V
Resistance to language is not simply one of its incidental attributes but is essential
WRZKDWLWLV«IRUSK\VLFDOSDLQ±XQOLNHDQ\RWKHUVWDWHRIFRQVFLRXVQHVV±KDV
no referential content. It is not of or forDQ\WKLQJ,WLVSUHFLVHO\EHFDXVHLWWDNHV
QR REMHFW WKDW LW PRUH WKDQ DQ\ RWKHU SKHQRPHQRQ UHVLVWV REMHFWL¿FDWLRQ LQ
ODQJXDJH6FDUU\
6FDUU\DVVHUWVWKDWWRVXIIHUSDLQLVWR³KDYHFHUWDLQW\´ZKLOVW³KHDULQJDERXWSDLQ
>LV@WRKDYHGRXEW´:KDWVKHGHVFULEHVDVSDLQ¶V³ODFNRIUHIHUHQWLDOFRQWHQW´LV
realized metaphorically as well as physically in Friday’s obscurity and resistance
to being written or read. In the context of the Friday of Foe, however, Scarry’s
WKHVLVLVIUDXJKWZLWKLGHRORJLFDOGLI¿FXOWLHVQRWOHDVWWKDWWURXEOLQJO\WKHRUL]HG
in this way, pain is analogous to Barton’s perception of Friday as unmoulded and
untutored.
As Scarry observes, the occlusions and silences which pain induces lead
ZLWQHVVHV RI WKH ERG\ LQ SDLQ WR VSHDN RQ LWV EHKDOI 7KLV KDV HWKLFRSROLWLFDO
LPSOLFDWLRQVIRUDOWKRXJKWKHQRWLRQRI³VSHDNLQJIRU´DQRWKHU¶VSDLQLVSUREOHPDWLF
DQGWKHUHDUHPDQ\PRWLYDWLRQVIRUGRLQJVRLWXVHIXOO\UHVLWXDWHVWKHGLVFRXUVH
RISDLQIURPSULYDWHVSKHUHWRSXEOLF6FDUU\1RWVSHDNLQJDERXWSDLQQHLWKHU
REMHFWLI\LQJLWV³DWWULEXWHV´QRUHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHOLQNEHWZHHQWKHVHDWWULEXWHVDQG
WKHLU VRXUFH WKH KXPDQ ERG\ ³ZLOO DOZD\V ZRUN WR DOORZ LWV DSSURSULDWLRQ DQG
FRQÀDWLRQ ZLWK GHEDVHG IRUPV RI SRZHU FRQYHUVHO\ WKH VXFFHVVIXO H[SUHVVLRQ
RISDLQZLOODOZD\VZRUNWRH[SRVHDQGPDNHLPSRVVLEOHWKDWDSSURSULDWLRQDQG
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
107
FRQÀDWLRQ´ 6FDUU\ 1HYHUWKHOHVV GHVSLWH RIIHULQJ XVHIXO LQVLJKWV LQWR WKH
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQSDLQDQGODQJXDJHDQGLQWRWKHHWKLFRSROLWLFDOUDPL¿FDWLRQV
of the silences pain engenders, The Body in Pain, purporting to be empirically
JURXQGHGLVRYHUO\UHOLDQWXSRQHDV\UKHWRULFDQG³HYLGHQFH´GUDZQIURPOLWHUDWXUH
FI 6LQJHU¶V UHYLHZ RI 6FDUU\ ³8QVSHDNDEOH$FWV´ 7KRXJK 6FDUU\¶V ZRUN
LV WKHUHIRUH XVHIXO IRU UHDGLQJ WKH ¿JXUDWLYH ODQJXDJH RI OLWHUDWXUH LWV LQWHJULW\
applied to the material world is exercised.
7KH¿QDOIDQWDVWLFDOVHFWLRQRIFoeZLWKLWVDOWHUQDWLYHPHWD¿FWLRQDOHQGLQJV
WKURZVWKHWUXWKRIWKHSUHFHGLQJQDUUDWLYHLQWRTXHVWLRQ1RWRQO\LVWKHUHDGHU
OLNH%DUWRQDQG)RH³ORVWLQWKHPD]HRIGRXEWLQJ´VXFKDQHQGLQJWKUHDWHQVWR
undermine the modicum of autonomy that Friday does achieve. Of course, that
WKLVDXWRQRP\LVFRQIHUUHGE\&RHW]HHDOZD\VULVNVGLPLQLVKLQJLWVHWKLFRSROLWLFDO
achievements. Foe’s house is entered twice by an unnamed narrator – a number of
FULWLFVKDYHVSHFXODWHGWKDWWKLVPLJKWEH&RHW]HHVHHIRUH[DPSOH3HWHUVHQ
Head, J. M. Coetzee%HJDPRUSHUKDSVLWLVVLPSO\WKHJHQHULFDXWKRU
On both occasions Susan and Foe, side by side, lie dead on Foe’s bed and Friday
OLHVQHDUE\,QWKH¿UVWLQVWDQFHWKHQDUUDWRUDWWHPSWVWRSULVH)ULGD\¶VWHHWKDSDUW
to extract meaning, as Barton has attempted to give him voice. Echoing Caliban
±³%HQRWDIHDUGWKHLVOHLVIXOORIQRLVHV´The Tempest$FW6FHQH±)ULGD\
LVWLHGHPRWLRQDOO\FXOWXUDOO\SHUKDSVVSLULWXDOO\WRWKHFRORQLDOLVODQG³)URP
KLVPRXWK«LVVXHWKHVRXQGVRIWKHLVODQG´)
+DYLQJ DOUHDG\ EHHQ SRVLWLRQHG DV LQWHUURJDWLYH UHDGHUV ZKR TXHVWLRQ WKH
authority of the text and its author, we recognize that Friday’s attachment to the
LVODQGPXVWEHDSSURDFKHGZLWKFDXWLRQSHUKDSVLWVLJQL¿HVDSODFHRIERQGDJH
DVWKH¿QDOSDVVDJHRIWKHQRYHOLQWLPDWHVWKURXJKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHVXQNHQVODYH
ship. Friday, the African slave and castaway, in Coetzee’s Robinsonade is as out
RISODFHRQWKHLVODQGDVKHLVLQPHWURSROLWDQ/RQGRQXQOLNH'HIRH¶VFKDUDFWHU
ZKRIURPWKHLVODQGZHDWKHUSHUPLWWLQJFDQVHHKLVKRPH$VDFDVWDZD\)ULGD\
LVVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQYHQWLRQVRIWKHJHQUHWKHUHPRWHQHVVRIWKHLVODQGSURYLGLQJ
the necessary conditions for distilling the self. If Crusoe’s return to England in
Robinson CrusoeLVQHFHVVDU\IRUKLPWRUHDI¿UPWKHP\WKVRIFRORQLDOHQWHUSULVH
Friday’s time in London in Foe anticipates the end of Empire and atonement for
the atrocities committed in its name. As emblem of the slave trade, he is bringing
its dirty message home.
The unnamed narrator enters the house for a second time, tacitly
DFNQRZOHGJLQJDV+HDGVXJJHVWVWKH³LQDGHTXDF\RIWKH¿UVWDWWHPSWÉHFDXVH
the “association of Friday merely with the sounds of the island can be seen as
D FRQWLQXLQJ PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQ D VWHUHRW\SLFDO LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH µQDWLYH¶ ZLWK
µQDWLYHFXOWXUH¶´J. M. Coetzee7KLVWLPHWKHQDUUDWRUREVHUYHVDSODTXH
bearing the inscription “Daniel Defoe, Author´RQWKHZDOODPHWD¿FWLRQDOVLJQ
Attwell argues, that positions us in the world of the original Crusoe story, in the
UHDOPRIWKHOLWHUDU\KLVWRU\ZHNQHZEHIRUHWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIFoe (J. M. Coetzee
$OOWKUHH¿JXUHVOLHGHDG)RHDQG6XVDQLQDFDVXDOHPEUDFHDQGDVFDUQRZ
YLVLEOHDURXQG)ULGD\¶VQHFN³OLNHDQHFNODFHOHIWE\DURSHRUFKDLQ´)
108
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
7KLVPDUNQRWRQO\UHFDOOVWKHWZRSRXFKHV)ULGD\KDVZRUQ±WKH¿UVWKROGLQJ
the petals, the second the letter that grants his freedom – but also the chains of
slavery. The narrator discovers Barton’s crumbling narrative in a dispatch box
ZKLFKKDVQHYHUEHHQSXEOLVKHGWKHUHE\IRUFHIXOO\UHMHFWLQJWKH³WUXWK´RIWKH
preceding text once again.
,QWKHWKLUGHQGLQJGLYLQJLQWRWKHRSDTXHUHDOPVRIPHWD¿FWLRQWKHXQQDPHG
QDUUDWRUVZLPVLQWRWKHZUHFNDJHRIDVKLSDQGFRPHVXSRQWKHVZROOHQEORDWHG
bodies of Barton and the captain, then Friday. :LWK D FKDLQ DURXQG KLV QHFN
)ULGD\LVPDUNHGHPSKDWLFDOO\DVFDUJRRQDVODYHVKLSDUHYHODWLRQZKLFKDJDLQ
repositions the whole of the preceding narrative and Barton’s place as narrator
within it. In the light of the fact that it is not only Barton but Friday, too, who
has been cast away, the story of the island is claimed, not reclaimed (because the
0LGGOH3DVVDJHUHQGHUV)ULGD\GLVSODFHGDVKLV/LNH%DUWRQ¶VHIIRUWVWRWHDFK
)ULGD\WR³VSHDN´WKHQDUUDWRU¶VTXHVWLRQ³ZKDWVKLSLVWKLV"´SURYHVIXWLOHIRUDV
WKHQDUUDWRUTXLFNO\UHDOL]HV³WKLVLVQRWDSODFHRIZRUGV«7KLVLVDSODFHZKHUH
ERGLHVDUHWKHLURZQVLJQV,WLVWKHKRPHRI)ULGD\´)$JDLQWKHQDUUDWRU
WULHVWRH[HUWDXWKRULW\RYHU)ULGD\³WU\LQJWR¿QGDZD\LQ´WRKLVPRXWK,WRSHQV
KLVEUHDWK³ÀRZVXSWKURXJKKLVERG\DQGRXWXSRQPH«LWUXQVQRUWKZDUGDQG
VRXWKZDUGWRWKHHQGVRIWKHHDUWK´),I)ULGD\¶VDXWRQRP\LVOLPLWHGWKH
symbolic resonance of this scene, as Friday’s voice lyrically embraces the world, is
not. Reading blindness as a metaphor for insight, Wood imagines: “what that water
tells us, as it beats on the eyelids, is that the memory of slavery belongs to all of us,
DQGUHTXLUHVRXUDFNQRZOHGJHPHQWLIRQO\ZHGDUHWRORRN´1HYHUWKHOHVV
this illusory place is consigned to the peripheral and destabilizing world of textual
play and as a gesture of the other’s resistance, is therefore moot. As Sue Kossew
VXJJHVWVWKHVHFORVLQJSDVVDJHVPLJKWVLPSO\FRQ¿UPWKDWWKHWH[WLWVHOIWULHVWR
H[WUDFWPHDQLQJIURP)ULGD\³LQWKHQDPHRILQWHUHVWVWKDWDUHQRWKLVRZQ´Pen
DQG6SLYDNFRQFOXGHV³)ULGD\LVDI¿UPHGWREHWKHUHWKHPDUJLQFDXJKWLQ
WKHHPSLUHRIVLJQV´/LNH.RVVHZ6SLYDNDGYLVHVYLJLODQFHLQLQWHUSUHWLQJWKLV
HQGLQJIRUVKHVXJJHVWV³ZHDOVRNQRZWKDW&RHW]HH¶VERRNZDUQVWKDW)ULGD\¶V
ERG\LVQRWLWVRZQVLJQ´³7KHRU\LQWKH0DUJLQ´
If FoeLVDQRYHODERXWWKHZULWLQJRIDFRORQLDOLVWERRNDQGWKHSRZHULPEXHG
WKHUHLQ DQG )ULGD\ PHWDSKRULFDOO\ UHDOL]HV 6DLG¶V ³GLVFXUVLYH VLWXDWLRQ´ WKH
problem of interpretation is integral to them both. Coetzee has set himself the
LQVXSHUDEOHWDVNRIGLVFORVLQJZKLOVWQRWGLVFORVLQJWKHWDERRRI)ULGD\¶VWRQJXHDQG
WKURXJKLWWKHTXHVWLRQRIVXEDOWHUQDJHQF\3DUU\LVULJKWWKDW&RHW]HHREMHFWL¿HV
Friday within the same parameters he brings to bear on the colonizing mission.
$OWKRXJK &RHW]HH GLVSOD\V D UHVSRQVLELOLW\ IRU WKH RWKHU KH WDNHV D WKHRORJLFDO
category into the social realm without really contemplating the problems of the
transfer. But above all, is Coetzee not concerned with the limitations of the author
in representing others’ stories, with the problems that this activity occasions, all the
WLPHDFXWHO\DZDUHWKDWLQ6DLG¶VZRUGV³WH[WVDUHIXQGDPHQWDOO\IDFWVRISRZHU´"
Barton realizes this when it dawns upon her that all the while she has been driven
Bodying Forth the Other: Friday and the “Discursive Situation” in Foe
109
WRVHHNRXW)ULGD\¶VVXEVWDQFHQHJOHFWLQJWKHIDFWWKDWKLVVXEVWDQWLDOLW\SUH¿JXUHV
DQ\FRORQLDOLVWVWRU\WKDWPLJKWEHWROGDERXWKLP
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 6
Writing in the Face of Death:
³)DOVH(W\PRORJLHV´DQG³+RPH7UXWKV´
in the Age of Iron
Death is the only truth left.
J. M. Coetzee, Age of Iron 23
,IWKHZKLWHZULWHULVWREUHDNRXWRIKLVGRXEOHDOLHQDWLRQKHWRR>OLNHKLVEODFN
counterpart] has to recognize a false consciousness within himself, he too has to
GLVFDUG D ZKLWHEDVHG YDOXHV\VWHP ZKLFK LW LV IDVKLRQDEOH WR VD\ ³QR ORQJHU´
corresponds to the real entities of South African life but which in fact never did.
Nadine Gordimer, The Essential Gesture 138–39
The protagonist Mrs. Curren of J. M. Coetzee’s sixth novel Age of IronLV
dying of cancer and the text notionally constitutes the letter she is writing to her
GDXJKWHU ZKR LQ D V\PEROLF VWDQG DJDLQVW DSDUWKHLG KDV TXLW 6RXWK$IULFD IRU
the U.S. The letter includes dialogue and description and is written over a period
of three years from the mid to late 1980s, the waning but most virulent years of
DSDUWKHLGPDNLQJLWDV'RPLQLF+HDGREVHUYHVDQLPSUREDEOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQWR
her daughter (J. M. Coetzee7KHHSLVWRODU\FRQFHLWUHSUHVHQWVDFRQIHVVLRQ
of sorts by which Mrs. Curren bares her soul: hers is the confessant’s struggle for
endings. Her monologue (although it contains dialogue, it represents a letter from
RQHSHUVRQWRDQRWKHULVDGGUHVVHGWRERWKKHUGDXJKWHUDQGWRWKHXQUHVSRQVLYH
DQGDORRIYDJUDQW9HUFXHLOZKRKDVWDNHQUHVLGHQFHXQLQYLWHGLQKHUKRXVHDQG
ZKRP VKH UHTXHVWV WR DFW DV KHU ³PHVVHQJHU´ $, 9HUFXHLO LV UHTXLUHG WR
post the letter after KHU GHDWK ³7KDW LV WKH LPSRUWDQW SDUW´ VKH VD\V >$, @
in order she implies that the gesture is not construed as self-interested and an
attempt to persuade her daughter to return to home. However, what is initiated as
DWRNHQRIDIIHFWLRQVLPXOWDQHRXVO\VHUYHVDVDUHYLVLRQLQJRI0UV&XUUHQ¶VRZQ
ethico-political consciousness in which she articulates her profound anxiety at her
unwilling complicity, as white, in apartheid oppression. The letter gives her the
RSSRUWXQLW\WRH[SLDWHDQG¿QGDEVROXWLRQIURPKHUVHQVHRIJXLOWDQGVKDPHIRU
³VWD\LQJRQ´³7KRXJK>FRORQLDOLVP@ZDVQRWDFULPH,DVNHGWREHFRPPLWWHGLW
ZDVFRPPLWWHGLQP\QDPH´VKHVD\V$,
Mrs. Curren is striving for truths, both private and political ones. Through the
process of writing and linguistic fashioning, she struggles to get her voice publically
heard. As Edward Said has suggested in the context of the public intellectual,
112
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
³.QRZLQJKRZWRXVHODQJXDJHZHOODQGNQRZLQJZKHQWRLQWHUYHQHLQODQJXDJH
DUHWZRHVVHQWLDOIHDWXUHVRILQWHOOHFWXDODFWLRQ´Representations%\PHDQV
RIDVFUXSXORXVUHJDUGIRUODQJXDJHQRWXQOLNH&RHW]HH¶VVKHLVDQHW\PRORJLVWE\
SURIHVVLRQVKHQRWRQO\YRLFHVKHUGLVWUXVWRIRUWKRGR[EHOLHIE\FKDOOHQJLQJWKH
IRUFHVRIVWDWHRSSUHVVLRQDQGPLOLWDQWUHVLVWDQFHWKDWVKHVHHVDVUXQQLQJDPRN
in 1980s Cape Town, but ultimately is forced by her personal experience of these
YLROHQWWLPHVWRUHWKLQNKHURZQHWKLFRSROLWLFDOZRUOGYLHZ,WLVP\FRQWHQWLRQ
WKDW WKURXJK WKLV ODQJXDJH ZRUN 0UV &XUUHQ FRPHV WR WKH UHDOL]DWLRQ WKDW KHU
political belief is compromised by her private anguish, rendering the public
SURQRXQFHPHQWVWKDWVKHGRHVPDNHXQWHQDEOHLQWKH³DJHRILURQ´
7KURXJKWKHPRWLIRIODVWZRUGVWKHWH[WUHTXLUHVXVWRDVNZKHWKHU0UV&XUUHQ¶V
VWDWH RI QHDUGHDWK IDFLOLWDWHV D WUXWKIXO ZKDW &RHW]HH ZRXOG FDOO ³KHDUWIHOW´
UHQGHULQJRIWKHFRQWH[WIURPZKLFKVKHVSHDNV'RHVZULWLQJLQWKHIDFHRIGHDWK
DOWHUKHUSRVLWLRQLQJWRZDUGVWKHEODFNUHYROXWLRQDULHVWKHQRYHOSRUWUD\V"6KHLV
resolutely and entirely anti-violence and her ethics are humanist. (Her visceral
response to violence, including the violence of revolutionary struggle, would also
be Coetzee’s, who is ready to admit he is “unable to, or refuse[s] to, conceive of
DOLEHUDWLQJYLROHQFH´>'3@,VWKLVVLPSO\OLEHUDOSRVWXULQJZLWKLWVVSHFL¿F
South African connotations of ineffectuality and of turning a blind eye or can
GHDWKSURYLGHDVSDFHIRU0UV&XUUHQWRVSHDNKHUPLQG"6KHLPDJLQHVWKHER\
revolutionary John goading her: “What is the point of consuming yourself in shame
DQGORDWKLQJ"«ZK\GRQ¶W\RXdoVRPHWKLQJ"´$,'RHVWKHQRYHOLPSO\
that political commitment sanctions the expression of the self in ways that echo the
SROLFLQJRIVRFLHW\DQGFXOWXUHE\DSDUWKHLGQDPHO\WKURXJKPRGHVRI³FHQVRUVKLS´
ERWK RI WKH VHOI DQG WKH VWDWH" $ GLUHFW FRPSDULVRQ RI WKHVH WZR PRGHV ZRXOG
EHJURVVO\PLVSODFHGJLYHQWKHVHYHUHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIVWDWHLQVWLWXWHGFHQVRUVKLS
SUDFWLFHGE\WKH$IULNDQHU1DWLRQDO3DUW\GXULQJWKLVSHULRG
Mrs. Curren learns of her personal tragedy on the day that Vercueil arrives in
KHUOLIH9HUFXHLODVHPEOHPRIDQDWLRQDOPDODLVHLVWKHUHIRUHLQGHOLEO\OLQNHGWR
Mrs. Curren’s disease. Mrs. Curren tells John that her cancer is the birthing of a
personal and collective crisis of conscience about apartheid oppression: “I have
cancer from the accumulation of shame I have endured in my life. That is how
cancer comes about: from self-loathing the body turns malignant and begins to
HDWDZD\DWLWVHOI´$,:KLOHVKHPRXUQVWKHORVVRIKHUUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK
her daughter – there is no communication between them during the time of the
narrative as the letter has not yet been posted – she conceives the news of her
WXPRXUDVDNLQGRIPDFDEUHKRPHFRPLQJZLWKDQHZERUQ³,WZDVIRUPHWRWDNH
LQP\DUPVDQGIROGWRP\FKHVWDQGWDNHKRPHZLWKRXWKHDGVKDNLQJZLWKRXW
WHDUV´$,/DWHUDVVKHKROGVLQKHUKDQGVWKHEOHHGLQJKHDGRI-RKQZKRKDV
been run off his bicycle by the police, she is tortured by the image of this terrible
ELUWK³0RQVWURXVJURZWKVPLVELUWKVDVLJQWKDWRQHLVEH\RQGRQH¶VWHUP´$,
&DQFHUWKHUHIRUHVLJQDOVQRWRQO\0UV&XUUHQ¶VLPPLQHQWGHDWKEXWDOVRWKH
LPSRVVLEOHELUWKRIDQDIÀLFWHGQDWLRQ
Writing in the Face of Death
113
The narrative maps a tension between public and private entirely relevant to its
contexts, the interregnum of late 1980s’ South Africa: that period of uncertainty
EHWZHHQ UHJLPHV 7KH SROLF\ RI ³WRWDO VWUDWHJ\´ D WHUP FRLQHG E\ WKH )UHQFK
general Beaufré who, according to William Beinart, “emphasized that in modern
ZDUIDUH WKH ZKROH VRFLHW\ VKRXOG EH LQYROYHG LQ D µGLDOHFWLF RI WZR RSSRVLQJ
ZLOOV¶´ZDVGXULQJWKHWLPHRIWKHQDUUDWLYHLQLWLDWHGE\WKHJRYHUQPHQWLQDODVW
GLWFKDWWHPSWWRVKRUHXSLWVUDSLGO\GLPLQLVKLQJSRZHU%HLQDUW%RWK
)ORUHQFHPRWKHURIFKLOGUHYROXWLRQDU\%KHNLDQGWKH$IULNDQHUSROLFHLQVLVWWKH
GRPDLQRIWKHSULYDWHLVRYHUDQGWKDW0UV&XUUHQZULWLQJKHU³SULYDWHSDSHUV´
$,LVWKXVRXWRIV\QFZLWKWKHWLPHV5LÀLQJWKURXJKKHUOHWWHUVWKH
detective searching her house is uncompromising: “This is not private, Mrs. Curren.
<RXNQRZWKDW1RWKLQJLVSULYDWHDQ\PRUH´$,6LPLODUO\FKDOOHQJHGE\
Mrs. Curren for losing authority of her child, Florence retorts: “It is all changed
WRGD\ 7KHUH DUH QR PRUH PRWKHUV DQG IDWKHUV´ $, ,QGHHG 0UV &XUUHQ¶V
RXWVSRNHQQHVVRQPDWWHUVRISROLWLFVKHUDYHUVLRQWRSROLWLFDOGRJPDRIDQ\KXH
LVXQGHUFXWE\SHUVRQDODQ[LHW\$OWKRXJKWKHOHWWHULVKHU¿QDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQWR
an absent daughter, it becomes a conduit for getting her voice heard on what she
regards as the wanton violence not only of the state but of the revolutionaries as
ZHOO<HWDVKHUGUDPDRIFRQVFLRXVQHVVXQIROGVWKURXJKWKHOHWWHUVKHTXHVWLRQV
KHU ULJKW WR VSHDN RXW RQ PDWWHUV RI SROLWLFV IURP D SRVLWLRQ ± OLEHUDOLVP± WKDW
KDVEHHQGHQLJUDWHGE\WKH6RXWK$IULFDQOHIWDVSROLWLFDOTXLHWLVP0RUHRYHUDV
her efforts to distinguish the political from her cocoon of privacy become more
obviously futile and inept, she recognizes that her public protestations are marred
E\SHUVRQDOVHOILQWHUHVWDQGDQDEMHFWIHDURIGHDWK
&RHW]HHQRWHVWKDWKLVQRYHOVRIWHQVWDJHD³FRQWHVWRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQVÉHWZHHQ
WKH HWKLFDO DQG WKH SROLWLFDO '3 ,GHQWLI\LQJ D SURFOLYLW\ IRU WKH HWKLFDO LQ
KLV¿FWLRQKHDUJXHVQRQHWKHOHVVWKDW³WKHODVWWKLQJ,ZDQWWRGRLVWRGH¿DQWO\
embrace the ethical as against the political. I don’t want to contribute, in that way,
WRZDUGPDUNLQJWKHHWKLFDOSROHZLWKWKHODFN´'33XWDQRWKHUZD\&RHW]HH
espouses the ethical as a correctiveWRWKHSROLWLFDO$WWULGJH³7UXVWLQJ´'HUHN
$WWULGJHGH¿QHVWKHWHUPVDVWKH\DUHDVVLJQHGLQWKHRHXYUH³WKHHWKLFDOLQYROYHV
DQDOZD\VFRQWH[WXDOL]HGUHVSRQVLYHQHVVDQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRWKHRWKHUDVXQLTXH
DQGWRWKHIXWXUHDVXQNQRZDEOHZKLOHWKHSROLWLFDOLVWKHUHDOPRIJHQHUDOL]DWLRQV
SURJUDPVDQGSUHGLFWLRQV´³7UXVWLQJ´±,WLV0UV&XUUHQ¶VVWUXJJOHWRDSSO\
her ethical code to correct the political, a struggle that on a political level fails, upon
ZKLFKLQWKLVQRYHO&RHW]HH¶V³FRQWHVWRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQV´VHOIFRQVFLRXVO\WXUQV
6RZKLOVWWKHQDUUDWLYHOD\VEDUHWKHVWDUNLQWLPDFLHVRIGHDWKLWLVDOVRGHHSO\
rooted in the public disgrace of apartheid. That the novel accurately portrays the
JDQJV RI :LWGRHNH DJLWDWHG E\ WKH VHFXULW\ IRUFHV EXUQLQJ GRZQ WKH LQIRUPDO
VKDQWLHVRIWKH&DSH)ODWV$,IRULQVWDQFHDQGWKDWWKHGDXJKWHU¶VGHFLVLRQ
WRTXLW6RXWK$IULFDLQFRLQFLGHVZLWKWKH6RZHWRSURWHVWVPHDQVWKDWWKH
114
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
novel can be readily historicized.1 It would not be improbable to imagine that
in Age of Iron Coetzee answers Gordimer’s criticisms that the earlier Life &
Times of Michael K³GHQLHVWKHHQHUJ\RIWKHZLOOWRUHVLVWHYLO´DQGWKDW
Coetzee fails to recognize the very real achievements of “the victims, who no
ORQJHUVHHWKHPVHOYHVDVYLFWLPV´*RUGLPHU³,GHD´±Age of Iron explicitly
DQGSRZHUIXOO\HQJDJHVZLWKWKHSROLWLFDODQGZKDWLVPRUHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQ
WKHRHXYUHEODFNYRLFHVDUHSRUWUD\HGZLWKWDQJLEOHSROLWLFDODJHQF\$VEODFN
resistance to apartheid gathers strength in response, for instance, to the States of
Emergency of 1985–90 and opposition to apartheid internationally grows more
HIIHFWLYHFI%HLQDUW&RHW]HH¶VFULWLTXHVKLIWVIRFXVWRWKHPDQQHUDQGPRGH
of political commitment itself.
7KHSROLWLFDOLQWUDFWDELOLW\0UV&XUUHQ¿QGVVRGLVTXLHWLQJJRHVWRWKHKHDUW
RIWKHQRYHOFDSWXUHGLQLWVWLWOH³DJHRILURQÚHIHUVYDULRXVO\WRWKHLURQZLOO
RIWKHEODFNFKLOGUHYROXWLRQDULHVWRWKHGDXJKWHU¶VLURQUHVROYHQRWWRUHWXUQWR
South Africa while the National Party holds power, to Mrs. Curren’s doggedness
both in not persuading her daughter to return and her own political will, and to
the iron laws of parenting to which both Mrs. Curren and Florence are party (AI
0RVWREYLRXVO\WKHDJHRILURQLVDOVRWKHXQEHQGLQJODZ
RIWKHUHJLPHDQGVWDWHRSSUHVVLRQ$,DQGH[SUHVVHVWKHVHQVHRIDUUHVWHG
development that characterized apartheid’s reactionary nationalism. In a novel that
SRUWUD\VWKHFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHVWDWHDQGWKHLQVXUJHQWVZKRDUHEODFNDVZHOO
DVVRFDOOHGEODFNRQEODFNYLROHQFH³ZKLWH´LVLGHQWL¿HGE\0UV&XUUHQDV³WKH
FRORXURIOLPER´$,
0UV&XUUHQLVKDXQWHGE\WKHVLOHQFHGEODFNYRLFHVLQ6RXWK$IULFD¶VKLVWRU\
RIFRORQLDODQGDSDUWKHLGUXOH5HFDOOLQJWKHUHVXUIDFLQJEODFNFRUSVHLQ1DGLQH
Gordimer’s The Conservationist VKHZULWHV
ZKHQ,ZDONXSRQ«WKLV6RXWK$IULFD,KDYHDJDWKHULQJIHHOLQJRIZDONLQJ
XSRQEODFNIDFHV«0LOOLRQVRI¿JXUHVRISLJLURQÀRDWLQJXQGHUWKHVNLQRIWKH
HDUWK7KHDJHRILURQZDLWLQJWRUHWXUQ$,
6RXWK$IULFD¶VRSSUHVVHG\HWLUUHSUHVVLEOHEODFNSUHVHQFHLVDOOHJRUL]HGDVZDLWLQJ
IRULWVPRPHQWRIUHWXUQ%\LPDJLQLQJWKDWVKHZDONV³XSRQ´WKHIDFHVRIWKHGHDG
DQGWKHJURXQGLPELEHGE\WKHOHJDF\RIDSDUWKHLG0UV&XUUHQDFNQRZOHGJHVKHU
SULYLOHJHDQGSRZHUDQGLQWXUQKHUFRPSOLFLW\LQEODFNRSSUHVVLRQ7KDWWKLVLVD
³JDWKHULQJIHHOLQJ´LVLQGLFDWLYHRIDFRQVFLRXVQHVVLQWUDQVLWLRQ'RPLQLF+HDG
LGHQWL¿HVDQLQFRQVLVWHQF\KRZHYHUEHWZHHQWKLVQRYHODQG&RHW]HH¶VDUJXPHQW
1
In 1986 the pass laws were rescinded in response to the exponential rise in illegal
VTXDWWHUVHWWOHPHQWVE\WKHHQGRIWKHGHFDGHWKH&DSH)ODWVH[WHQGLQJIURP&DSH7RZQWKDW
were virtually uninhabited at the beginning of the decade were populated by an estimated
WKUHHTXDUWHUVRIDPLOOLRQVHWWOHUV%HLQDUW[YL7KH:LWGRHNHQDPHGDIWHULWV
ZKLWHKHDGEDQGVZDVRQHRIDQXPEHURIEODFNYLJLODQWHJURXSVWKDWRSHUDWHGEHWZHHQ0D\
DQG-XQHEXUQLQJGRZQWKHVHVTXDWWHUFDPSV+HDGJ. M. Coetzee±
Writing in the Face of Death
115
in White WritingDERXWThe Conservationist that, in Head’s words, “casts
doubt on the validity of the symbol of ownership of the land, contained in the
PRWLIRIWKHUHVXUIDFLQJFRUSVH´J. M. Coetzee::1HYHUWKHOHVV+HDG
goes on, Coetzee puts the motif to the same purpose in this novel “in a steely
LPDJHZKLFKUHGRXEOHVDVHQVHRIZKLWHFRPSOLFLW\´J. M. Coetzee
7KH 6RXWK $IULFD &RHW]HH SRUWUD\V LV DSRFDO\SWLF DQG OLNH D VFHQH IURP
%RVFKLVSHRSOHGE\WKHLQVDQHDQGFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\LPDJHVRIGLVHDVH¿UHDQG
damnation. Indeed, Hell in Mrs. Curren’s narrative emanates from South Africa’s
SHUYDVLYHLGHRORJLHV³+DGHV+HOOWKHGRPDLQRILGHDV´$,,WLVJKRXOLVKO\
¿WWLQJ WKDW 0UV &XUUHQ LQWHQGV WR SURWHVW DJDLQVW WKH UHJLPH E\ VHWWLQJ ¿UH WR
herself, though she later reneges on this decision. Caught up in the violence of the
:LWGRHNHYLJLODQWHVVKHLVLQFHQVHGDQGFRQIRXQGHGE\WKHLQWUDQVLJHQFHRIWKH
$IULNDQHUSROLFHZKLFKVKHFRQVWUXHVDVDNLQGRILQVDQLW\³$OORIXVUXQQLQJPDG
possessed by devils. When madness climbs the throne, who in the land escapes the
FRQWDJLRQ"´$,:KDW&RHW]HHZULWHVDERXWWKHVFHQHLQ*RUGLPHU¶VQRYHO
Burger’s DaughterLQZKLFKWKHSURWDJRQLVW5RVD%XUJHUZLWQHVVHVDPDQ
EHDWLQJKLVGRQNH\UHVRQDWHVKHUH³7KHVSHFWDFOHFRPHVIURPWKHLQQHUUHDFKHVRI
'DQWH¶VKHOOEH\RQGWKHVFRSHRIPRUDOLW\´'3±
0UV&XUUHQMRLQVWKHUDQNVRI&RHW]HH¶VFRQVFLHQFHVWULFNHQZULWHUVIRUKHU
letter is a confession of sorts in its pursuit of personal and political truths. (It is
clear that she also understands that there can be a moral value in lying because,
for altruistic ends, she lies on three occasions: to save Vercueil’s dignity, she lies
WRWKHQHLJKERXUZKRLQIRUPVKHUWKDWDYDJUDQWKDVEHHQVHHQRQKHUSURSHUW\
VKHOLHVWRWKHSROLFHLQRUGHUWKDWVKHPLJKWJRLQVHDUFKRI%KHNLDQGVKHFODLPV
ownership of John’s gun to protect him from the police. Mrs. Curren also lies
when she explains the meaning of charity to Vercueil, a point that I elaborate
EHORZ7KURXJKKHULQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK9HUFXHLODQG-RKQ0UV&XUUHQUHDOL]HVWKDW
ZKDWVKHFDOOVKHU³UHVXUUHFWLRQ´$,LQDIDPLOLDU&RHW]HDQWURSHZLOORQO\
FRPHWKURXJK³ORYLQJWKHXQORYDEOH´VLQFHVHOÀHVVO\LQYHVWLQJLQWKHRWKHUHQVXUHV
the most ethically pure actions:
7KDWLVP\¿UVWZRUGP\¿UVWFRQIHVVLRQ«,ZDQWWREHVDYHG+RZVKDOO,
EH VDYHG" %\ GRLQJ ZKDW , GR QRW ZDQW WR GR « , PXVW ORYH¿UVW RI DOOWKH
unlovable. [John] is here for a reason. He is part of my salvation. I must love
KLP$,±
Up until this point Mrs. Curren has been unable to garner the inner resources to act
out of love, though she has shown charity. She lies to protect John from the police
DQGLVXQDIUDLGWRVSHDNRXWLQKLVGHIHQFHJHWWLQJKHUGLVJXVWDWKLVWUHDWPHQWDW
WKHKDQGVRIWKHSROLFHKHDUG±KHLV³MXVWDFKLOG´VKHUHPRQVWUDWHVZLWKWKHP$,
/LNHZLVHWKURXJKWKHERQGRIWUXVWZLWK9HUFXHLOWKDWVORZO\HYROYHV
VKHEHOLHYHVVKHZLOO¿QGVDQFWXDU\VHOIIRUJLYHQHVVZLWKLQKHUVHOI+HUFLUFXODU
sense of logic tells her:
116
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Because I cannot trust Vercueil I must trust him … I give my life to Vercueil to
carry over. I trust Vercueil because I do not love Vercueil. I love him because I
GRQRWORYHKLP%HFDXVHKHLVWKHZHDNUHHG,OHDQXSRQKLP$,±
0UV&XUUHQKDVQRWHYHQEHHQVXUHRI9HUFXHLO¶VQDPHVKHWHOOV)ORUHQFH³+LV
QDPHLV0U9HUFXHLO«9HUFXHLO9HUNXLO9HUVNXLO7KDW¶VZKDWKHVD\V´$,
,Q$IULNDDQV³YHUNXO´PHDQV³WRFKHDW´DQG³YHUVNXLO´PHDQVWRKLGHRUFRQFHDO
emphasizing the inscrutability otherness such as Vercueil’s vagrancy and racial
LGHQWLW\HQFRGHV$WWZHOO³'LDORJXH´+HDGJ. M. Coetzee2
0UV&XUUHQWKXVVHHNVUHGHPSWLRQWKURXJKKHUUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWK-RKQDQGWKH
GHUHOLFW9HUFXHLOZKRP'DYLG$WWZHOOQDPHVKHU³$QJHORI'HDWKÉHFDXVHLQWKH
FORVLQJVHTXHQFH9HUFXHLOVTXHH]HVWKHOLIHIRUFHIURPKHUERG\'3VHHDOVR
$WWZHOO³'LDORJXH´±1RWRQO\GRHVWKHFDUHVKHVKRZVWKHVHWZR¿OOWKH
gap left by her self-exiled daughter, it leads her to reassess her perception of those
from whom she felt alienated, including the political activists. In this way private
H[SHULHQFH VKDSHV DQG GH¿QHV KHU FRQFHSWLRQ RI WKH SROLWLFDO 8QGHU DSDUWKHLG
politico-historical truths were actively suppressed and distorted yet, Mrs. Curren
believes, the forces of opposition are also purveyors of untruths: “Calvin victorious,
UHERUQLQWKHGRJPDWLVWVDQGZLWFKKXQWHUVRIERWKDUPLHV´$,+HURZQTXHVW
IRUWUXWKKRZHYHUERWKKHUVRXOVHDUFKLQJDQGTXHVWLRQLQJRISROLWLFDORUWKRGR[LHV
OHDGVWRDSROLWLFDOHSLSKDQ\WRWKHUHDOL]DWLRQIROORZLQJWKHGLVFRYHU\RI%KHNL¶V
ERG\³1RZ>KHU@H\HVDUHRSHQDQG>VKH@FDQQHYHUFORVHWKHPDJDLQ´$,
0UV&XUUHQLVWKHDQWLWKHVLVRIWKH'RVWRHYVNLDQFRQIHVVDQWZKRDFFRUGLQJ
WR &RHW]HH LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ JUDWXLWRXV ³VHOIXQPDVNLQJ´ '3 EHFDXVH
from the outset, Mrs. Curren has a profound sense of the ethical. Her sincerity, or
rather her self-belief, is not in doubt, and, within Coetzee’s model of confession,
the truthfulness of her outpourings is lent weight by her imminent death. Referring
WR'RVWRHYVN\¶V,SSROLWLQThe Idiot &RHW]HHDUJXHVWKDWWKHFRQIHVVDQWRQ
the point of death will most reliably render a truthful confession because “The
sincerity of the motive behind last confessions cannot be impugned … because
WKDWVLQFHULW\LVJXDUDQWHHGE\WKHGHDWKRIWKHFRQIHVVDQW´'32IFRXUVH
HYHQ WKH G\LQJ FRQIHVVDQW FDQ EH VHOIGHFHLYLQJ :ULWLQJ DERXW 7ROVWR\ LQ WKH
VDPHHVVD\&RHW]HHGH¿QHVWKHVLQFHULW\RIWKHG\LQJ
7KH VHQVH RI XUJHQF\ WKDW WKH FULVLV >WKH ³FRQIURQWDWLRQ ZLWK KLV RZQ GHDWK´@
brings about, the relentlessness of the process in which the self is stripped of
LWV FRPIRUWLQJ ¿FWLRQV WKH VLQJOHPLQGHGQHVV RI WKH TXHVW IRU WUXWK DOO WKHVH
TXDOLWLHVHQWHULQWRWKHWHUPsincerity'3
2
Although Vercueil’s racial identity is not disclosed, since John admonishes him for
his alcoholism in deictic terms – “TheyDUHPDNLQJyouLQWRDGRJ´HPSKDVLVDGGHG$,
±LWLVOLNHO\DV$WWULGJHVXJJHVWVWKDWKHLVEODFN³7UXVWLQJ´
Writing in the Face of Death
117
Attridge points out that because Mrs. Curren’s letter is posthumous it is given
³ZLWKRXW WKRXJKW RI UHWXUQ´ ³7UXVWLQJ´ 7KH OHWWHU DSSDUHQWO\ EUHDNV RII
DV 9HUFXHLO VTXHH]HV RXW KHU ODVW EUHDWK ,Q RQH LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ WKH QDUUDWLYH LV
EURXJKWWRDFORVHE\DQXQQDPHGQDUUDWRUZKRPZHPLJKWVXUPLVHLV&RHW]HH
an alternative might suggest that Mrs. Curren is writing at the point of death as
LQ6DPXHO%HFNHWW¶VMalone Dies LQZKLFKWKHVWRU\RI0DORQHHQGVZLWK
his words petering out on the page (Molloy+RZHYHUWKDWWKHOHWWHULVJLYHQ
without constraint does not guarantee, as Attridge claims, a fuller expression of
ORYH0UV&XUUHQ¶VVHOIGLVFORVXUHVUHYHDOWKDWWKHOHWWHULVQRWDVVHOÀHVVDQDFWRI
love as she intended, as I explain below.
At the heart of the problem of endings, Coetzee argues in Doubling the Point,
is “the debate … between cynicism and grace. Cynicism: the denial of any ultimate
basis for values. Grace: a condition in which the truth can be told clearly, without
EOLQGQHVV´'3$QWLFLSDWLQJGHDWK0UV&XUUHQJUDSSOHVZLWKWKLVGLOHPPD
ZKLFK LV PDUNHG E\ WKH KLVWRULFDO FRQGLWLRQ LQ ZKLFK VKH ¿QGV KHUVHOI 'XULQJ
the course of her story she vacillates between the poles, searching for transparent
truths but always frustrated by the impasse of political dogma, as she sees it, of
both apartheid ideology and revolutionary activism. It is in the dilemma of being
caught between cynicism and grace that the political and the ethical are liable
WRFRQYHUJH/LYLQJLQWKH³DJHRILURQ´WKHDJHRISROLWLFDOUHVROYHRQRQHVLGH
and the unbending law of the state on the other, and against her personal beliefs,
Mrs. Curren is reduced to a position of cynicism. The narrative even moots the
devastating possibility that in a place such as this grace, or truth, is no longer
attainable. Mrs. Curren’s predicament is echoed in Coetzee’s analysis of the
protagonist in Marcellus Emants’s A Posthumous Confession ³VXFKSDLQ
becomes most acute when we recognize how unbridgeably vast the gap is between
WKH LGHDO DQG WKH WUXH VHOI´ 66 7KH ORFXV RI 0UV &XUUHQ¶V FRQIHVVLRQDO
ZULWLQJVLVWKHLQFRPSDWLELOLW\RIKHULGHDOVHOIJUDFHDQGKHUWUXHVHOIF\QLFLVP
which she is always struggling to reconcile.
0UV&XUUHQLVZKDW:LOOLDP&6SHQJHPDQQPLJKWFDOOWKH³FRQYHUWHGQDUUDWRU´
TWGLQ'3ZKRVHOLIH&RHW]HHDUJXHVIDOOVLQWRDEHIRUHDQGDIWHUDQGZKRVH
³NQRZLQJFRQYHUWHGQDUUDWLQJVHOIVWDQGVLQYLVLEO\EHVLGHWKHH[SHULHQFLQJDFWLQJ
VHOI>VXFKDQDUUDWRU@WHOOVDERXW´'3RYHUVHHLQJWKHSURFHVVRIFRQYHUVLRQ
(The ending of Age of Iron lays bare its device because as Mrs. Curren draws her
last breath in the present of the narrative, the two narrating selves apparently fuse
LQWRRQH0UV&XUUHQEHOLHYHVWKDW³'HDWKLVWKHRQO\WUXWKOHIW´$,\HWFRPHV
WRUHDOL]HWKDWKHUSODQQHGSURWHVWWRVHWKHUVHOIDOLJKWLQIURQWRIWKH³+RXVHRI/LHV´
±ZKDW&RHW]HHZRXOGFDOOD³SKLORVRSKLFDOVXLFLGH´'3±ZRXOGSURYHIXWLOH
6KHEHOLHYHVWKDWLQWKHH\HVRIWKH\RXQJVKHODFNVSROLWLFDOFUHGLELOLW\LQDVPXFK
DVKHUGHDWKZRXOGVLPSO\HQGKHURZQSULYDWHSDLQ6KHUHDOL]HVWKHVHOILQWHUHVW
inherent in the suicide bid, that her motives are not generated by public duty but
by personal pain, and so, in turn, it dawns upon her that as a gesture of political
SURWHVWLWODFNVSXUFKDVH³7KHWUXWKLVWKHUHZDVDOZD\VVRPHWKLQJIDOVHDERXWWKDW
impulse, deeply false, no matter what rage or despair it answered… . Will the lies
118
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
VWRSEHFDXVHDVLFNROGZRPDQNLOOVKHUVHOI"´$,0UV&XUUHQXQGHUJRHVD
political enlightenment only in the sense that she is confronted with the realities of
oppression which will harden her ethical resolve.
It is via Mrs. Curren’s engagement with ethics of care, trust, love and so on,
WKDWVKHPDNHVLQWHUYHQWLRQVLQWRWKHSROLWLFDO7KHOHWWHULVSULPDULO\DJLIWDQGLV
intended as an act of love – “my daughter’s inheritance. They are all I can give her,
DOOVKHZLOODFFHSWFRPLQJIURPWKLVFRXQWU\´$,<HW0UV&XUUHQLVFDXWLRXVRI
her own motives in writing it and she comes to an awareness through its preparation
±³,EHJLQWRXQGHUVWDQG´$,±WKDWOLNHKHULQWHQWLRQWRNLOOKHUVHOIKHUZULWLQJLV
imbued with self-interest. In his theory of the categorical imperative Immanuel Kant
argues that morality is premised on duty: an act is only morally good if it stems from
DVHQVHRIGXW\XQWDLQWHGE\XOWHULRUPRWLYHV³7KH1REOH'HVFHQWRI'XW\´±
VHH DOVR .DQW ³&DWHJRULFDO ,PSHUDWLYH´ ± .DQW The Moral Law ±
The letter violates the ethics of gift-giving because, rather than simply conveying
mother-love, it is her means of uncovering self-truths. The mother-daughter bond
LVQRWDZKROO\XQVHO¿VKRQHDV0UV&XUUHQVRJXLOHOHVVO\UHYHDOV³7RZKRPWKLV
ZULWLQJWKHQ"7KHDQVZHUWR\RXEXWQRWWR\RXWRPHWR\RXLQPH´$,6KH
even admits that raising children is a way of outwitting her own death:
We embrace our children to be folded in the arms of the future, to pass ourselves
on beyond death … We bear children in order to be mothered by them. Home
truths, a mother’s truth: from now to the end that is all you will hear from me.
$,
7KHOHWWHU³DEDULQJRIVRPHWKLQJHOVHEXWQRWRIP\KHDUW´$,LVQRWLQWHQGHG
to recount the story of her wasting body, from which, the text implies, her writing
LVDUHOHDVH$,(YHQVRLWSURYLGHVOLWWOHVRODFH:HZRQGHUZKHWKHU0UV
Curren meant to post the letter at all for she assures its reader: “I will not show to
you what you will not be able to bear´RQO\WRGRMXVWWKDWGHVFULELQJKHUVHOIDV³D
woman in a burning house running from window to window, calling through the
EDUVIRUKHOS´HPSKDVLVDGGHG$,7KLVFDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHWUXWKYDOXHRI
her letter and suggests that, rather than a gift of love, it is a means of venting her
anguish about her lost daughter and her illness. Mrs. Curren admits that the letter
SODFHVKHUGDXJKWHUXQGHUPRUDOREOLJDWLRQDQGDI¿UPLQJODQJXDJH¶VRSSUHVVLYH
TXDOLW\SURPLVHVWRVHWKHUIUHHIURP³WKLVURSHRIZRUGV´$,+HUOHWWHUKDV
become, metaphorically, both a lifeline by which to save herself and the bonds from
which she promises to cut her daughter loose, and therefore violates the ethics of
JLIWJLYLQJDQGEHTXHVW±WKHODWWHUE\LWVYHU\QDWXUHcannot be reciprocated.
,QYRNLQJePLOH=ROD¶VRSHQ³Lettre au Président de la République´3
Mrs. Curren realizes that the letter is, in part, an accusation: “J’accuse. I accuse
\RXRIDEDQGRQLQJPH«,ÀLQJP\SDLQDW\RX´$,=RODLQGHIHQFHRI
3
=ROD¶VOHWWHU³-¶$FFXVH´DGGUHVVHGWRWKH)UHQFK3UHVLGHQWZDVSXEOLVKHGLQWKH
French newspaper L’Aurore in 1898. Supporting the civil liberties of Dreyfus, who had been
Writing in the Face of Death
119
Dreyfus against the railings of the anti-Semitic Right in Republican France, calls
XSRQXQLYHUVDOQRWLRQVRIWUXWKMXVWLFHDQGOLEHUW\³7UXWKDQGMXVWLFHVRDUGHQWO\
longed for! How terrible it is to see them trampled, unrecognized and ignored!
« 0\ ¿HU\ SURWHVW LV VLPSO\ WKH FU\ RI P\ YHU\ VRXO´ =ROD Q SDJ =ROD¶V
OHWWHULVVXEVHTXHQWO\DOOXGHGWRLQDisgraceZKHQWKHGLVJUDFHGDFDGHPLF
Professor David Lurie imagines the father of the young female student with whom
Lurie has been conducting an affair signing a formal letter of complaint of sexual
harassment against him – “J’accuse´ ',6 0UV &XUUHQ¶V VHOIGLVFORVXUHV
betray her feelings of resentment towards her daughter, couched in terms of
KRQHVW\DQGSODLQVSHDNLQJ/RDGLQJEODPHXSRQKHU0UV&XUUHQHYHQGLYXOJHV
KHUSODQQHGVXLFLGHDQGQDPHV9HUFXHLOKHU³KXVEDQG´³)RUJLYHPHLIWKHSLFWXUH
RIIHQGV\RX«2QHPXVWORYHZKDWLVWRKDQGDVDGRJORYHV´$,0UV
&XUUHQLGHQWL¿HVKHURZQQHHGLQHVVDVVKHLQYHQWRULHV9HUFXHLO¶VQHHGVZKLFKLQ
sum are “Too much to give: too much for someone who longs, if the truth be told,
to creep into her own mother’s lap and be comforted´HPSKDVLVDGGHG$,
:KDWLVVXSSRVHGWREHDEHTXHVWDQGDWRNHQRIPRWKHUORYHLVUHYHDOHGWKHUHIRUH
to be both self-interested and self-deceiving. Lurie and Mrs. Curren’s invocation
of Zola is ill-conceived: Lurie is mired in self-pity over the repercussions of his
exploitative relationship and Mrs. Curren is expressing the anguish of a neglected
mother. Both thus fail to meet the standards of public intellectualism to which
Zola’s letter pertains, though Mrs. Curren’s efforts far outweigh those of Lurie.
What she believes is her conviction in public truths, she recognizes, is selfinterested and bound up with her response to her fast-approaching death.
Coetzee argues in Doubling the Point that Mrs. Curren’s story is “about having
DVD\«:KDWPDWWHUVLVWKDWWKHFRQWHVWLVVWDJHG´'3'HVSLWHWKHYHU\
private nature of Mrs. Curren’s letter and her disavowal of political rhetoric per
VH 0UV &XUUHQ UHVROYHV WR ³VSHDN WUXWK WR SRZHU´ 6DLG Representations $OWKRXJK XQOLNH 6DLG¶V LQWHOOHFWXDO VKH GRHVQ¶W JHW KHU YRLFH KHDUG LQ SXEOLF
IRUXPVKHURXWVSRNHQQHVVUHVRQDWHVZLWKKLVDQDO\VLVWKHSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOLV
VRPHRQH ZKRVH ZKROH EHLQJ LV VWDNHG RQ D FULWLFDO VHQVH D VHQVH RI EHLQJ
unwilling to accept easy formulas, or ready-made clichés, or the smooth, everVRDFFRPPRGDWLQJFRQ¿UPDWLRQVRIZKDWWKHSRZHUIXORUFRQYHQWLRQDOKDYHWR
VD\DQGZKDWWKH\GR1RWMXVWSDVVLYHO\XQZLOOLQJEXWDFWLYHO\ZLOOLQJWRVD\
so in public. (Said, Representations
0UV&XUUHQDFKLHYHVDFULWLFDOHGJHWKURXJKKHUUHOHQWOHVVVHOITXHVWLRQLQJDQG
WKURXJKKHUFKDOOHQJHWRWKHSROLWLFDOLGHRORJXHVE\GDULQJWRVSHDNRXW$GGUHVVLQJ
KHUGDXJKWHUEXWDOVRWKHUHDGHURIWKHWH[WVKHHYHQDSSHDOVIRUFULWLFDOUHDGLQJ
“attend to the writing, not to me. If lies and pleas and excuses weave among the
words, listen for them. Do not pass them over, do not forgive them easily. Read all,
court-martialled and imprisoned, Zola called upon Le Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme
et du Citoyen'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQDQG&LYLO5LJKWVLQ'UH\IXV¶VGHIHQFH
120
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
HYHQWKLVDGMXUDWLRQZLWKDFROGH\H´$,±7UDLQHGDVDQHW\PRORJLVWDQG
Classics lecturer, she hones language to suit her needs, and in so doing becomes a
thorn in the side of the purveyors of political dogma.
&LWLQJWKHOLQJXLVW%HQMDPLQ:KRUI¶VFODLPWKDW,QGR(XURSHDQV\QWD[UHVXOWV
LQ D ³PHFKDQLVWLF ZD\ RI WKLQNLQJ´ &RHW]HH LGHQWL¿HV WKDW TXDOLW\ RI ODQJXDJH
ZKLFKJHQHUDWHVXQFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJ³RQHFDQXQFRQVFLRXVO\SURMHFWWKHVWUXFWXUH
of one’s language out on to the stars and then believe that the resulting map is a true
SLFWXUHRIWKHXQLYHUVH´'37KH%ULWLVKLQWHOOHFWXDO*HRUJH2UZHOOSUHVVHV
WKLV DUJXPHQW IXUWKHU LQ ³3ROLWLFV DQG WKH (QJOLVK /DQJXDJH´ LQ KLV FRQWHQWLRQ
WKDWWKHVWDWHRI(QJOLVKLVLQGHFOLQHWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIZKLFKKHVD\VVKRXOG
QRW EH XQGHUHVWLPDWHG 6ODFN XQVFKRROHG ODQJXDJH SURGXFHV VODFN XQVFKRROHG
thought, which in turn leads to bad politics. Orwell even contends that “if thought
FRUUXSWVODQJXDJHODQJXDJHFDQDOVRFRUUXSWWKRXJKW´0HDQLQJOHVVZRUGV
IRULQVWDQFHFDQEH³XVHGLQDFRQVFLRXVO\GLVKRQHVWZD\´WRGLVJXLVHSROLWLFDO
XQWUXWKV³'HPRFUDF\´WRWDNHRQHH[DPSOHFDQEHLQYRNHGE\DQ\UHJLPHWKDW
ZDQWVWREHORRNHGXSRQIDYRXUDEO\2UZHOO$V-&LQ&RHW]HH¶VDiary of a
Bad YearSURYRFDWLYHO\RSLQHV³RQGHPRFUDF\´LQKLVFROOHFWLRQRI³VWURQJ
RSLQLRQV´³'HPRFUDF\GRHVQRWDOORZIRUSROLWLFVRXWVLGHWKHGHPRFUDWLFV\VWHP
,QWKLVVHQVHGHPRFUDF\LVWRWDOLWDULDQ´'%<7KHODQJXDJHRIHXSKHPLVP
KDVLWVRZQVLQLVWHUHQGV2UZHOOVXJJHVWVFRYHULQJXSJURVVLQMXVWLFHVDQGWKH
DWURFLWLHV RI ZDU ³SDFL¿FDWLRQ´ ³UHFWL¿FDWLRQ RI IURQWLHUV´ DQG ³HOLPLQDWLRQ RI
XQUHOLDEOH HOHPHQWV´ DOO FOLQLFDOO\ GLVJXLVH WKH UHDOLW\ RI KXPDQ VXIIHULQJ7KLV
SURFHVV KRZHYHU ³LV UHYHUVLEOH´ ,I WKHVH EDG KDELWV DUH UHPHGLHG ³RQH FDQ
WKLQNPRUHFOHDUO\DQGWRWKLQNFOHDUO\LVDQHFHVVDU\¿UVWVWHSWRZDUGSROLWLFDO
UHJHQHUDWLRQVRWKDWWKH¿JKWDJDLQVWEDG(QJOLVKLVQRWIULYRORXVDQGLVQRWWKH
H[FOXVLYHFRQFHUQRISURIHVVLRQDOZULWHUV´2UZHOO:KLOVW2UZHOOLVZULWLQJ
about the decline of English in 1940s Britain, his position can be mapped readily
on to the ill-use of political language more generally.
/LNH 2UZHOO DQG 6DLG ZLWK KLV VXVSLFLRQ RI ³HDV\ IRUPXODV RU UHDG\PDGH
cOLFKpV´0UV&XUUHQLVPLVWUXVWIXORIWKHLQH[DFWVKDSHVLQWRZKLFKWKHODQJXDJH
RI FRQWHPSRUDU\ SROLWLFV KDV EHHQ VTXHH]HG /DQJXDJH KDV EHFRPH WLUHG DQG
meaningless but, more importantly, it has also become corrupt. Mrs. Curren’s
insights into the use and abuse of language catalyzes her own self-scrutiny. Her
scrupulous regard for language therefore is her private, ethical means of challenging
the iron-hard rules not only of the state but also, in her eyes, of anti-apartheid
PLOLWDQF\ ,Q NHHSLQJ ZLWK 2UZHOO ZKLOVW KHU VLQJXODU LQWHOOHFWXDOLVP VWUXFWXUHV
her sensitivity to language, her language also self-consciously structures her
intellectualism. Words function as the catalyst of empathetic understanding with
the other, bringing Mrs. Curren to her revised position. WhHQVKHRIIHUVKLPZRUN
DVDJDUGHQHU9HUFXHLOSURYLGHVKHUZLWKDVWDUNOHVVRQLQWKHPHDQLQJRIFKDULW\
6KHDGYLVHVKLPWKDWWKH\³FDQ¶WSURFHHGRQDEDVLVRIFKDULW\´$,DFRYHUW
NLQGQHVVRQKHUSDUWVLQFHVKHLVWU\LQJWRVSDUHKLPWKHKXPLOLDWLRQRIDFFHSWLQJ
handouts. He demands an explanation why, as she has suggested, he does not merit
Writing in the Face of Death
121
KHUVXSSRUW³'HVHUYH«:KRGHVHUYHVDQ\WKLQJ"´KHDVNV$,,IVKHH[SHFWV
gratitude for her philanthropy, Vercueil is not forthcoming.
Mrs. Curren is exasperated that her words fall on deaf ears. Rather than being
UHFHSWLYH WR KHU LGHDV ZKLFK ZRXOG PDNH KLP WKH ³LGHDO FRQIHVVRU´4 Vercueil
seems indifferent since he often fails to respond and at times appears not even to
OLVWHQ0UV&XUUHQUHJDUGV-RKQDVHPEOHPDWLFRIWKH³QHZSXULWDQV´$,DQG
LVTXLFNWRSDVVMXGJHPHQWRQKLP
There is something stupid about him, something deliberately stupid, obstructive,
LQWUDFWDEOH«7KRXJK KLV H\HV ZHUH RSHQ KH GLGQRWVHHZKDW,VDLGKHGLG
QRW KHDU « 7KH ZRUGV RI D ZRPDQ WKHUHIRUH QHJOLJLEOH RI DQ ROG ZRPDQ
WKHUHIRUHGRXEO\QHJOLJLEOHEXWDERYHDOORIDZKLWH$,±
0UV&XUUHQSRLQWHGO\OLQNV-RKQ¶V³VWXSLGLW\´QRWRQO\WRJHQGHUDQGDJHGLIIHUHQFH
EXWDOVRWRTXHVWLRQVRIUDFHKHGRHVQRWVHHRUKHDUWKHWUXWK0UV&XUUHQ¶VWUXWK
WKDW LV EHFDXVH ³DERYH DOO´ VKH LV ³D ZKLWH´ $, ± 6KH LPDJLQHV -RKQ¶V
indignation at what he perceives as an empty rhetoric that resonates with South
African liberalism:
7DONWDON7DONKDGZHLJKHGGRZQ WKHJHQHUDWLRQRIKLVJUDQGSDUHQWVDQGWKH
JHQHUDWLRQRIKLVSDUHQWV/LHVSURPLVHVEODQGLVKPHQWVWKUHDWVWKH\KDGZDONHG
VWRRSHGXQGHUWKHZHLJKWRIDOOWKHWDON1RWKH+HWKUHZRIIWDON$,
6KHEHOLHYHVVKHVHHVUDFLDODQGJHQGHUHGKDWUHGLQKLVH\HV\HWLWPLJKWHTXDOO\
be the expression of a frightened child since this is, after all, only Mrs. Curren’s
reading of him. His political intransigence – what Mrs. Curren calls his calculated
³VWXSLGLW\´±DQWLFLSDWHVWKHSRUWUD\DORIWKHQLKLOLVWOHDGHU1HFKDHYLQ&RHW]HH¶V
next novel The Master of Petersburg, whose political beliefs are premised
RQ WKH QRWLRQ WKDW ³HYHU\WKLQJ LV SHUPLWWHG´ DQG WKDW ³ZH GRQ¶W HQGOHVVO\ WKLQN
on the one hand and on the other handZHMXVWdo´037KHSROLWLFDO
intractability of South Africa’s militant youth, Mrs. Curren believes, is not
XQOLNH WKH 1DWLRQDO 3DUW\¶V LURQKDUG UXOH ,Q UHVSRQVH WR -RKQ¶V FRQGHPQDWLRQ
of Vercueil’s alcoholism, she laments: “The new puritans, holding to the rule,
holding up the rule. Abhorring alcohol, that softens the rule, dissolves iron …
6XVSLFLRXVRIGHYLRXVGLVFRXUVHOLNHWKLV´$,-RKQ¶VFRQYLFWLRQVDUHLQIDFWD
carefully formulated and orchestrated political position and a historically accurate
representation of the contemporary milieu: student protesters during the 1980s
ZHUHRSSRVHGWRGULQNLQJEHFDXVHLWZDVWKRXJKWWRVW\PLHOHDUQLQJVRFLDOLW\DQG
DFWLYLVP FI %HLQDUW ± 0UV &XUUHQ QRW VXUSULVLQJO\ RIIHUV D GLIIHUHQW
4
$V&RHW]HHH[SODLQVLQ³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´WKHKXPDQH\HWVWXSLG
3ULQFH0\VKNLQLQ)\RGRU'RVWRHYVN\¶VThe IdiotLVDFFRUGLQJWRKLVFRQIHVVDQWVWKH
³LGHDOFRQIHVVRU¿JXUHÉHFDXVHKHUHDGLO\DFFHSWVKXPDQIDOOLELOLW\DQGKLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
RI³WUXWK´LVQ¶WYHVWHGLQVHOILQWHUHVW'3
122
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
KXPDQHSHUVSHFWLYHIDYRXULQJWKHHWKLFDORYHUWKHSROLWLFDOVKHDGYRFDWHVPDNLQJ
DOORZDQFHVIRU9HUFXHLO¶VYLFH5HFLSURFLW\LVVNHZHGEHFDXVHWKRXJKWKHHWKRV
or more accurately the apathy, of Vercueil accommodates Mrs. Curren’s voice,
IRUWKHOLNHVRI-RKQDQG%KHNL³WKHULVLQJJHQHUDWLRQZKRGRQRWGULQN,FDQQRW
VSHDNFDQRQO\OHFWXUH´$,
&HQWULQJRQWKHZRUG³FRPUDGHVKLS´DKHDWHGGHEDWHEHWZHHQ0UV&XUUHQDQG
Mr. Thabane ensues about commitment and the place of children in war framed
LQ WKH SRODUL]HG WHUPV RI HWKLFV 0UV &XUUHQ ³YHUVXV´ SROLWLFV 0U7KDEDQH
0UV&XUUHQLVHPSKDWLFLQKHUUHMHFWLRQRIYLROHQFHLQZKDWHYHUQDPHWKDW³DV
IRUWKLVNLOOLQJWKLVEORRGOHWWLQJLQWKHQDPHRIcomradeship, I detest it with all
P\KHDUWDQGVRXO,WKLQNLWLVEDUEDURXV´$,,QÀDPHGE\0U7KDEDQH¶V
UHWRUW WKDW VKH GRHV QRW ³XQGHUVWDQG YHU\ PXFK DERXW FRPUDGHVKLS´ VKH GUDZV
parallels with oppressive regimes, including the Nazis: “Comradeship is nothing
EXWDP\VWLTXHRIGHDWKRINLOOLQJDQGG\LQJPDVTXHUDGLQJDVZKDW\RXFDOOD
ERQGDERQGRIZKDW"/RYH",GRXEWLW´$,0U7KDEDQHRIFRXUVHLV
DOVRWDONLQJDERXWDNLQGRIIULHQGVKLSEDVHGRQDEVROXWHWUXVWZKLFKDV%HLQDUW
observes, was a moral imperative in the resistance struggle and in the very notion
RI³FRPUDGHVKLS´
6XJJHVWLYHRI6DLG2UZHOODQG&RHW]HH¶VFULWLTXHRILOOIRUPXODWHGODQJXDJH
Mrs. Curren regards Mr. Thabane’s attempts to tutor her in the effects of apartheid
RSSUHVVLRQ DV D NLQG RI ³9HQWULORTXLVP WKH OHJDF\ RI 6RFUDWHV DV RSSUHVVLYH
LQ$IULFD DV LW ZDV LQ$WKHQV´ $, ,Q KHU RZQ TXHVW IRU WUXWK VKH UHPDLQV
perspicacious: “These are terrible sights … But I cannot denounce them in other
SHRSOH¶V ZRUGV , PXVW ¿QG P\ RZQ ZRUGV IURP P\VHOI 2WKHUZLVH LW LV QRW
WKH WUXWK´ $, 7R 0UV &XUUHQ¶V HDUV HYHQ WKH GLVVRQDQFH RI WKH$IULNDDQV
language, with its heavy cadences that she can only associate with the atrocities
RIWKHDSDUWKHLGUHJLPHGHQRWHVLQWUDQVLJHQFHDQGRSSUHVVLRQ+HDULQJLWVSRNHQ
RQWKHWHOHYLVLRQHOLFLWVKHULPSDVVLRQHGUHVSRQVH³WKHVORZWUXFXOHQW$IULNDDQV
UK\WKPVZLWKWKHLUGHDGHQLQJFORVHVOLNHDKDPPHUEHDWLQJDSRVWLQWRWKHJURXQG
Together, blow after blow, we listened. The disgrace of the life one lives under
WKHP´$,$IULNDDQVGLDORJXHLVXVHGDWPRPHQWVRIRSHQKRVWLOLW\LQWKHWH[W
DVDPDUNHURIXQHTXDOSRZHUUHODWLRQV0UV&XUUHQSHUFHLYHVDFKDQJHLQWRQH
ZKHQWKHGHWHFWLYHTXHVWLRQLQJKHUVZLWFKHVWR$IULNDDQV$,9HUFXHLOFDOOV
XSRQ$IULNDDQVWRFXUVH)ORUHQFHZKRKDVGLVPLVVHGKLPDV³UXEELVK´$,DQG
0UV&XUUHQHPSOR\V$IULNDDQVWRWHOOWKHSROLFH³,VWDQGRQWKHRWKHUVLGH´$,
$IULNDDQVLVWKHODQJXDJHRIODVWUHVRUWZKHQGLDORJXHEUHDNVGRZQ([FHSW
in this last example, in order to emphasize a communicative impasse Coetzee does
not offer translations. (The South African edition of In the Heart of the Country,
SXEOLVKHG LQ SUHVHQWHG DOO GLDORJXH LQ $IULNDDQV $OWKRXJK WKLV ZRXOG
not have been a problem for South African readers, as Attridge has noted, this
device would nevertheless have defamiliarized them from the text [Attridge, J. M.
Coetzee 22]. The struggle to communicate – authentic communication is always
IRXQGZDQWLQJLQWKHQRYHO±LVPDUNHGLQWKLVZD\E\WKHODQJXDJHDVVRFLDWHGZLWK
WKHDSDUWKHLGUHJLPHDQG$IULNDQHUQDWLRQDOLVP
Writing in the Face of Death
123
0UV &XUUHQ VWUXJJOHV WR DUWLFXODWH WR ¿QG D ODQJXDJH WKDW H[SUHVVHV KHU
ethical vision authentically and truthfully. She is once more shouted down, this
WLPHE\DPDQLQWKHFURZGZKRUHWRUWV³7KLVZRPDQWDONVVKLW´$,+HU
HORTXHQW UHVSRQVH FRXQWHUSRLQWV KLV YXOJDU OLQJXLVWLF UHJLVWHU ZKLFK WKUHDWHQV
WR VWDOO LQWHOOHFWXDO GHEDWH ³µ%XW ZKDW GR \RX H[SHFW" «7R VSHDN RI WKLV¶ ± ,
ZDYHGDKDQGRYHUWKHEXVKWKHVPRNHWKH¿OWKOLWWHULQJWKHSDWK±µ\RXZRXOG
QHHGWKHWRQJXHRIDJRG¶´$,$VWDQGDJDLQVWDSDUWKHLGDQGWKHSRVVLELOLW\
RISROLWLFDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVKHUHDVRQVQHFHVVLWDWHVGLDORJXHDQGLPDJLQLQJD
common humanity. She attempts to demonstrate her position through the verbal
FKDOOHQJHVVKHPDNHVWRKHUSROLWLFDODGYHUVDULHVDQGWKURXJKKHUOHWWHU+HUH
VKHUHÀHFWVRQWKHSRZHURIZRUGV
[Words] may only be air but they come from my heart, from my womb. They
are not Yes, they are not No. What is living inside me is something else, another
ZRUG$QG,DP¿JKWLQJIRULWLQP\PDQQHU¿JKWLQJIRULWQRWWREHVWLÀHG$,
+RZHYHUUDWKHUWKDQRIIHUVROXWLRQVWKHQRYHOVWDJHVWKHGHEDWHDERXWWKHHI¿FDF\
RISULYLOHJLQJWKHHWKLFDORYHUWKHSROLWLFDO,WDVNVZKHWKHU0UV&XUUHQ¶VYRLFHLV
WHQDEOHLQWKH³DJHRILURQ´DQGWKHVHOIGRXEWLWH[SUHVVHVLQUHVSRQVHVHHPVWREH
both hers and that of her author, Coetzee.
At every turn Mrs. Curren’s right to voice her opinion is contested and, indeed,
GLVPLVVHG+HUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFRQFHSW³FKDULW\´LVFKDOOHQJHGYHUEDOO\E\
9HUFXHLO DQG WKH ER\V %KHNL DVNV VDUGRQLFDOO\ LI WKH\ PXVW EULQJ SDVVHV ZKHQ
WKH\ YLVLW WKH KRXVH )ORUHQFH DQG 0U7KDEDQH FKDOOHQJH KHU DERXW KHU QRWLRQ
of commitment. She whispers her complaint to the television when she watches
³RQHRIWKRVHVSHHFKHV´$,GHOLYHUHGE\JRYHUQPHQWPLQLVWHUV9HUFXHLOVFRUQV
KHU LQWHQWLRQ WR VHW ¿UH WR KHUVHOI LQ SURWHVW MXVW DV VKH DQWLFLSDWHV LW ZRXOG EH
VFRUQHGE\)ORUHQFH$,±ZKRPVKHFKDOOHQJHGHDUOLHUIRUQRWHQIRUFLQJ
%KHNL¶VDWWHQGDQFHDWVFKRRO2IFRXUVH0UV&XUUHQGRHVVSHDNRXWDJDLQVWWKH
YLFWLPL]DWLRQRI%KHNLDQG-RKQOLHVDERXWWKHJXQDQGYHKHPHQWO\FRQGHPQV
face-to-face the police who murder them. She is left feeling disgraced by the
DFWLRQVRIWKHSROLFHDIWHUWKHELF\FOHLQFLGHQW$,DQGEHOLHYHVWKDWWKHPXUGHU
RI%KHNLZLOOHDWDZD\DWWKHSROLFHPHQ¶VVRXOV$,6KHHYHQDWWHPSWVWRZDUQ
Mr. Thabane, whose political activities she opposes, that he is in grave danger of
becoming the next victim of the state.
,QDNH\SDVVDJH0UV&XUUHQLGHQWL¿HVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI¿QGLQJDYRLFHDOO
too aware of the ethical problems this engenders. By what rightVKHDVNVGRHVVKH
VSHDNDERXWDQGRQEHKDOIRIRWKHUV"6KHEHOLHYHVWKDWKHUVLV³WKHWUXHYRLFHRI
ZLVGRPÉXWFRQFHGHVZLWKVRPHLURQ\WKDWKHUULJKWWRVSHDNRXWLVFRPSURPLVHG
by white privilege:
124
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
who am I, who am IWRKDYHDYRLFHDWDOO"«,KDYHQRYRLFH,ORVWLWORQJ
DJRSHUKDSV,KDYHQHYHUKDGRQH«7KHUHVWVKRXOGEHVLOHQFH%XWZLWKWKLV
±ZKDWHYHULWLV±WKLVYRLFHWKDWLVQRYRLFH,JRRQ2QDQGRQ$,
Mrs. Curren musters the problem of authority that resurfaces in each of Coetzee’s
¿FWLRQV DQG UHFRJQL]HV WKDW LW LV FRQWLQJHQW ZLWK 6RXWK $IULFDQ FRORQLDO DQG
DSDUWKHLGKLVWRU\³DFULPHZDVFRPPLWWHGORQJDJR«LWLVSDUWRIP\LQKHULWDQFH´
$,
0UV&XUUHQKDVFRQYLFWLRQLQWKHSRZHURIZRUGVDQGLQWHOOHFWXDOGLVFRXUVH
Writing and language are her private means of demonstrating her love for her
GDXJKWHU³LQWKLVZRUOGLQWKLVWLPH,PXVWUHDFKRXWWR\RXLQZRUGV´$,
Later she intones, “I am feeling P\ ZD\ WRZDUG \RX ZLWK HDFK ZRUG , feel my
ZD\´HPSKDVLVDGGHG$,+HUHHPSKDVL]HGWKURXJKUHSHWLWLRQDQGSXQQLQJ
³IHHOLQJ´ FRQQRWHV VHQWLPHQW DQG HPSDWK\ DQG ZKHUH EOLQGQHVV LV W\SLFDOO\
associated with philosophical insight, is suggestive of the intellectually blind
³IHHOLQJWKHLUZD\´<HWWKRXJK³IHHOLQJ´DOVRFRQQRWHVSROLWLFDOQDwYHWpZLWK0UV
Curren feeling her way through a political labyrinth, empathy cuts across what
Mrs. Curren perceives as the dogma of political activism. She recognizes Vercueil’s
ODFNLQKLVLQDELOLW\WRHPRWH±LURQLFDOO\PDNLQJKLPKHULGHDOFRQIHVVRUWKLVLV
ZKDWGUDZVKHUWRKLP³µ7KHUHLVVRPHWKLQJWKDWZRQ¶WFRPHLVQ¶WWKHUH"«:K\
GRQ¶W\RXMXVWVSHDNDQGVHHZKHUHWKHZRUGVWDNH\RX"¶%XWKHZDVDWDWKUHVKROG
KHFRXOGQRWFURVV+HVWRRGEDXONHGZRUGOHVV´$,$OWKRXJK0UV&XUUHQ
VSHDNV±LQGHHGOLNH0DJGDLQIn the Heart of the CountryVKHJRHV³RQDQGRQ´
– she is not heard. The withholding of speech by the racial others in Coetzee’s
HDUO\ZRUNVRQWKHRWKHUKDQGLVH[WROOHGGHQLHGDXWRQRP\RUD³YRLFH´WKHWH[WV
imply, withholding is the only means of resistance open to them.
Coetzee has suggested that:
Elizabeth Curren brings to bear against the voices of history and historical
MXGJHPHQWWKDWUHVRXQGDURXQGKHUWZRNLQGVRIDXWKRULW\WKHDXWKRULW\RIWKH
dying and the authority of the classics. Both these authorities are denied and
HYHQGHULGHGLQKHUZRUOGWKH¿UVWEHFDXVHKHUVLVDSULYDWHGHDWKWKHVHFRQG
EHFDXVHLWVSHDNVIURPORQJDJRDQGIDUDZD\'3
Mrs. Curren is a practitioner of words by training, though Latin, she instructs
9HUFXHLOLVD³GHDGODQJXDJH«DODQJXDJHVSRNHQE\WKHGHDG´$,+DYLQJ
WDFLWO\ FRQFHGHG ZLWK WKHVH ZRUGV WKDW /DWLQ ODFNV UHOHYDQFH LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI
apartheid, she repeatedly and self-consciously draws attention to words that
etymologically are assigned ethical value: comradeship, charity, gratitude,
resolve, trust, love, confession, heroism, honour, shame, stupidity. Similarly, she
UHÀHFWVXSRQWKHHWKLFVRIMXVWLFHWUXWKOLHVFRPUDGHVKLSKRQRXUKHURLVPDQG
RQ HWKLFDO FRQWUDFWV VXFK DV YRZV EHTXHVWV DQG ZDJHUV 6KH DWWHPSWV WR WXWRU
9HUFXHLO LQ WKH LGHD RI FKDULW\ EXW PLVOHDGV KLP ZLWK KHU ³IDOVH HW\PRORJLHV´
7KHURRWRI³FKDULW\´FRPHVIURPWKH/DWLQIRUKHDUWVKHWHOOVKLPDQGUHYHUVLQJ
Writing in the Face of Death
125
the theological adage, claims that receiving is as taxing as giving: “A lie: charity,
caritas, has nothing to do with the heart. But what does it matter if my sermons rest
RQIDOVHHW\PRORJLHV"+HEDUHO\OLVWHQVZKHQ,VSHDNWRKLP´$,'HOLEHUDWHO\
falsifying the Latin in her appeal to the heart, she calls on reason’s other, feeling.
6KHUXPLQDWHVRQ³VWXSLG´FRQVWUXLQJWKHSROLWLFDOGRJPDRIERWKSDUWLHVDVDNLQG
RIVWXSLGLW\7KH1DWLRQDO3DUW\SROLWLFLDQVGHOLYHULQJ³RQHRIWKRVHVSHHFKHV´
are stupid in their intractability and immutability and their “feat, after years of
etymological meditation on the word, to have raised stupidity to a virtue… . A
gradient from stupid to stunned to astonished, to be turned to stone. The message:
WKDWWKHPHVVDJHQHYHUFKDQJHV´$,
An attentiveness to language, to searching meaning out, constitutes Mrs.
Curren’s challenge to the ideologues. As the crux of her ethico-political position,
language is ascribed historicity, and is thus necessarily future-directed because
KLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHORRNVWRWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIFKDQJH6KHFRQIHVVHVWR9HUFXHLO
IRULQVWDQFHWKDWXQWLOQRZVKHKDGDYRLGHGXVLQJWKHWHUP³KHURLVP´³7KHWLPHV
FDOOIRUKHURLVP$ZRUGWKDWDV,VSHDNLWVRXQGVIRUHLJQWRP\OLSV,GRXEWWKDW
, KDYH HYHU XVHG LW EHIRUH HYHQ LQ D OHFWXUH:K\ QRW" 3HUKDSV RXW RI UHVSHFW
3HUKDSVRXWRIVKDPH´$,:KDWKHUUHFHQWH[SHULHQFHVWHDFKKHUHVSHFLDOO\
the deaths of the two boys, is that there still exists a place in the world for the word
³KHURLVP´LQLWVSURSHUVHQVH2QKHULQWHQWLRQWRLPPRODWHKHUVHOIVKHZULWHV
³,PHDQWWRJRWKURXJKZLWKLWLVWKDWWKHWUXWK"<HV1R<HVQR7KHUHLVVXFKD
word, but it has never been allowed into the dictionaries. Yes-no: every woman
NQRZV ZKDW LW PHDQV DV LW GHIHDWV HYHU\ PDQ´ $ &RQQRWLQJ LQGHFLVLRQ
ambivalence, withholding and a condition of political limbo, for Mrs. Curren
³<HVQR´ZKLFKLVD6RXWK$IULFDQFROORTXLDOLVPHYHQLVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKH
YRFDEXODU\RIWKHLQWHUUHJQXP6KHDOVRDVVLJQV³<HVQR´WRKHUODFNRISHUVRQDO
UHVROYHWRVSHDNWKHWUXWKWRKHUGDXJKWHUQRWEHJKHUWREUHDNKHUYRZDQGUHWXUQ
to South Africa to her mother’s deathbed.
But Mrs. Curren’s pursuit of truth and authentic language becomes selfparodying: as she moves closer towards death and suggestive of a drug-induced
delirium, she tries to unravel the meanings of words that she imagines as anagrams:
³%RURGLQR´±WKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\5XVVLDQEDWWOHVKHFRPSDUHVWRFRQWHPSRUDU\
6RXWK$IULFD³'LFRQDO´±KHUPHGLFDWLRQHYHQKHURZQQDPH+HUVWUXJJOHWR
PDNH VHQVH RI WKH ZRUOG WKURXJK ODQJXDJH WKURXJK KHU ³IDOVH HW\PRORJLHV´ LV
SUHVHQWHGLQWKHVWRFN&RHW]HDQPRWLIRIWKHODE\ULQWK
This letter has become a maze, and I a dog in the maze … Why do I not call for
KHOSFDOOWR*RG"«*RGLVDQRWKHUGRJLQDQRWKHUPD]H«KHLVORVWDV,DP
ORVW$,
This is a place where, in Harry Mulisch’s words, “Heaven was impossible, only
KHOOPLJKWSHUKDSVH[LVWÍRUHYHQ*RGKDVORVWKLVZD\TWGLQ&RHW]HHStranger
Shores6KHHYHQUHDGVKHUH[SHULHQFHRIWKHZRUOGDOOHJRULFDOO\ZKHQLQWKH
GHVSHUDWH VHDUFK IRU %KHNL LQ WKH WRZQVKLSV VKH FRPPHQWV RQ )ORUHQFH¶V WZR
126
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
\RXQJJLUOV³+RSHDQG%HDXW\,WZDVOLNHOLYLQJDQDOOHJRU\´$,2IFRXUVH
given Mrs. Curren’s negative predisposition towards rules and orthodoxies,
DOOHJRU\LVLWVHOIDPRGHZLWKZKLFKVKHZRXOGKROGQRWUXFN
,Q³:KDW,VD&ODVVLF"´LQDWLWXODUUHIHUHQFHWR76(OLRW¶VOHFWXUH&RHW]HH
argues that the classic is based on the “criterion of testing and survival… The
FODVVLFGH¿QHVLWVHOIE\VXUYLYLQJTherefore the interrogation of the classic, no
matter how hostile, is part of the history of the classic, inevitable and even to
be welcomed ´HPSKDVLVDGGHG66±0UV&XUUHQOLYHVRXWWKLVSURFHVV
of testing and survival if on an ethical rather than aesthetic level: she tests
HW\PRORJLHV UHZRUNLQJ WKHP DFFRUGLQJ WR KHU QHHGV DQG UHIXVLQJ WR DFFHSW
meaning uncritically. Mrs. Curren’s letter, which she puts before her readers as
critics, is submitted to this process, as indeed is Mrs. Curren, given that writing is
KHUPHDQVRIRXWZLWWLQJGHDWK6KHWDONVDERXW³SDVVLQJWKHWHVW´LQKHU³ZDJHU´
ZLWK9HUFXHLODQGZLWKGHDWK$,DQGRIEHTXHDWKLQJKHUOHWWHU/LNH
Age of Iron, the letter is future-directed since Mrs. Curren and Coetzee anticipate
an audience reading and re-reading it. The test Coetzee sets his character is,
ZLOO KHU DFFRXQW EH LQWHUSUHWHG DV VSHDNLQJ WUXWK WR SRZHU RU VLPSO\ DV WKH
UDQWLQJVRIDQLQ¿UPHFFHQWULF"$VKHUVHQVHRIEHLQJKDXQWHGE\WKHUHVXUIDFLQJ
EODFNFRUSVHLOOXVWUDWHVVKHWUHDWVKHUUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRKLVWRU\ZLWKJUDYLW\WKDW
IURPWKHSDVWZHPLJKWOHDUQWRVHWULJKWWKHSUHVHQWIRUWKHVDNHRIWKHIXWXUH
&RHW]HH¶V FRPPHQWV RQ KLVWRULFDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LQ ³:KDW LV D &ODVVLF"´ DUH
apposite: it is “that part of our present – namely the part that belongs to history
±WKDWZHFDQQRWIXOO\XQGHUVWDQGVLQFHLWUHTXLUHVXVWRXQGHUVWDQGRXUVHOYHV
QRW RQO\ DV REMHFWV RI KLVWRULFDO IRUFHV EXW DV VXEMHFWV RI RXU RZQ KLVWRULFDO
VHOIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ´ 66 'HVSLWH 0UV &XUUHQ¶V FODVVLFDO NQRZOHGJH RI
Thucydides, which teaches her, she says, “what can happen to our humanity in
WLPHRIZDU´$,KHUFODVVLFDOOHDUQLQJQHYHUWKHOHVVLVVRUHPRWHIURPWKH
SUHVHQWLQZKLFKVKH¿QGVKHUVHOIWKDWKHUZRUGVLQHYLWDEO\IDOORQGHDIHDUV$V
6DLGVWLSXODWHVDSUHUHTXLVLWHRISXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOLVPLVWKDW\RXJHW\RXUYRLFH
heard HPSKDVLV DGGHG Representations :KHUH 0UV &XUUHQ¶V RSLQLRQV
do get disseminated, ironically, is amongst reading communities who are always
already communities of elites.
In Age of Iron, physical pain, which signals Mrs. Curren’s imminent death,
gives her the courage to have her say, where other avenues, not least her dialogue
with her daughter, have been shut down. Elaine Scarry, discussed in Chapter 5,
DUJXHVWKDWWKHVLOHQFHHQJHQGHUHGE\SDLQ³UHVLVWVREMHFWL¿FDWLRQLQODQJXDJH´
ZKHUHDV IRU 0UV &XUUHQ SDLQ ERWK SK\VLFDO DQG HPRWLRQDO IDFLOLWDWHV
IUHHVSHHFKRULQKHURZQZRUGVHQDEOHVKHUWRJR³2QDQGRQ´6XIIHULQJKHU
SDLQVKHLVQRWXQOLNH&RHW]HH¶VRWKHUPDLPHGRUGLV¿JXUHGSURWDJRQLVWV±WKH
barbarian girl in Waiting for the Barbarians0LFKDHO.LQLife & Times
Friday in Foe ±ZKRVHDXWRQRP\SUREOHPDWLFDOO\LV¿JXUHGLQ
their woundedness. (The white Paul Rayment in Slow Man [2005], who loses his
leg in a bicycle accident, is maimed and autonomous, indicating that physical
GLVDELOLW\LQ&RHW]HHVLJQL¿HVUDFLDORUJHQGHUHGRSSUHVVLRQ,QDQDWLRQZKRVH
Writing in the Face of Death
127
government has denied basic human rights of almost 9/10 of its population,
the suffering body lends certaiQW\$V&RHW]HHDUJXHV³7KHERG\ZLWKLWVSDLQ
becomes a counter to the endless trials of doubt … . Not grace, then, but at least
WKHERG\´'31HYHUWKHOHVVWKRXJKIHHOLQJKHUZD\LQWKHSXEOLFGRPDLQ
through her private rope of words, Mrs. Curren’s personal struggle against cancer
prevails and she concedes: “The country smoulders, yet with the best will in the
world I can only half-attend. My true attention is all inward, upon the thing, the
word, the word for the thing LQFKLQJWKURXJKP\ERG\´HPSKDVLVDGGHG$,
Her pain has reduced language to signs that cannot be moulded.
Attwell suggests to Coetzee that the ending of Age of Iron holds the possibility
of absolution on both the personal and national plane. Coetzee, however, is
hesitant: “the end of the novel seems to me more troubled (in the sense the sea can
EHWURXEOHGWKDQ\RXLPSO\´'3,QWKH¿QDOUHFNRQLQJ0UV&XUUHQ¿QGV
redemption through death, which for the secular reader promises no sense of hope
for the future. Her letter, on the other hand, through which she will immortalize
KHUVHOI EXW SDUDGR[LFDOO\ WKDW PD\ QHYHU EH GHOLYHUHG DQG LWV ³PHVVDJH´ ORVW
provides only testimony to the age of iron: it may serve as an example of how not
WROLYH\HWRIIHUVQRVROXWLRQVIRUWKH³QRZ´0UV&XUUHQLVIRUFHIXOLQKHUHWKLFDO
resolve and in getting herself heard, yet a poverty resides in her notions of charity,
trust and so on, indicated by the helplessness and hopelessness of her actions to
ZKLFK&RHW]HHVHOIFRQVFLRXVO\DOHUWVXV+HULQWHOOHFWXDODXWKRULW\LVZHDNHQHG
by her preference for the introspection that her home truths import.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 7
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in
The Master of Petersburg
,FKRRVHWKHFURRNHGURDGDQGWDNHFKLOGUHQLQWRGDUNSODFHV,IROORZWKHGDQFHRI
the pen.
J. M. Coetzee, The Master of Petersburg 236
7KHUHLVPRUHWRWKHVRUU\EXVLQHVVKRZHYHUWKDQMXVWWKHVKDPHRILW+HKDVFRPH
to London to do what is impossible in South Africa: to explore the depths. Without
descending into the depths one cannot be an artist.
J. M. Coetzee, Youth 131
7KHZULWHUSURWDJRQLVW)\RGRU'RVWRHYVN\RI-0&RHW]HH¶VVHYHQWKQRYHOThe
Master of Petersburg LV WRUPHQWHG E\ WKH VDPH GLOHPPD WKDW WURXEOHV
WKH \RXQJ -RKQ LQ &RHW]HH¶V TXDVL¿FWLRQDO PHPRLU Youth 7KH DW RQFH
pretentious and gauche John is torn between the demands of his ambition to
pursue the life of a writer and those of self-censorship: to what extent can he give
KLPVHOI XS WR IUHH H[SUHVVLRQ ZLWKRXW YLRODWLQJ WKH ERXQGV RI WKH HWKLFDO" The
Master of Petersburg H[SORUHVWKHZULWHU¶VLQWLPDWHUHODWLRQWRKLVZRUNWKURXJKD
¿FWLRQDOL]HG'RVWRHYVN\WKH5XVVLDQPDVWHUZKRLQUHDOOLIHDV6WHSKHQ:DWVRQ
QRWHVZDVGHVFULEHGE\DFRQWHPSRUDU\DVD³FUXHOWDOHQW´DQGE\IHOORZOLWHUDU\
PDVWHU DQG DGYHUVDU\ ,YDQ 7XUJHQHY DV D ³5XVVLDQ GH 6DGH´ TWG LQ :DWVRQ
³:ULWHUDQGWKH'HYLO´
Coetzee divulges his investment in the problem of self-censorship in Doubling
the Point ZKHQ KH LQYRNHV 1DGLQH *RUGLPHU¶V LGHD RI WKH ³HVVHQWLDO
JHVWXUH´RIHQJDJHGZULWLQJ³:KDWLVDZULWHU¶VIUHHGRP"«7KHPRVWREYLRXV
WKUHDW LV RI¿FLDO FHQVRUVKLS %XW >TXRWLQJ *RUGLPHU@ D µPRUH LQVLGLRXV¶ WKUHDW
FRPHVIURPWKHZULWHU¶VµYHU\DZDUHQHVVRIZKDWLVH[SHFWHGRIKLP¶µFRQIRUPLW\
WRDQRUWKRGR[\RIRSSRVLWLRQ¶´'3VHHDOVR*RUGLPHUEssential Gesture
:KLOVWVHOIFHQVRUVKLSFDQEHQHFHVVDU\RQHWKLFDODQGSROLWLFDOJURXQGVLW
KDVWKHSRWHQWLDOWRVW\PLHQRWRQO\WKHHWKLFDODQGSROLWLFDOIRUFHRIDOLWHUDU\ZRUN
but also its aesthetics. Evidenced in the ongoing cultural debates about writerly
commitment, such a problem had particular resonance in apartheid South Africa
ZKHQFHUWDLQUHTXLUHPHQWVZHUHRIWHQVHOILPSRVHGE\WKHZULWHUZKRUHVLVWHGWKH
forces of the state. Coetzee argues that writing is always autobiographical (DP
DQGWKDW³WKHRQO\VXUHWUXWKLQDXWRELRJUDSK\LVWKDWRQH¶VVHOILQWHUHVWZLOO
EHORFDWHGDWRQH¶VEOLQGVSRW´'3:KLOVWDV,ZLOODUJXHWKLVEOLQGVSRW
LVVHOIFRQVFLRXVO\FRQVWUXFWHGE\&RHW]HHLQWKH¿JXUHRI'RVWRHYVN\LWPLJKW
130
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
usefully be tested against Coetzee’s own writerly practice. The choice of unwriting
DQRYHOOLNHThe Possessed with its particular political baggage at a transformative
moment in South African history such as this – 1994, the transition from apartheid
WRGHPRFUDF\±LVWHOOLQJDQGEHJVWKHTXHVWLRQZKDWGRHV&RHW]HHUHYHDODQG
FRQYHUVHO\ZKDWGRHVKHFHQVRURIKLPVHOI"
The analysis that follows will show that, through the interplay of the dialectical
motifs of evading the censor and censoring the self, The Master of Petersburg
HQGHDYRXUVWRFXOWLYDWHDFULWLFDODQGVHOIUHÀH[LYHUHDGLQJFRPPXQLW\&RHW]HH
LV DOO WRR DZDUH WKLV LV YLWDO DW D KLVWRULFDO MXQFWXUH RI VXFK PDJQLWXGH D WLPH
ZKHQ6RXWK$IULFDIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHEHFRPHVDIXOO\SRVWFRORQLDOVWDWH$V)UDQW]
Fanon presciently warned, all new postcolonial states are susceptible to the
³SLWIDOOVRIQDWLRQDOFRQVFLRXVQHVV´QHRFRORQLDOLVPZKHUHE\WKHQHZUHJLPH
SURPLVHVFKDQJHEXWZKLFKLQUHDOLW\KDUERXUVWKHLQWHUHVWVRIWKHROG4XLFNO\
forgetting the needs of the people once independence is declared, “the leader will
reveal his inner purpose: to become the general president of that company of
SUR¿WHHUVLPSDWLHQWIRUWKHLUUHWXUQVZKLFKFRQVWLWXWHVWKHQDWLRQDOERXUJHRLVLH´
(Wretched)RVWHULQJWKHFULWLFDOIDFXOW\LQWKHZD\WKDW,DUJXHThe Master
of Petersburg does, a faculty which Edward Said argues is the lynchpin of public
intellectualism (RepresentationsLVRQHPHDVXUHWKDWFDQPLOLWDWHDJDLQVWWKH
problem of neo-colonialism.
7KH ZRUN RI WKH UHDGHU HQFRXQWHULQJ D FHQVRUHG RU VHOIFHQVRUHG WH[W LV LQ
the manner of the forensic scientist, to piece together its illicit or hidden subtexts:
elision, ambiguity, omission, allegory, parable and metaphor all exercise the
UHDGHULQWKHZRUNRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQ7KLVLVWKHUHDVRQ&RHW]HHSRLQWVRXWLQ³7KH
1RYHO7RGD\´WKDWWKHSDUDEOHLVIDYRXUHGE\PDUJLQDOL]HGFRPPXQLWLHV
ZKR VWDQG RXWVLGH KLVWRU\ EHFDXVH LWV PHVVDJH LV REVFXUH 17 6HWWLQJ DQWL
UHDOLVW ¿FWLRQ DJDLQVW KLVWRU\ DQG WKH KLVWRULFDO QRYHO ZKLFK UHDI¿UP WKH VWDWXV
TXR &RHW]HH DUJXHV WKDW WKH LQHIIHFWLYHQHVV RI FHQVRUVKLS KDV EHHQ LWV IDLOXUH
WR ³UHFRJQLVH WKDW WKH RIIHQVLYHQHVV RI VWRULHV´ GRHVQ¶W OLH LQ WKHLU FDSDFLW\ WR
WUDQVJUHVVUXOHVLPSRVHGE\RWKHUVEXWWRPDNHDQGFKDQJHWKHVHUXOHVDWZLOO17
<HW&RHW]HHLVDOVRVXVSLFLRXVRIJHQUHUXOHVLIWKH\IRUFHSDUWLFXODUUHDGLQJV
in colonial and apartheid contexts such rules are analogous to processes of
V\VWHPDWL]DWLRQFRGL¿FDWLRQDQGFRQWUROWKDWKDYHEHHQLQWLPDWHO\ERXQGXSZLWK
power and oppression (cf. Attridge’s comments on allegory [J. M. Coetzee@
)UHGULF-DPHVRQDUJXHVWKDWWKHDFWRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQVKRXOGLWVHOIEHVXEMHFW
WR VFUXWLQ\ ³HYHU\ FRPPHQWDU\ PXVW EH DW WKH VDPH WLPH D PHWDFRPPHQWDU\´
³0HWDFRPPHQWDU\´ -DPHVRQ OLNHQV PHWDFRPPHQWDU\ WR WKH ³)UHXGLDQ
KHUPHQHXWLF´ ZKLFK GLVWLQJXLVKHV EHWZHHQ WKH PDQLIHVW DQG ODWHQW ZRUNLQJV
of a text, between the concealment and the message concealed. “This initial
GLVWLQFWLRQ´KHJRHVRQ³DOUHDG\DQVZHUVRXUEDVLFTXHVWLRQ:K\GRHVWKHZRUN
UHTXLUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLQWKH¿UVWSODFH"E\SRVLQJLWIRUWKULJKWO\IURPWKHRXWVHW
by implying the presence of some type of Censor which the message must slip
SDVW´ ³0HWDFRPPHQWDU\´ )RU -DPHVRQ WKH DFW RI LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ LV QRW WR
GLVFRYHUD³UHVROXWLRQ´WRWKHFRQXQGUXPRIDWH[W¶VPHDQLQJ³EXWDFRPPHQWDU\
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
131
RQ WKH YHU\ FRQGLWLRQV RI H[LVWHQFH RI WKH SUREOHP LWVHOI´ ³0HWDFRPPHQWDU\´
-DPHVRQ¶VDUJXPHQWGLVWLOVWKH³PHVVDJH´RI&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOWKDWDVUHDGHUV
ZHPXVWDOZD\VTXHVWLRQRXUUROHZLWKLQWKHOLIHRIWKHWH[W+RZGRZHUHDGD
WH[WWKDWVHOIFHQVRUV"+RZGRZHUHDGWKHXQVDLG"$QGDERYHDOOwhy are we
UHTXLUHGWRGRVR"
7KHVHOIH[LOHG'RVWRHYVN\LQThe Master of Petersburg has returned incognito
from Dresden to St. Petersburg to discover the truth about the death of his stepson
Pavel, to mourn his loss, to lay his ghost to rest and to resolve his own ambivalence
DERXWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSDVIDWKHUWRKLVVWHSVRQ%RWKDVDZULWHUDQGIDWKHUHYRNLQJ
WKHIDWKHULQJRIVWRULHV'RVWRHYVN\IHHOVGXW\ERXQGWRUHFRYHUDQGUHFRUGKLV
stepson’s memory: “A gate has closed behind his son … To open that gate is the
ODERXUODLGXSRQKLP´031HYHUWKHOHVV'RVWRHYVN\LPDJLQHVDQ2HGLSDO
struggle between them, heightened by a self-awareness that, as a novelist, he is
always casting his writerly eye over the life and death of his stepson in the name
of his craft: though grieving Pavel, he is already scrutinizing the boy’s past for the
VHHGVRIDJRRGVWRU\0RUHRYHUDV'HUHN$WWULGJHVXJJHVWVKLVUHVLGHQFHLQ6W
Petersburg far outlasts its apparent function of putting the dead boy’s belongings
LQRUGHU'RVWRHYVN\DSSHDUVWREHZDLWLQJWKHDUULYDORIVRPHWKLQJKHKDV\HWWR
DUWLFXODWH$WWULGJH³([SHFWLQJ´±
7KHQRYHOVWDJHV)\RGRU'RVWRHYVN\¶VSURFHVVRIFUHDWLYHWKLQNLQJWKDWZRXOG
beget The PossessedDOVRNQRZQDVThe Devils&RHW]HH¶VSULPDU\LQWHUWH[W
3HFKH\³3RVW$SDUWKHLG´$WWULGJH³([SHFWLQJ´,WLVWKHLGHDRIWKLVERRN
in The Master of Petersburg WKDW WKH ¿FWLRQDO 'RVWRHYVN\ DZDLWV 7KH UHDOOLIH
'RVWRHYVN\LQLWLDOO\SHUFHLYHGThe PossessedD³SDPSKOHWQRYHO´DQGKDG³KLJK
KRSHVIRUWKHSLHFHEXWLQDWHQGHQWLRXVUDWKHUWKDQDUWLVWLFVHQVH>@,ZDQWWRXWWHU
DIHZLGHDVHYHQLIP\DUWLVWU\LVGHVWUR\HGLQWKHSURFHVV´>TWGLQ/HDWKHUEDUURZ
:KDW EHJDQ DV SURSDJDQGD ZDV RQO\ ODWHU WUDQVIRUPHG LQWR D ZRUN RI
literary merit, as W. J. Leatherbarrow argues, as the novel shifted focus from
SROLWLFDOQLKLOLVPWRQLKLOLVPLQLWVVRFLDODQGPRUDOIRUP/HDWKHUEDUURZ±
EDVHGRQ'RVWRHYVN\¶VQHZO\IRXQGFRPPLWPHQWWR2UWKRGR[&KULVWLDQLW\
7KH¿QDOFKDSWHULQ&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOWLWOHG³6WDYURJLQ´VSHFL¿FDOO\LPDJLQHV
WKHJHQHVLVRIWKH³$W7LKRQ¶V´FKDSWHULQThe Possessed, originally suppressed
by the editor of The Russian Herald ZKHUH LW ¿UVW DSSHDUHG LQ VHULDOL]HG IRUP
ZKRGHHPHG1LNROD\6WDYURJLQ9V\HYRORGRYLWFK¶VFRQIHVVLRQRIWKHDEXVHRIWKH
JLUO0DWU\RVKDREVFHQHDQGWKHUHIRUHXQ¿WIRUSXEOLFDWLRQ&XULRXVO\'RVWRHYVN\
KLPVHOI ODWHU ZLWKKHOG WKH FKDSWHU ZKHQ WKH ERRN ZHQW WR SULQW EXW D FRS\ KDV
survived as an appendix to the edition translated by Constance Garnett (the
HGLWLRQUHIHUUHGWRKHUH$YUDKP<DUPROLQVN\ZKRSUHSDUHGWKH)RUHZRUGWRWKLV
HGLWLRQQRWHVWKDWKHLVXQDEOHWRHQOLJKWHQWKHUHDGHURQWKLVSRLQWL[ZKLOVW
/HDWKHUEDUURZDUJXHVWKDW'RVWRHYVN\VLPSO\FRXOGQ¶WIXO¿OWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVRI
WKHPDJD]LQHDQGVRGHFLGHGWRRPLWWKHFKDSWHUDOWRJHWKHU
,QKLVFRQIHVVLRQ6WDYURJLQH[SHULHQFHVWKHFRQÀLFWLQJHPRWLRQVERWKUHPRUVH
DQG ³D SOHDVXUDEOH VHQVDWLRQ´ WKDW W\SLI\ WKH FRQIHVVLRQV RI WKH 'RVWRHYVNLDQ
KHUR LGHQWL¿HG E\ &RHW]HH LQ ³&RQIHVVLRQ DQG 'RXEOH 7KRXJKWV´ '3 132
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
$EVROXWLRQ DV WKH JRDO RI FRQIHVVLRQ DWWDLQHGE\ TXHVWLQJ IRU ³WUXWK DERXW WKH
VHOI´LVRYHUULGGHQLQ'RVWRHYVN\¶VFRQIHVVDQWVDVWKH\EHJLQWRWDNHJUDWXLWRXV
SOHDVXUHLQWKHDFWRIFRQIHVVLQJDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\IDLOWR¿QGFORVXUH'3
6WDYURJLQFRQFHDOVKLVSDUWLQWKH³SHQNQLIHDIIDLUÍRUZKLFKWKHJLUO0DWU\RVKD
is wrongly accused and neglects to intervene in her public shaming even though
he believes she may be suicidal. He becomes self-consciously enamoured of
KLV VWRU\ HPEHOOLVKLQJ KLV FRQIHVVLRQ ³, QRWH WKLV´ KH ZULWHV ³EHFDXVH LW LV
LPSRUWDQW IRU WKH VWRU\´ The Possessed ,Q &RHW]HH¶V QRYHO 'RVWRHYVN\
OLNH 6WDYURJLQ DGPLWV WR D ³YROXSWXRXV XUJH WR FRQIHVV´ WR KLV \RXQJ ZLIH LQ
'UHVGHQKLVFRQIHVVLRQV³EHGHYLOOLQJWKHLUPDUULDJHIDUPRUHWKDQWKHLQ¿GHOLWLHV
WKHPVHOYHV´032IFRXUVHWKDW&RHW]HH¶V'RVWRHYVN\thinks about abusing
WKH JLUO 0DWU\RVKD LPDJLQLQJ KHU ODLG RXW QDNHG RQ WKH EHG LV YHU\ GLIIHUHQW
from his acting upon these thoughts. As D. H. Lawrence, writing in defence of his
censored novel Lady Chatterley’s LoverREVHUYHV³FXOWXUHDQGFLYLOL]DWLRQ
KDYHWDXJKWXV«>WKDW@WKHDFWGRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\IROORZRQWKHWKRXJKW´TWGLQ
*2VHHDOVR/DZUHQFHPropos ±1HYHUWKHOHVV'RVWRHYVN\is culpable
in that he is subtly corrupting the child and effaces Pavel’s diaries based on this
experience. This will become the story of Stavrogin seducing Matryosha in The
Possessed³WKLVLVDSDVVDJHKHZLOOQRWIRUJHWDQGPD\HYHQRQHGD\UHZRUNLQWR
KLVZULWLQJ´03
$WWULGJH DQG =LQRY\ =LQLN FRPSUHKHQVLYHO\ GUDZ FRPSDULVRQV EHWZHHQ
WKH DXWKRU 'RVWRHYVN\ DQG &RHW]HH¶V FKDUDFWHU QRWLQJ WKDW ERWK DUH OLYLQJ LQ
Dresden in 1869, observed by the Russian secret police and unable to return freely
to Petersburg because they are being pursued by their creditors – the real-life
'RVWRHYVN\OLNHKLV¿FWLRQDOFRXQWHUSDUWZDVDIÀLFWHGZLWKDGDQJHURXVSHQFKDQW
IRU JDPEOLQJ 'RVWRHYVN\ EHJDQ ZULWLQJ The Possessed in December 1869, a
month after Coetzee sets the denouement of The Master of Petersburg/LNHKLV
FRXQWHUSDUWWKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\KDVDVWHSVRQFDOOHG3DYHOZKRPKHRIIHUV
¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUW%RWK'RVWRHYVN\VVXIIHUIURPHSLOHSV\SUHYLRXVO\WKRXJKWRIDV
DNLQGRISRVVHVVLRQDQGDV$WWULGJHREVHUYHV³WKHWRUWXUHGVSLUDOVRIVHOIGRXEW
self-denigration, and self-exculpation that occupy so much of the protagonist’s
PHQWDOZRUOGDUHIDPLOLDUIURP'RVWRHYVN\¶V¿FWLRQDQGOHWWHUV´³([SHFWLQJ´
In The Master of Petersburg'RVWRHYVN\XQEXUGHQVKLVJULHIWRKLV³FRQIHVVRUV´
$QQDDQG0DWU\RVKD3DYHOFDQEHORRVHO\HTXDWHGZLWK6WDYURJLQZKRFRQIHVVHV
WRKLVDEXVHRIWKHJLUOFKLOG0DWU\RVKDLQ'RVWRHYVN\¶VQRYHO6HUJHL1HFKDHY
LVDKLVWRULFDO¿JXUHZKRLQIDPRXVO\ZDVLPSOLFDWHGLQWKHPXUGHURIDVWXGHQW
member of the nihilists, I. I. Ivanov, who Nechaev believed might betray the
RUJDQL]DWLRQ 2IIRUG :KLOVW 'RVWRHYVN\ REVFXUHV UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV LQ The
PossessedRIERWK1HFKDHYDV3HWHU9HUNKRYHQVN\DQG,YDQRYDV,YDQ6KDWRY
&RHW]HHWDNHVWKHOLEHUW\RIXQPDVNLQJWKHPLQKLVQRYHO&RHW]HHKRZHYHUDOVR
PDNHVVLJQL¿FDQWGHSDUWXUHVIURPKLVWRULFDOWUXWKVQRWDEO\WKDWLQUHDOOLIH3DYHO
RXWOLYHG'RVWRHYVN\$WWULGJH³([SHFWLQJ´±VHHDOVR=LQLN
&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOWKHUHIRUHDVVXPHVWKDWWKHUHDGHUKDVNQRZOHGJHRIZKDWLV
D FRPSOH[ DQG GLI¿FXOW ZRUN DQG LV YHUVHG LQ WKH GRPLQDQW (XURSHDQ FDQRQ
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
133
:KLOVWLQ&RHW]HH¶VHDUOLHU³UDGLFDOPHWD¿FWLRQ´'3Foe, allusions to Daniel
Defoe’s Robinson CrusoeDUHWUDQVSDUHQWIDPLOLDULW\ZLWKThe Possessed,
particularly the suppressed chapter, DV$WWULGJHREVHUYHVLVOHVVOLNHO\³([SHFWLQJ´
1RQHWKHOHVV E\ HQJDJLQJ ZLWK D QRYHO WKDW HIIHFWLYHO\ KDV EHHQ FHQVRUHG
Coetzee notionally enacts an evasion of the censor and situates the reader of The
Master of PetersburgDVWKLVFHQVRU¿JXUHRUFULWLFZKRPXVW¿OOLQWKHJDSVRIWKH
³PLVVLQJ´LQWHUWH[WMXVWDVLQFoe, the reader is challengingly positioned as critic
RU³IRH´RIWKHZRUN
&RHW]HH¶VQRYHODOVREULQJVWRJHWKHU'RVWRHYVN\DQGKLVORQJWHUPULYDO,YDQ
Turgenev and Turgenev’s Fathers and Sons WKDWFKDUWVWKHVDPHPRPHQW
in Russian history. (Coetzee borrows the names Pavel and Anna Sergeyevna from
Fathers and Sons7KHFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHWZR5XVVLDQDXWKRUVKDVEHHQZHOO
GRFXPHQWHGDV'&2IIRUGSRLQWVRXW7XUJHQHYLV³YLFLRXVO\ODPSRRQHGLQWKH
FKDUDFWHURI.DUPD]LQRY´LQThe Possessed%RWK7XUJHQHYDQG'RVWRHYVN\
UHFRJQL]HG WKH UHVSRQVLELOLW\ RI WKH ROGHU ³OLEHUDO´ JHQHUDWLRQ ZLWK LWV WLHV WR
:HVWHUQ (XURSH WKDW VR UDQNOHG ZLWK 'RVWRHYVN\ IRU WKH UHYROXWLRQDU\ IHUYRXU
RI WKH \RXQJHU V JHQHUDWLRQ 2IIRUG VHH DOVR 3HDFH ,W ZDV ZLWK
7XUJHQHY¶V³OLEHUDOLVP´KLVFRXUWLQJRI\RXQJUDGLFDOVDQGKLVODFNRIQDWLRQDOLVP
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK KLV OLNLQJ RI:HVWHUQ (XURSH WKDW 'RVWRHYVN\ WRRN LVVXH DQG LW
ZDV QRW XQWLO VKRUWO\ EHIRUH 'RVWRHYVN\¶V GHDWK WKDW WKH WZR UHVROYHG WKHLU
GLIIHUHQFHV/HDWKHUEDUURZ$OOWKUHHZRUNVFathers and Sons, The Possessed
and The Master of Petersburg GUDZ XSRQ WKLV JHQHUDWLRQDO FRQÀLFW DQG DUH
accordingly, structured around the father-son relationship. In nihilist ideology the
³IDWKHU´DXWKRULW\PXVWEHUHJXODUO\URRWHGRXWIRUDV1HFKDHYLQThe Master of
Petersburg says, “Revolution is the end of everything old, including fathers and
sons… . With each generation the old revolution is overturned and history starts
again. Carte blanche´03³)DWKHU´DOVRVLJQL¿HVWKHZULWHUO\DXWKRULW\RI
&RHW]HH¶V'RVWRHYVN\ZKRLVWKH³PDVWHURI3HWHUVEXUJ´
7KLVLVWKH¿UVWRI&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOVWREHSXEOLVKHGSRVWDSDUWKHLGDQGVHWLQ
6W3HWHUVEXUJ7VDULVW5XVVLDLURQLFDOO\LWLVWKH¿UVWLQZKLFKKHPRVWREYLRXVO\
ZLWKGUDZVIURPJHRSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WVWKDWFDQEHVDLGWREHSRVWFRORQLDO:ULWLQJ
for The Master of PetersburgEHJDQLQWKHWUDQVLWLRQDOSHULRGPDUNHGLQE\
the ANC leader Nelson Mandela’s release from his 27-year incarceration and when
negotiating the winding down of apartheid was set in motion. Parallels between
Tsarist Russia and apartheid South Africa are transparent: both are oppressive
VRFLHWLHV ZKLFK KDYH VXEMHFWHG WKHLU FLWL]HQV WR FHQVRUVKLS LPSULVRQPHQW
WRUWXUHDQGH[LOHERWKQDWLRQVDUHXQGHUJRLQJVHLVPLFFKDQJHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\
1HFKDHY¶VUHPDUNLQWKHQRYHOWKDW³:HDUHRQWKHEULQNRIDQHZDJHZKHUHZH
DUHIUHHWRWKLQNDQ\WKRXJKW´03,QWKHVZKHQERWKQRYHOVDUHVHW
5XVVLD ZDV XQGHU WKH QHZ ³UHIRUPLVW´ UHJLPH RI 1LFKRODV ,, ZKLFK IROORZLQJ
Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War of 1853–56, introduced a series of reforms
including the abolition of the institution of serfdom. Nevertheless, what Offord
FDOOV WKLV ³UHIRUPLQJ DUGRU´ TXLFNO\ GLVVROYHG LQ UHVSRQVH WR WKH EXLOGXS RI
militant activity amongst the intelligentsia (Offord ,Q ERWK 5XVVLD DQG
134
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
6RXWK$IULFDWKHGLVSDULW\EHWZHHQULFKDQGSRRUZDVDQGVWLOOLVYDVWDIDFWRI
ZKLFKSUREOHPDWLFDOO\&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOWDNHVOLWWOHDFFRXQW The issue of poverty
LVRQO\DGGUHVVHGH[SOLFLWO\ZKHQDEOLQGIROGHG'RVWRHYVN\LVOHGWRWKHGHSWKV
of the metropolis to meet Nechaev. Finally, of course, both Russia and South
Africa spawned effective revolutionary movements that targeted state oppression.
Continuing themes begun in Age of IronWKLVSDUWLFXODUZULWHU'RVWRHYVN\
is disturbed by what he perceives as the demon-possession of revolutionary zeal.
Published two years prior to the inauguration of the Truth and Reconciliation
&RPPLVVLRQLQDQGLQWKH\HDURI6RXWK$IULFD¶V¿UVWGHPRFUDWLFHOHFWLRQV the
QRYHOOLNHLWVLQWHUWH[WDQWLFLSDWHVSHUWLQHQWTXHVWLRQVDERXWDEVROXWLRQ±MXVWLFH
WUXWKVLQFHULW\UHGHPSWLRQUHSDUDWLRQYHQJHDQFHDQGIRUJLYHQHVV±FRQ¿JXUHGLQ
the novel’s singular confessional mode which Watson argues is “literally freighted
ZLWKDQHPRWLRQZKLFKFDQRQO\EHGHVFULEHGDVUHOLJLRXV´³:ULWHU´:DWVRQ
suggests that The Master of Petersburg³EHFRPHV«DQLQYROXQWDU\FRQIHVVLRQ´
WKHPHDQLQJRIZKLFKUHVLGHVLQD&KULVWLDQHWKLF³:ULWHU´7KLVFKLPHVZLWK
WKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\¶VRZQSUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKVSLULWXDOFRQYHUVLRQLQKLVODWHU
ZRUN IURP WKH V RQZDUGV Crime and Punishment, The Possessed and The
Brothers KaramzovZKLFK$OH[DQGUD)5XGLFLQDDUJXHVDUHSDWWHUQHGE\
the “archetypal scheme of rebirth through transgression followed by suffering, or
expiation, which informs the central myth of Christianity, the Fall of Man and his
5HGHPSWLRQ´ 5XGLFLQD The Possessed H[SUHVVHV QRW RQO\ 'RVWRHYVN\¶V
GLVDYRZDO RI UDGLFDO DQG OLEHUDO SROLWLFV DQG KLV GLVWDVWH IRU :HVWHUQ LQÀXHQFH
RQ5XVVLDEXWDOVRKLVSURIRXQGFRQFHUQIRUDODFNRI&KULVWLDQPRUDOLW\¿JXUHG
LQLWVSULQFLSOHFKDUDFWHU6WDYURJLQ/HDWKHUEDUURZ'HPRQVV\PEROL]HWKLV
political, moral and religious turpitude.
'HPRQVDUHWKHLPSHWXVRI&RHW]HH¶VQRYHOLQFOXGLQJ'RVWRHYVN\¶VGHPRQV
RIJULHIIRUKLVVWHSVRQ3DYHOZKRGLHGLQVXVSLFLRXVFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGKLVJXLOW
at the series of betrayals he enacts – of Pavel and Matryosha and her mother. In
KLV DWWHPSWV WR UHFRQFLOH KLPVHOI WR KLV VWHSVRQ¶V GHDWK 'RVWRHYVN\ UHDOL]HV LW
is by consorting with the demons of a guilty conscience that his imagination is
unleashed and he is enabled to write. Possession in The Master of Petersburg
LV EHWRNHQHG E\ 'RVWRHYVN\¶V HSLOHSV\ D KLVWRULFDO IDFW WKH ³HQHUJ\´ EHKLQG
1HFKDHY¶VSROLWLFDODFWLYLVP03DQGVH[XDOHFVWDV\$QQDDOPRVWLQDXGLEO\
ZKLVSHUV³GHYLO´DVVKHFOLPD[HVGXULQJLQWHUFRXUVHZLWK'RVWRHYVN\>03@
0DGQHVVLVWKHHIIHFWRIDQGFUXFLEOHIRU'RVWRHYVN\¶VLPDJLQDWLYHZULWLQJWKH
idea of The Possessed%0(QJHOKDUGWDUJXHVWKDWLQJHQHUDOWKH'RVWRHYVN\
KHUR³EHFRPHVDµSHUVRQRIWKHLGHD¶DSHUVRQSRVVHVVHGE\DQLGHD´7KLVLGHDLV
DOOFRQVXPLQJDQGGH¿QHV\HWGLVWRUWVERWKWKHKHUR¶VOLIHDQGFRQVFLRXVQHVVXQWLO
“The idea leads an independent life in the hero’s consciousness: in fact it is not he
but the idea that lives, and the novelist describes not the life of the hero but the life
RIWKHLGHDLQKLP´(QJHOKDUGWTWGLQ%DNKWLQ$QWRQLR*UDPVFL¶VGH¿QLWLRQRI
the interregnum, coined by Gordimer writing about the transitional zone between
regimes in South Africa, captures the historical resonance of possession here: the
LQWHUUHJQXPLVDWLPHZKHQ³WKHROGLVG\LQJDQGWKHQHZFDQQRWEHERUQLQWKLV
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
135
LQWHUUHJQXPWKHUHDULVHVDJUHDWGLYHUVLW\RIPRUELGV\PSWRPV´TWGLQ*RUGLPHU
Essential Gesture 3ROLWLFDOWUDQVLWLRQPDQLIHVWVLWVHOISK\VLFDOO\RQWKHERG\
SRVVHVVHGE\³PRUELGV\PSWRPV´MXVWDV1HFKDHYLVSRVVHVVHG'RVWRHYVN\LV
WKH HPERGLPHQW RI D WLPH ZKHQ LQ &RHW]HH¶V ZRUGV ³OLWHUDU\ VWDQGDUGV OLNH
HYHU\WKLQJHOVHDUHFRQIXVHG´'3
3RVWDSDUWKHLG WKH SUREOHP RI VHOIFHQVRUVKLS SODJXLQJ WKH ¿FWLRQDO
'RVWRHYVN\FRQWLQXHVWRHQFXPEHUFRQWHPSRUDU\6RXWK$IULFDQZULWHUV:KLOVW
a form of self-censorship under apartheid – art engagé – was perceived by some
ZKRIHOWERXQGE\WKHSULQFLSOHVRI³UHOHYDQFHDQGFRPPLWPHQW´*RUGLPHUThe
Essential GestureWREHDPRUDOREOLJDWLRQ6RXWK$IULFDQZULWHUVWRGD\QRORQJHU
forcibly constrained and regulated by the state, have been enabled to turn their
FULWLFDOJD]HLQZDUGWRWKHVHOIWRVHOIUHÀHFWLRQDQGVHOITXHVWLRQLQJWKRXJKWKLV
LV QRW WR FODLP WKDW VXFK UHÀHFWLRQ ZDV DEVHQW LQ ZULWLQJ RI WKH DSDUWKHLG HUD
Regime change has made this increasingly inward turn possible, yet we should
not too hastily suppose that the responsibility and accountability many writers
previously felt obligated to express – forms of self-censorship – have miraculously
PHOWHGDZD\7KHVKHHUYROXPHRIOLWHUDU\ZRUNVWKDWFULWLFDOO\HQJDJHZLWKWKH
³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´ZLWKWKHIDLOXUHVRIWKHQHROLEHUDOJRYHUQPHQWDQGWKH7UXWK
and Reconciliation Commission, the housing crisis, homelessness and xenophobia
DV FRQVHTXHQFHV RI ZLGHVSUHDG LPPLJUDWLRQ DQG WKH FDWDVWURSKH RI $,'6 DUH
testimony to this.
That Coetzee chooses to write about the uncompromising politics of nihilist
UHYROXWLRQDULHVZKROLYHE\WKHPRWWR³(YHU\WKLQJLVSHUPLWWHGIRUWKHVDNHRIWKH
IXWXUH´03DWDWLPHZKHQ6RXWK$IULFDLVSUHRFFXSLHGZLWKWKHGLVFRXUVHV
of forgiveness and reconciliation and expectantly awaits the birth of the “new
6RXWK$IULFD´LVWURXEOLQJEXWZLOOQRWVXUSULVHWKRVHDFTXDLQWHGZLWK&RHW]HH¶V
W\SLFDOO\ XQFRPSURPLVLQJ YLVLRQ $WWULGJH FHOHEUDWHV WKH ZRUN IRU WKLV YHU\
TXDOLW\DUJXLQJWKDW¿FWLRQWKDWLVDEOHWRXQVHWWOHWKHUHDGHULVIXQGDPHQWDOWRWKH
SUDFWLFHRIHWKLFDOZULWLQJDQGUHDGLQJ³([SHFWLQJ´,Q³7KH3RVWDSDUWKHLG
6XEOLPH´*UDKDP3HFKH\DUJXHVWKDWWKHKHDG\GD\VRIVDZ6RXWK$IULFD
HQWHULQJDSHULRGRI³DUUHVWHGQHRFRORQLDOLVP´DQGLGHQWL¿HVDQHZPRPHQWLQ
writing also present in The Master of Petersburg that is morally obliged to call
itself to account. Yet Rob Nixon argues that the freedoms that the end of apartheid
EURXJKWDERXWDOVRVLJQDOOHGFRQVWUDLQWVIRUZLWKRXWWKHFULVLVRIDSDUWKHLGWR¿UH
WKHLPDJLQDWLRQZKDWZDVOHIWWRIXHOWKHZULWHU¶VLPDJLQDWLRQ³$IWHUPDWKV´"
3HFKH\ WDNHV WKLV SRLQW IXUWKHU ZKHQ KH LQYRNHV WKH VSHFWUH RI QHRFRORQLDOLVP
in his contention that “The danger of the post-apartheid condition is that writing
ZLOODSSHDUWREHDOLJQHGZLWKWKHEHQH¿FHQWPRYHVRIWKHVWDWHVHHPLQJWRKDYH
QRWKLQJWRGRDIWHUWKHHQGRIUHSUHVVLRQ´³3RVWDSDUWKHLG´±
,ISDUWRIWKHZRUNRISRVWFRORQLDOVWXGLHVLVWRFDOOLQWRTXHVWLRQKHUHWRIRUH
normalized modes of discourse and ideology (history, the Enlightenment,
FRORQLDOLVP DQG VR RQ ZH FDQ VHH WKDW WKH IDLOXUH WR DSSO\ WKH VDPH FULWLFDO
principles to postcolonialism would be remiss. In this respect Coetzee’s novel is
SUHVFLHQWLQGHHGHFKRHVRIWKH³SLWIDOOVRIQDWLRQDOFRQVFLRXVQHVV´LGHQWL¿HGE\
136
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
)DQRQUHERXQG6PXJJOHGLQWR1HFKDHY¶VKLGHRXW'RVWRHYVN\DVNVZKDWZLOOEH
GLIIHUHQWRQFHWKH³SHRSOH¶VYHQJHDQFHKDVGRQHLWVZRUNDQGHYHU\RQHKDVEHHQ
OHYHOOHG":LOO\RXVWLOOEHIUHHWREHZKRP\RXZLVK":LOOHDFKRIXVEHIUHHWR
EHZKRPZHZLVKDWODVW"´03:HVKRXOGQRWIRUJHWKRZHYHUWKDWWKH
PDQ FKDOOHQJLQJ WKH LGHD RI UHYROXWLRQDU\ XWRSLD 'RVWRHYVN\ ERWK LQ UHDOOLIH
DQGLQWKLVZRUNRI¿FWLRQEHFRPHVLQFUHDVLQJO\FRQVHUYDWLYHZLWKDJH(YHQVR
Attridge and Michael Marais suggest it is not important, as some early reviewers
RIWKHQRYHOKDYHGRQHWRDVNZLWKZKRP&RHW]HHPLJKWDOLJQKLPVHOISROLWLFDOO\
³([SHFWLQJWKH8QH[SHFWHG´0DUDLV³3ODFHVRI3LJV´±7KHQRYHORIIHUV
important insights into the process and hazards of regime-change which certainly
VSRNHWRWKHSROLWLFDOFRQWH[WVRIV6RXWK$IULFDZKHQWKHERRNZDVSHQQHG
$OWKRXJKWKHSROLWLFVEHKLQGWKHERRNDUHQRWRQO\LQWULJXLQJEXWLPSRUWDQWLWV
political contexts function as a catalyst for the debate about censorship, which in
WXUQFDWDO\]HVTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHFHQVRULQJVHOI5HDGLQJWKH&RHW]HHRHXYUHFDQ
EH FKDUDFWHUL]HG DV DQ H[HUFLVH LQ UHDGLQJ EHWZHHQ WKH OLQHV ¿OOLQJ LQ WKH JDSV
and Coetzee apparently endorses this activity in White Writing ZKHQ KH
VXJJHVWVWKDWPRGHUQLVPWHDFKHVXVWRUHDGWKH³JDSVLQYHUVHVXQGHUVLGHVWKH
YHLOHGWKHGDUNWKHEXULHGWKHIHPLQLQHDOWHULWLHV´%XWHYHQPRGHVRIUHDGLQJ
VLOHQFHFDQEHFRPHQRUPDOL]HGKHDUJXHVEHFDXVHRQFHIDPLOLDUWKHVHNLQGVRI
VLOHQFHULVN³EHFRPLQJGRPLQDQWLQWXUQ´::
1RWXQOLNH0UV&XUUHQLQAge of Iron, Coetzee states that he has little interest
in the debate about censorship per se since it “fail[s] to rise above the level of
the political in the worst sense. It remains stalled at the level of (to use a good
)ODXEHUWLDQ ZRUG bêtise VWXSLGLW\´ '3 5DWKHU WKDQ H[SOLFLWO\ HQJDJLQJ
with the politics of censorship, Coetzee suggests that his earlier novels, Waiting
for the BarbariansDQGLife & Times of Michael KH[SUHVVDPRUH
visceral, what he calls “pathological response … to the ban on representing what
ZHQWRQLQSROLFHFHOOV´LQ6RXWK$IULFD'31HYHUWKHOHVVKHFRQFHGHVD
certain admiration for fellow writers who have faced the censor’s blue pencil
and candidly anticipates, even accepts, the charge of evasion that so often has
EHHQODLGDWKLVIHHWEHFDXVHKHDGPLWVKLVERRNVDUHWRRREOLTXHDQGHVRWHULFWR
ZDUUDQWWKHFHQVRU¶VDWWHQWLRQ³,UHJDUGLWDVDEDGJHRIKRQRXU´KHDGPLWV³WR
KDYHKDGDERRNEDQQHGLQ6RXWK$IULFDDQGHYHQPRUHRIDQKRQRUWRKDYHEHHQ
DFWHG DJDLQVW SXQLWLYHO\ «7KLV KRQRU , KDYH QHYHU DFKLHYHG QRU WR EH IUDQN
PHULWHG´'3
&RHW]HH LGHQWL¿HV D JHQHDORJ\ RI FRQÀLFW EHWZHHQ ZULWHUV DQG DXWKRULW\
LQFOXGLQJFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQZULWHUVWKHVWDWHDQGWKHVWDWHFHQVRU:ULWHUVW\SLFDOO\
attributed to themselves a social role that hinges upon moral obligation:
Hostility between the two sides, which soon became settled and institutional,
was exacerbated by the tendency of artists from the late eighteenth century
onward to assume it as their social role, and sometimes indeed as their vocation
DQG GHVWLQ\ WR WHVW WKH OLPLWV WKDW LV WR VD\ WKH ZHDN SRLQWV RI WKRXJKW DQG
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
137
feeling, of representation, of the law, and of opposition itself, in ways that those
LQSRZHUZHUHERXQGWR¿QGXQFRPIRUWDEOHDQGHYHQRIIHQVLYH*2
7KHLGHDRIEHLQJLPSHOOHGWRDGRSWDVRFLDOUROH,DPDUJXLQJZRXOGÀ\LQWKH
IDFHRI&RHW]HH¶VDVVHUWLRQWKDWKHZULWHVWKHERRNVKH³ZDQWVWRZULWH´'3
1HYHUWKHOHVV KLV ¿FWLRQ ³WHVWV WKH OLPLWV´ RI DFFHSWDEOH GLVFRXUVH LOOXVWUDWHG
not only by a sustained and ghoulishly intimate representation of violence and
perverted sexual desire, but also by the shifting portrayal of racial alterity, from
VXEMHFWLRQDQGVLOHQFHLQWKHHDUO\ZRUNVWRDJHQF\DQGSROLWLFDOLQWUDQVLJHQFHLQ
Age of Iron and The Master of Petersburg. Disgrace, of course, tests the limits
ZLWKLWVFRQWURYHUVLDOSRUWUD\DORIEODFNRQZKLWHUDSH5DFLDODOWHULW\LQWKHPRVW
recent novels, Elizabeth CostelloSlow ManDQGDiary of a Bad
YearLV¿JXUHGLQFKDUDFWHUVZKRIRUWKHPRVWSDUWDUHSV\FKRORJLFDOO\
UREXVWDQGRIWHQRXWVSRNHQ
Not only does Coetzee corroborate his critics’ charge that he is politically
HYDVLYH E\ FODLPLQJ D SRVLWLRQ RI ³QRQSRVLWLRQ´ DQG H[SODLQLQJ KLV GLVFRPIRUW
DW EHLQJ ³DVNHG WR DQVZHU IRU « P\ QRYHOV´ '3 KH JRHV DV IDU DV VHOI
consciously staging this evasion in The Master of Petersburg'RVWRHYVN\1HFKDHY
claims, is not incapable of comprehending the idea of revolution but wishes to
circumvent it: “The idea is so tremendous that you cannot understand it, you and
\RXUJHQHUDWLRQ2UUDWKHU\RXXQGHUVWDQGLWRQO\WRRZHOODQGZDQWWRVWLÀHLWLQ
WKHFUDGOH´03(YDVLYHQHVVLVQRWVLPSO\EORRG\PLQGHGQHVVRQ&RHW]HH¶V
SDUWKLV¿FWLRQH[SUHVVHVWKHHWKLFRSROLWLFDOLPSHUDWLYHRIJXDUGLQJWKHDXWKRU¶V
right to free expression, even if, during the years of apartheid, this compromised
the principles of literary commitment. That The Master of Petersburg is written in
WKHZDQLQJ\HDUVRIWKHDSDUWKHLGUHJLPHLIZHDUHPLQGIXORI)DQRQWKHFULWLTXH
of the practices of revolutionary politics are all the more timely. Before this
transitional moment the move to challenge the forces of opposition on the part of
Coetzee, a move representating the gaze turned inward of post-apartheid writing,
ZRXOGKDYHEHHQUHJDUGHGMXVWL¿DEO\ZLWKVXVSLFLRQ
The Master of Petersburg alludes to the loss of privacy engendered by apartheid
that in turn was to become detrimental to the cultural sphere, where culture was
SHUFHLYHGD³ZHDSRQRIWKHVWUXJJOH´DQGSURWHVWOLWHUDWXUHDFFRUGLQJWR/HZLV
1NRVL ZDV GHEDVHG E\ ³MRXUQDOLVWLF IDFW SDUDGLQJ RXWUDJHRXVO\ DV LPDJLQDWLYH
OLWHUDWXUH´Home and Exile,QWKHKLGHRXWZKHUH'RVWRHYVN\DQG1HFKDHY
WKUDVKRXWWKHSULQFLSOHVRIFRPPLWPHQW'RVWRHYVN\LVSUHVVHGWRZULWHSURSDJDQGD
for Nechaev’s revolutionary circle. Nechaev is giving him the opportunity, he says,
WR ³DZDNHQ WKH ZRUOG´ 03 $ PDQ LQ WKH FURZG LQYRNLQJ GHEDWHV DERXW
FHQVRUVKLS DQG IUHH H[SUHVVLRQ FRPHV WR 'RVWRHYVN\¶V GHIHQFH ³:ULWHUV KDYH
WKHLURZQUXOHV7KH\FDQ¶WZRUNZLWKSHRSOHORRNLQJRYHUWKHLUVKRXOGHUV´03
,URQLFDOO\'RVWRHYVN\ZLOOIHHODQRWKHUVHOIZDWFKLQJRYHUKLVVKRXOGHUDV
he struggles to conceive The Possessed. Nechaev wishes to channel the energy of
the crowd to political ends and with this in mind would override writers’ authority
RYHU WKHLU ZRUN ³$ FURZG LVQ¶W LQWHUHVWHG LQ WKH ¿QH SRLQWV RI DXWKRUVKLS $
138
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
FURZGKDVQRLQWHOOHFWRQO\SDVVLRQV´033URIHVVLQJWRKDYHQRWLPHIRU
LQWHOOHFWLRQGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWQLKLOLVPZDVDSKLORVRSKLFDOGRFWULQH1HFKDHY¶V
agenda is action through political violence: “History isn’t thoughts, history isn’t
PDGHLQSHRSOH¶VPLQGV+LVWRU\LVPDGHLQWKHVWUHHWV´035HFDOOLQJWKH
LQWUDQVLJHQFHRIERWKWKHEODFNUHYROXWLRQDULHVDQGWKHVWDWH¶VKHQFKPHQDVZHOO
as the diminution of privacy in Age of Iron, Nechaev’s position is unrelentingly
PDWHULDOLVWSODFLQJZULWLQJ¿UPO\LQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUH7KHSHRSOH³VKRXOGOHDUQ
QHZUXOHV3ULYDF\LVDOX[XU\ZHFDQGRZLWKRXW3HRSOHGRQ¶WQHHGSULYDF\´'3
/LNHZLVHPRFNLQJ'RVWRHYVN\DERXW3DYHO¶VSDSHUVWKHSROLFHLQYHVWLJDWRU
0D[LPRY DVNV ³,V D VWRU\ D SULYDWH PDWWHU ZRXOG \RX VD\"´ 03 +DYLQJ
ORVWIDLWKLQ'RVWRHYVN\DVDZULWHURIFRQVFLHQFH1HFKDHYFDQQRWIDWKRPKRZ
KHFRXOGKDYHFUDIWHGVRFRQYLQFLQJO\DFKDUDFWHUOLNHWKHUDGLFDO5DVNROQLNRYLQ
Crime and PunishmentZKRP1HFKDHYKDGWDNHQDVDVWDQGDUG7DFLWO\
DFNQRZOHGJLQJWKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\¶VSROLWLFDOWXUQDERXW1HFKDHYUHFRJQL]HV
WKHGHVLUHLQ'RVWRHYVN\DVDQDUWLVWWRFUHDWHDJRRGVWRU\WKDWHYHQWKHGHVSHUDWH
poverty the novelist witnesses in Nechaev’s hide-out might prove to be the stuff
RI¿FWLRQ03
In The Master of Petersburg Coetzee implicitly renounces the idea of committed
OLWHUDWXUHWKURXJKWKHVHGLDORJXHVEHWZHHQ'RVWRHYVN\DQG1HFKDHYDQGEHWZHHQ
'RVWRHYVN\ DQG 0D[LPRY 'RVWRHYVN\ FRQGHPQV 1HFKDHY ³<RX¶UH PDG \RX
GRQ¶WNQRZKRZWRUHDG´03LQUHVSRQVHWR1HFKDHY¶VXVHRI5DVNROQLNRY
DFKDUDFWHUIURPWKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\¶VCrime and Punishment, as an exemplar
RI QLKLOLVP RQ ZKLFK WR PRGHO KLV OLIH<HW &RHW]HH¶V 'RVWRHYVN\ UHFRJQL]HV D
FHUWDLQOHYHORIMXVWLFHLQ1HFKDHYWKDWH[FHHGVKLVRZQZKHQWKHUHYROXWLRQDU\
VKRZVRXWUDJHDW'RVWRHYVN\¶V³GHSUDYHGSDUDEOH´RIWKHSRRUSURVWLWXWLQJWKHLU
FKLOGUHQWRLPSURYHWKHLUORW03
Even so, the ambivalence of Coetzee’s portrayal of nihilism leads Marais to
FDXWLRQWKDW³,WLVPLVJXLGHGWRFRQFOXGH«WKDWVLQFH'RVWRHYVN\LPSOLHVµWKDW
the [nihilists] are possessed by the devil, pervaded by evil’, Coetzee simply shares
WKLVFRQYLFWLRQ´0DUDLVEDVHVKLVUHDGLQJRQWKHELEOLFDOSDUDEOHRIWKH*DGDUHQH
VZLQH DSSURSULDWHG E\ 'RVWRHYVN\ LQ The Possessed and in turn by Coetzee in
The Master of Petersburg to convey the dangers of political fervour (the story of
GHYLOVH[RUFLVHGE\-HVXVIURPDVLFNPDQZKLFKWKHQSRVVHVVDKHUGRIVZLQHWKDW
VWDPSHGHV LQWR WKH VHD:KHUH LQ The Possessed the possessed man represents
liberal Russia and the inhabited swine the nihilists, Marais points out that Coetzee
“applies the story of the Gadarene swine not only to Russia and the phenomenon
RIUHYROXWLRQDU\QLKLOLVPEXWDOVRWR'RVWRHYVN\KLPVHOIDQGKLVOLWHUDU\UHVSRQVH
WRWKLVSKHQRPHQRQ´³3ODFHVRI3LJV´±7KHQRYHOWKHUHIRUHIXQFWLRQVRQ
PXOWLSOH OD\HUV RI VLJQL¿FDWLRQ 1HYHUWKHOHVV LQ ³'RVWRHYVN\ 7KH 0LUDFXORXV
<HDUV´ VXJJHVWLQJ WKDW &RHW]HH ZDV QRW DV QHXWUDO DV 0DUDLV DOORZV &RHW]HH
ODXQFKHV D YLOLI\LQJ DWWDFN RQ ZKDW KH XQGHUVWDQGV DV WKH IDLOXUHV RI QLKLOLVP
ZKLFKZDVQRWRQO\D³SXHULOH´LGHRORJ\EXWRQHWKDW
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
139
EDUHO\GHVHUYHGWKHQDPHRIDSKLORVRSKLFDOGRFWULQH«LWVHHPHGWR'RVWRHYVN\
QRWMXVWDKHUHWLFDOGLYHUJHQFHIURPWKHXWRSLDQFRPPXQLWDULDQLVPRIWKHV
but a malignant mutation of it – or, to use the master metaphor of The Devils,
DQ HYLO VSLULW ± WDNLQJ RYHU WKH PLQGV RI D ULVLQJ JHQHUDWLRQ RI KDOIHGXFDWHG
5XVVLDQ\RXWK66
2IIRUG DQG /HDWKHUEDUURZ DUH VLPLODUO\ RXWVSRNHQ EXW GUDZ TXLWH GLIIHUHQW
FRQFOXVLRQV ERWK DFNQRZOHGJLQJ WKH YXOJDU FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQ RI QLKLOLVP LQ
The Possessed DQG 'RVWRHYVN\¶V YLVFHUDO UHDFWLRQ DJDLQVW ERWK UHYROXWLRQDU\
politics and5XVVLDQOLEHUDOLVP2IIRUG/HDWKHUEDUURZ$V/HDWKHUEDUURZ
FRPPHQWV 'RVWRHYVN\¶V ³SROLWLFDO JURWHVTXHV´ DUH ³XQDUJXDEO\´ H[DJJHUDWHG
'RVWRHYVN\ LV WKH ³µUHDOLVW LQ D KLJKHU VHQVH¶ VDFUL¿FLQJ YHULVLPLOLWXGH WR
P\WKRJUDSK\´ ±$ 9 /XQDFKDUVN\ REVHUYHV WKDW 'RVWRHYVN\ ³H[SRVHV
WKHFRQWUDGLFWRU\QDWXUHDQGGXDOLW\RI'RVWRHYVN\¶VRZQVRFLDOSHUVRQDOLW\KLV
oscillations between a revolutionary materialistic socialism and a conservative
UHOLJLRXVZRUOGYLHZ±RVFLOODWLRQVWKDWQHYHUOHGWRDQ\GHFLVLYHUHVROXWLRQ´TWG
LQ%DNKWLQ&KRRVLQJFKDUDFWHUVRIVXFKDPELYDOHQWLGHRORJ\RUDOWHUQDWLYHO\
who have been so ambivalently received by the reading public, chimes with the
VFKHPDRI&RHW]HH¶VERRNWKHQXUWXULQJRIDQ³HVRWHULFUHDGLQJFRPPXQLW\´/HR
6WUDXVVTWGLQ*2WKDWFDQUHDGEHWZHHQWKHOLQHV¿OOLQJLQWKHJDSV
7KHDPELYDOHQFHRIWKHQDUUDWLYHWDNLQJLWVOHDGIURP'RVWRHYVN\GLVFRXUDJHV
UHDGHUVIURPDOLJQLQJWKHLUV\PSDWKLHVZLWKHLWKHU¿JXUH7KDW&RHW]HHDGPLUHV
such a strategy is evident when he refers to Gordimer’s lauding in The Essential
Gesture RI7XUJHQHY DV LQ &RHW]HH¶V ZRUGV WKH ³H[HPSODU\ UHDOLVW´ '3 Turgenev, Coetzee agrees, “was able to subordinate his personal political beliefs
to the demands of his art to such a degree that his readers could not tell whether
his sympathies lay with the progressive characters in his novels or with the
UHDFWLRQDULHV´ '3 $OWKRXJK 'RVWRHYVN\ DQG 7XUJHQHY DUH ERWK DEOH WR
XQVHWWOH DQ\ HDV\ FRQQHFWLRQ WKHLU UHDGHUV PLJKW PDNH EHWZHHQ FKDUDFWHU DQG
author in terms of the politics each professes, today the two authors’ incompatible
SROLWLFV DUH FRPPRQ NQRZOHGJH DQG FDQ EH UHDG DV FRPSHWLQJ QDUUDWLYHV LQ
&RHW]HH¶VQRYHO%\DSSURSULDWLQJERWK7XUJHQHYDQG'RVWRHYVN\&RHW]HHHIIHFWV
DIRUPRI³FHQVRUVKLS´FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\HUDVXUHDQGXQZULWLQJ,QWKLVUHVSHFW
diminishing the authority of authorship, the novel captures Roland Barthes’s
WKHVLVLQ³'HDWKRIWKH$XWKRU´³:HNQRZQRZWKDWDWH[WLVQRWDOLQHRIZRUGV
UHOHDVLQJ D VLQJOH µWKHRORJLFDO¶ PHDQLQJ WKH µPHVVDJH¶ RI WKH$XWKRU*RG EXW
a multi-dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original,
EOHQGDQGFODVK´³'HDWK´
A concern in the novel for the right to free expression and, conversely, with
the self-censoring limits such free expression warrants exposes an anxiety about
authorship and the authority authorship engenders. The narrative self-consciously
XQGHUPLQHV 'RVWRHYVN\¶V DXWKRULW\ DV DXWKRU -XVW DV &RHW]HH ERUURZV IURP
7XUJHQHY DV ZHOO DV 'RVWRHYVN\ E\ SDZLQJ RYHU 3DYHO¶V GLDULHV 'RVWRHYVN\
FRQMXUHV D SDOLPSVHVW RI LQÀXHQFHV IRU WKH LGHD RI KLV ERRN WKDW GHSOHWHV KLV
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
140
DXWKRULW\DV³$XWKRU*RG´+LVJXLOWLVQRWRQO\LQGXFHGE\HIIDFLQJWKHSULYDWH
diaries but also by transgressing the boundaries of self-censorship and using
WKH HQWULHV WR IHHG KLV SORW 'RVWRHYVN\¶V LQWHUURJDWRU 0D[LPRY UHWXUQV 3DYHO¶V
SDSHUVWR'RVWRHYVN\ZLWKWKHZRUGV³7KHUHLVQRUHDVRQZK\\RXVKRXOGQRW
tell yourself that I have ceased to exist, in the same way that a character in a
ERRNFDQEHVDLGWRFHDVHWRH[LVWDVVRRQDVWKHERRNLVFORVHG´03+HUH
0D[LPRYFRQIXVLQJO\FRQÀDWHVFKDUDFWHUZLWKKLVRZQUROHDVFHQVRURUUHDGHU
suggesting that it is the reader who chooses whether a character will live or die in
WKHPHPRU\)RU%DUWKHVWKHUHDGHU¶VDXWKRULW\WDNHVSUHFHGHQFHRYHUWKDWRIWKH
DXWKRU³7KHUHDGHULVWKHVSDFHRQZKLFKDOOWKHTXRWDWLRQVWKDWPDNHXSDZULWLQJ
DUHLQVFULEHGZLWKRXWDQ\RIWKHPEHLQJORVWDWH[W¶VXQLW\OLHVQRWLQLWVRULJLQ
EXWLQLWVGHVWLQDWLRQ´³'HDWK´&RHW]HH¶VQRYHODVNVXVDVFULWLFDOUHDGHUV
WREHVNHSWLFDORIWKHZULWHU¶VDXWKRULW\LPSOLHGLQWKHQDPLQJRI'RVWRHYVN\DV
the “masterRI3HWHUVEXUJ´±DWLWOHWKDWZLOOFRPHWRWDXQW'RVWRHYVN\±EXWOLNH
%DUWKHVLWDOVRDVNVXVWRUHÀHFWXSRQRXURZQDFFRXQWDELOLW\ZLWKLQWKHOLIHRIWKH
ZRUN$OWKRXJKWKHUHDGHUOLNHWKHFHQVRUKDVWKHPHDQVWRGLYHVWWKHDXWKRURI
authorial authority, the motivations for doing so certainly diverge and are therefore
GLI¿FXOWWRFRPSDUH
/LNHWKHSDUDEOHZKLFKLVVXEYHUVLYHEHFDXVHDV&RHW]HHDUJXHVLWLVGLI¿FXOW
WRSLQGRZQLWVPHDQLQJ17'RVWRHYVN\¶V¿FWLRQVXEYHUVLYHO\HYDGHVEHFDXVH
it incorporates, in Coetzee’s words, “hidden polemic and hidden dialogue´
RULJLQDO HPSKDVLV *2 $FFRUGLQJ WR 0LNKDLO %DNKWLQ LQ KLV FHOHEUDWHG
Problems in Dostoevsky’s Poetics 'RVWRHYVN\ DVVLJQV KLV FKDUDFWHUV D
double consciousness and autonomy: they simultaneously are independent from,
\HW FRQVWLWXWH WKH DXWKRU¶V YRLFH ZKLOVW WKH\ PHUJH ZLWK WKH HTXDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW
FRQVFLRXVQHVVHV RI WKH RWKHU FKDUDFWHUV %DNKWLQ 6RXWK$IULFDQ DXWKRUV OLNH
Breyten Breytenbach, whose writing was blue-pencilled by the censor, have
HPSOR\HG MXVW VXFK D VWUDWHJ\ *2 &RHW]HH DUJXHV WKDW LQ WKH HDUO\ OLQHV
RI %UH\WHQEDFK¶V SRHP ³7KH &RQTXHURUV´ IRU H[DPSOH ³WKHUH LV D UXGLPHQWDU\
GLDORJXH DV WKH ZRUGV RI WKH RWKHU µKXPDQ¶ µKXPDQLW\¶ FUHHS LQ´ *2 1
1
The poem reads:
EHFDXVHZHZRXOGQRWDFNQRZOHGJHWKHPDVKXPDQ
beings
everything human in us dried up
and we cannot grieve over our dying
because we wanted nothing more than fear and
hatred
we did not recognize the human uprising of
humanity
DQGWULHGWR¿QGURXJKVROXWLRQVEXWWRRODWH
WKHÀRZHUVLQWKH¿UH
no one is interested in our solutions—
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
141
Further exploring the subterfuge of polyphony, Pechey contends that Coetzee turns
WR'RVWRHYVN\EHFDXVHWKHODWWHU
NHHSV IDLWK ZLWK PRGHUQLW\¶V SURPLVH RI IUHHGRP ZKLOVW UHVLVWLQJ LWV ZLOO WR
totality. The polyphonic novel is a space in which cynical and ironic voices are
JLYHQIXOOZHLJKWZKHUHKHURHVVRXQGOLNHEXWDUHQRWDXWKRUVDQGWKHDXWKRU
VRXQGVOLNHEXWLVQRWMXVWRQHKHURDPRQJRWKHUV³3RVW$SDUWKHLG´
3RO\SKRQ\ LV WKH DXWKRU¶V FRYHUW PHDQV RI PDVNLQJ WKH DXWKRULDO YRLFH LQ WKLV
ZD\VLJQDOOLQJDUHQXQFLDWLRQRIDXWKRULW\&RHW]HHVHWVVXFKDFULWLTXHLQSURFHVV
'RPLQLF +HDG DUJXHV E\ FRQVWUXFWLQJ 'RVWRHYVN\ DV ERWK ³PDVWHU´ DQG ³QRW
PDVWHU´J. M. Coetzee'RVWRHYVN\DVVRFLDWHVWKH³PDVWHU´WLWOHGFRQIHUUHG
XSRQ KLP ZLWK WKH ³PDVWHU EODFNVPLWK´ DQG WKH ³FDVWLQJ RI EHOOV´ EXW QDPHV
KLPVHOID³FUDFNHGEHOOÍRU³7KHUHLVDFUDFNUXQQLQJWKURXJK´KLP03
Doubling is not only realized in the representation of censorship in The Master
of Petersburg but is a framing device sustained throughout the narrative. The
VKDGRZ\SUHVHQFH'RVWRHYVN\IHHOVZDWFKLQJRYHUKLPDVKHUHDGVWKURXJKDQG
HIIDFHV3DYHO¶VGLDU\LV'RVWRHYVN\¶VRWKHUVHOIDQGWKH³LGHD´RI'RVWRHYVN\¶V
The Possessed: “This presence, so grey without feature – is this what he must
IDWKHUJLYHEORRGWRÀHVKOLIH"«,VWKHWKLQJEHIRUHKLP«WKHRQHWKDWGRHV
WKHIDWKHULQJDQGPXVWKHJLYHKLPVHOIWREHLQJIDWKHUHGE\LW"´03±
(Stavrogin in The Possessed is plagued by the demons of a guilty conscience for
his abuse of Matryosha but simultaneously draws sadistic pleasure from the child’s
GLVWUHVVKHZLVKHVWRFRQIHVVEXWDW¿UVWIHHOVQRUHPRUVHIRUKLVDFWLRQVRUIRU
KLVFRPSOLFLW\LQWKHJLUO¶VGHDWK'RVWRHYVN\LVGULYHQE\KLVLQQHUGHPRQVRI
FUHDWLYLW\WRHIIDFHKLVVRQ¶VGLDU\ZKLOVWUHYLOLQJKLPVHOIIRUGRLQJVRKLVOXVWIRU
Matryosha repels yet thrills him, as his fascination for nihilism and for Nechaev
does – a fascination which Nechaev reciprocates.
:LWK PRUELG QHFURSKLOLF DVVRFLDWLRQV 'RVWRHYVN\ REVHVVLYHO\ GRQV 3DYHO¶V
ZKLWHVXLWDQGWKH¿JXUHLQWKHPLUURUWKDWSUHVHQWVLWVHOIZKRLVKLVRWKHUVHOI
EHFRPHV D PRQVWURXV SDURG\ RI KLV VRQ ³ORRNLQJ LQ WKH PLUURU KH VHHV RQO\ D
VHHG\LPSRVWHUDQGEH\RQGWKDWVRPHWKLQJVXUUHSWLWLRXVDQGREVFHQH´03
%RXQGDULHV EHWZHHQ IDWKHU DQG VRQ EHWZHHQ ³KH´ DQG ³,´ DUH ZHDNHQHG DQG
WUDQVPXWHLQWRHDFKRWKHU7KHQDUUDWLYHLPSOLHV'RVWRHYVN\VXIIHUVDQHSLOHSWLF
VHL]XUH0DWU\RVKDDVNVKLPLIKHLVVLFN'RVWRHYVN\LPDJLQHVKLPVHOIIDOOLQJ
DVKLVVRQIHOOIURPWKHWRZHU³:KHQKHFRPHVEDFNKHKDVDJDLQORVWDOOVHQVHRI
ZKRKHLV+HNQRZVWKHIEXWDVKHVWDUHVDWLWLWEHFRPHVHQLJPDWLFDVDURFNLQ
WKHPLGGOHRIWKHGHVHUW´03%ORFNLQJRIIWKHPHPRU\RIKLVJULHIKRZHYHU
we are past understanding
ZHDUHRIDQRWKHUNLQG
ZHDUHWKHFKLOGUHQRI&DLQ%UH\WHQEDFKTWGLQ*2VHHDOVR%UH\WHQEDFK
Buffalo Bill
142
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
he uses/misuses the white suit – Pavel’s story – to seduce Matryosha in the manner
RIWKHVWRU\WHOOHUZHDYLQJ¿FWLRQV
%DNKWLQH[WUDSRODWHVWKHQRWLRQRIGRXEOLQJLQWHUPVRIYRLFHWRVXJJHVW³WKDW
RXWRIHYHU\FRQWUDGLFWLRQZLWKLQDVLQJOHSHUVRQ'RVWRHYVN\WULHVWRFUHDWHWZR
SHUVRQVLQRUGHUWRGUDPDWL]HWKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQDQGGHYHORSLWH[WHQVLYHO\´
,Q JHQHUDO WKH GLYHUJHQFH EHWZHHQ 'RVWRHYVN\ DQG KLV FRQWHPSRUDULHV FDQ EH
FKDUDFWHUL]HGDFFRUGLQJWR%DNKWLQE\WKHIRUPHU¶VUHMHFWLRQRIWKH³PRQRORJLF
world of the author’s consciousness … that which had been all of reality here
becomes only one of the aspects of reality … what appears – metaphorically
VSHDNLQJ±LVnovelistic counterpoint´HPSKDVLVDGGHGProblems3RO\SKRQ\
is one means of outsmarting the censor but is also a means of refusing to conform
to societal expectations or to produce tendentious literature. Polyphony allows
authors to withdraw from identifying with particular characters, to conceal their
own point of view behind multiple consciousnesses and ironic voices, whilst it
undermines any stable or coherent meaning. Coetzee’s use of allegory, which
VHUYHV LQ SDUW WR PDVN SROLWLFL]HG GLVFRXUVH VHOIFRQVFLRXVO\ GLVSOD\V WKHVH
aporias: typically his novels negate the very allegorical readings they solicit,
LOOXVWUDWHGE\WKHIUHTXHQWUHFRXUVHWRWKHPRWLIVRIWKHODE\ULQWKDQGWKHDQDJUDP
and in the process highlight the limitations reading allegorically entails. In the
GHEDWHEHWZHHQ'RVWRHYVN\DQG1HFKDHYDERXWZULWHUO\FRPPLWPHQW'RVWRHYVN\
acerbically points out to the nihilist leader, Nechaev, that “Stories [rather than
SDUDEOHV@FDQEHDERXWRWKHUSHRSOH\RXDUHQRWREOLJHGWR¿QGDSODFHIRU\RXUVHOI
LQWKHP´037KHUHDGHUOLNH&RHW]HH¶VDXWKRU¿JXUHVLVORVWLQD³PD]HRI
VHOIGRXEW´)
This split consciousness, expressed through polyphony, manifests itself in the
relationship between the censor and the writer: the close proximity of the censor
DQG FHQVRUHG ZULWHU LV H[SHULHQFHG LQ WKH ZULWHU DV LQQHU FRQÀLFW RU FRQWDJLRQ
&RHW]HH¶VHVVD\³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´LGHQWL¿HVDSHUYHUVHIDVFLQDWLRQRIWKHZULWHU
IRUWKHFHQVRUZKLFKOHDGVWR³KXPLOLDWLRQVHOIGLVJXVWDQGVKDPH´DQG¿QDOO\
to madness:
$W DQ LQGLYLGXDO OHYHO WKH FRQWHVW ZLWK WKH FHQVRU LV DOO WRR OLNHO\ WR DVVXPH
an importance in the inner life of the writer that at the very least diverts him
from his proper occupation and at its worst fascinates and even perverts the
LPDJLQDWLRQ*2
7KHFHQVRU¿JXUHEHFRPHV³LQYROXQWDULO\LQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKHLQWHULRUSV\FKLF
OLIH´RIWKHZULWHU³,QZLOOLQJIDQWDVLHVRIWKLVNLQG´&RHW]HHJRHVRQ³WKHFHQVRU
is typically experienced as a parasite, a pathological invader of the body-self,
UHSXGLDWHGZLWKYLVFHUDOLQWHQVLW\EXWQHYHUZKROO\H[SHOOHG´*2
The Master of PetersburgOD\VEDUHWKHFORVHSUR[LPLW\RI'RVWRHYVN\WRKLV
interrogator/censor manifested in disease or possession. Problematically, however,
'RVWRHYVN\ FRQÀDWHV WKH SRVLWLRQ RI UHDGHU ZLWK FHQVRU and censored when he
TXL]]HVKLVLQWHUURJDWRU0D[LPRYDERXWKLVYLFWLPV
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
143
What is the truth: do you suffer with him, or do you secretly exult being the arm
WKDWVZLQJVWKHD[H"«UHDGLQJLVEHLQJWKHDUPDQGEHLQJWKHD[Hand being the
VNXOO>RIWKHLQWHUURJDWHG@UHDGLQJLVJLYLQJ\RXUVHOIXSQRWKROGLQJ\RXUVHOIDW
DGLVWDQFHDQGMHHULQJ03
$FFRUGLQJWR'RVWRHYVN\ZKRDFFXVHV0D[LPRYRIEHLQJXQDEOHWRUHDGSURSHUO\
UHDGLQJOLNHZULWLQJUHTXLUHVWKLQNLQJRQHVHOILQWRPXOWLSOHVXEMHFWSRVLWLRQV,QWKLV
ZD\RQHIXOO\HQJDJHVZLWKWKHZRUN0D[LPRYUHWRUWVWKDW'RVWRHYVN\³VSHDN>V@
RIUHDGLQJDVWKRXJKLWZHUHGHPRQSRVVHVVLRQ´03DQGVDUGRQLFDOO\DVNV
'RVWRHYVN\ZKREHOLHYHV0D[LPRYLVRXWIRUYHQJHDQFHRQ1HFKDHYUDWKHUWKDQ
MXVWLFH WR ³WHDFK KLP KRZ WR UHDG´ WR ³([SODLQ WR PH WKHVH LGHDV WKDW DUH QRW
LGHDV´030D[LPRY¶VUROHDVLQWHUURJDWRUFHQVRULVWRGHWHUPLQHDGH¿QLWLYH
DQGVDQFWLRQHGWH[WDQGWKLV'RVWRHYVN\FDQQRWDQGZLOOQRWSURYLGH
The relationship between writer and censor is traduced into the rupture of self
DQGRWKHULQWKHVHOIFHQVRULQJZULWHUZKRVWUXJJOHVZLWKWKHDSSDUHQWO\FRQÀLFWLQJ
GHPDQGV RI FRQVFLHQFH DQG DUW D VWUXJJOH ZKLFK WDNHQ WR LWV FRQFOXVLRQ UHVXOWV
LQ SV\FKLF FROODSVH 'RVWRHYVN\ LPSOLFDWHV KLPVHOI LQ WKH DFW RI FHQVRUVKLS E\
FRQÀDWLQJWKHVHUROHVRIFHQVRUDQGUHDGHULQWKHTXRWDWLRQDERYHDQGUHDOL]HVWKDW
he is not altruistically pursuing truth or performing a moral duty by altering Pavel’s
GLDU\TXLWHWKHFRQWUDU\LQIDFWSRVVHVVHGKHKDVDEDQGRQHGKLPVHOIDQG3DYHOWR
KLV¿FWLRQ6HOIFHQVRUVKLSLVWKHUHIRUHV\PSWRPDWLFRIERWKWKHH[WHUQDOSUHVVXUHV
imposed by society – state censorship or society’s expectations of its writers –
DQGWKHLQQHUFRQÀLFWRIWKHFRQÀLFWHGFRQVFLHQFH2IFRXUVHLWDOVRVLJQL¿HVWKH
necessary, ethico-political repression on which a free society depends.
7KH WKLUGSHUVRQ SUHVHQWWHQVH QDUUDWLRQ ZKLFK SUHVHQWV 'RVWRHYVN\ DV
IRFDOL]HUVXJJHVWVFRQIHVVLRQEXWWKLVGHYLFHDOVRXQFDQQLO\KLQWVWKDW'RVWRHYVN\
KDVEHHQLQFRUSRUDWHGDVDFKDUDFWHUZLWKLQKLVRZQ¿FWLRQ&RUURERUDWHGE\WKH
VFHQH LQ ZKLFK 'RVWRHYVN\ VHQVHV WKH DSSDULWLRQ VKDGRZLQJ KLP DV KH ZULWHV
ZH LPDJLQH 'RVWRHYVN\ WKH DXWKRU ZDWFKLQJ RYHU WKH VKRXOGHU RI KLV ¿FWLRQDO
DOWHUHJR JOHDQLQJ DOO DYDLODEOH H[SHULHQFH IRU KLV QH[W ZRUN The Possessed.
Alternatively, this may of course be his censoring superego, policing his thoughts:
³7KHSHQGRHVQRWPRYH,QWHUPLWWHQWO\WKHVWLFN¿JXUHUHWXUQVWKHFUXPSOHGROG
PDQWUDYHVW\RIKLPVHOI+HLVEORFNHGKHLVLQSULVRQ´03
Breytenbach’s autobiographical The True Confessions of an Albino Terrorist
DQWLFLSDWHVWKLVGHPRQDSSDULWLRQWKRXJKLQ%UH\WHQEDFKLWLVWKHFHQVRU
PRQLWRULQJWKHRXWSXWRIZULWLQJ³$EL]DUUHVLWXDWLRQ«ZKHQ\RXZULWHNQRZLQJ
WKDWWKHHQHP\LVUHDGLQJRYHU\RXUVKRXOGHUĆonfessions7KHFHQVRURI
Breytenbach’s prison-writings metamorphoses into the censoring self, which in
WXUQ LQ &RHW]HH LV PDQLIHVWHG LQ 'RVWRHYVN\¶V JXLOW\ FRQVFLHQFH %UH\WHQEDFK
experiences this as complicity. Unravelling the motif of the mirror/page in
Breytenbach’s writing in which Breytenbach collapses the prison interrogator with
WKHFHQVRURULQWHUURJDWRUZLWKLQDVWKH³GDUNPLUURUEURWKHU´True Confessions
&RHW]HHREVHUYHVWKHVXUIDFHVRIWKHPLUURUDQGWKHEODQNSDJHFRQYHUJH
Just as censors call upon the censored to redouble their efforts to produce and
144
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
UHSURGXFH WKH UHTXLUHG FRQIHVVLRQ VR ZULWHUV HPERG\ D ³FRXQWHUVHOI´ ZKLFK
PRFNV WKH HIIRUWV RI VHOIH[SUHVVLRQ *2 ,QGHHG &RHW]HH VXJJHVWV ³WKH
posture of the writer before the mirror/page is assimilated with the attitude of
WKH FRRSHUDWLYH SULVRQHU XQGHU LQWHUURJDWLRQ´ *2 DQG WKH LQWHUURJDWRU
becomes, in the context of writing, both the self-censor and the “self that writes
LWVHOI´ *2 RU LQ The Master of Petersburg WKH JKRVWO\ ¿JXUH ZDWFKLQJ
RYHU'RVWRHYVN\DVKHSHQVThe Possessed.
8QWLO %UH\WHQEDFK WXUQV KLV DWWHQWLRQ WR KLV ³EODFN PLUURUEURWKHU´ &RHW]HH
ZDUQVKRZHYHUDOOWKDWLVRIIHUHGLV³DQRWKHULQJHQLRXVSRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVW¿JXUHRI
WH[WXDOVHOISURGXFWLRQ´*23XWDQRWKHUZD\PHWD¿FWLRQLVLQVXEVWDQWLDOLI
it fails to be grounded in the ethical. Coetzee’s confessional mode in The Master
of Petersburg, which is internalized and self-denunciatory, as Pechey explains,
illustrates that the author “clearly regards the novel’s scepticism-to-the-secondSRZHUDVDYDOXDEOHUHVRXUFHQRWWREHWXUQHGWRSDUWLVDQHQGVEXWHTXDOO\QRWWR
EHPLVWDNHQIRUQRQHQJDJHPHQW´³3RVW$SDUWKHLG´7KHRGRU$GRUQR¶V
GH¿QLWLRQ RI FRPPLWPHQW LV DSSRVLWH JLYHQ WKDW WKH FRPPLWWHG WH[W ZRXOG
prioritize an estranging form that encourages the reader’s critical engagement
RYHUWHQGHQWLRXVQHVVRUWKHSURMHFWLRQRIWKHDXWKRU¶VRZQSKLORVRSKLFDOLGHDVWKDW
OLPLWVWKHWH[W¶VHWKLFRSROLWLFDOSRWHQWLDO³&RPPLWPHQW´
7KH UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI 'RVWRHYVN\¶V SV\FKLF FRQÀLFW H[SUHVVHG LQ WKH
polyphonous YRLFHVKHKLPVHOIHPERGLHVUDLVHVTXHVWLRQVDERXWFRPSOLFLW\DQG
DFFRXQWDELOLW\ EHFDXVH WKLV EODFN ³PLUURUEURWKHU´ LV ³QRW 2WKHU EXW RWKHUVHOI
µEURWKHU,¶´ *2 &RHW]HH LGHQWL¿HV D SURFHVV RI FRQIURQWDWLRQ DQG VHOI
accusation reminiscent of the patterning of unresolved confession. Here, he is
referring to Breytenbach’s End PapersDQGZRQGHUVZKHWKHUWKLVUHODWLRQVKLS
can ever be productive. That which Coetzee in a different context calls “warring
WZLQV´*2WKHZKLWHSROLFHPDQDQGWKHEODFNUHYROXWLRQDU\DUH
enemies brought together in the mirror. Is the mirror the place, then, where history
LVWUDQVFHQGHG"«&DQGLDORJXHZLWKWKHPLUURUEHWUXVWHGWRSURFHHGSHDFHDEO\
or will it degenerate into hysterical confrontation … hysterical self-accusation, a
VSLUDOOLQJGHVFHQWLQWR³WKHERWWRPOHVVSLWRIGHSUHFDWLRQDQGGLVJXVW´"*2
Breytenbach, End Papers±
Breytenbach describes the passing of the self through a labyrinth: “it is a
FRQWLQXDWLRQRIWKHORRNLQJIRUWKH0LQRWDXUWKDWGDUNFHQWUHZKLFKLVWKH,H\H
WKDW0LVWHU,´P\VWHU\TWGLQ*2VHHDOVR%UH\WHQEDFK Confessions
In Breytenbach’s Mouroir ZKLFK LQFRUSRUDWHV WKH VSHFWUH RI LPSRVVLEOH
endings, the surface of mirror and page, Coetzee argues, are impassable and
the search for the labyrinth’s core thwarted: “Instead, a new surface recurs at
every turn, leading into yet another corridor of the labyrinth… . Text becomes
FRH[WHQVLYHZLWKOLIHWH[WZLOOQRWHQGWLOOZULWLQJHQGVZULWLQJZLOOQRWHQGWLOO
EUHDWK HQGV´ *2 ±7KH SUHVVXUHV EHDULQJ GRZQ XSRQ WKH ZULWHU ZKLFK
UHVXOWLQVHOIFHQVRUVKLSLQERWKLWVFRQVFLRXVDQGXQFRQVFLRXVIRUPVDUHFRQ¿JXUHG
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
145
in a dialogue between the writer’s moral and artistic selves. Indeed, typically in
Coetzee, writers’ uncertainty about their artistic worth leads and in turn becomes
ineluctably anchored to an uncertainty about their ethico-political integrity (the
brutalizing Jacobus Coetzee in Dusklands>@EHLQJWKHREYLRXVH[FHSWLRQ
In The Master of Petersburg WKH WRUPHQWHG 'RVWRHYVN\ ¿QGV KLPVHOI ORVW
LQDOLWHUDOODE\ULQWKZKHQKHLVWDNHQWRPHHW1HFKDHY03ZKLOVWDWWKH
GHQRXHPHQWDV'RVWRHYVN\VWUXJJOHVWRUHFRQFLOHKLPVHOIWRKLVSRVLWLRQDVDXWKRU
KHUHFRJQL]HVWKDWKH³LVLQWKHROGODE\ULQWK´1RWGLVVLPLODUWR0UV&XUUHQLQAge
of IronKHLVORFNHGLQDGDQJHURXVZDJHUZLWK*RGDWVWDNHKLVDUWDQGKLVPRUDO
integrity: “It is the story of his gambling in another guise. He gambles because God
GRHVQRWVSHDN+HJDPEOHVWRPDNH*RGVSHDN%XWWRPDNH*RGVSHDNLQWKHWXUQ
RIDFDUGLVEODVSKHP\´037KXV'RVWRHYVN\HQWHUVWKHERZHOVRIZULWHUO\
SUDFWLFHZKHQKHLVWDNHQWR1HFKDHY¶VKLGHRXW7KLVSODFHLVDPHWDSKRUIRUWKH
labyrinth of both censorship and confession – because here, as with Pavel’s diaries
DQG'RVWRHYVN\¶VFRUUXSWLRQRI0DWU\RVKDKHZLOO¿QGLQVSLUDWLRQIRUKLVERRN
– and which in apartheid South Africa connotes the experience of writing under
the strong-arm of apartheid law. A young man reading a newspaper, cryptically
UHIHUUHGWRDV³WKHUHDGHU´DQGVSHDNLQJ)UHQFKWKHODQJXDJHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH
:HVWHUQL]DWLRQZKLFKWKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\VRGHWHVWHGPRFNLQJO\RIIHUVWKH
GLVRULHQWDWHG'RVWRHYVN\GLUHFWLRQVRXWRIWKHPD]H³Tout droit, tout droit!´03
VWUDLJKWDKHDGVWUDLJKWDKHDG,QWKHH\HVRIWKHVHPHQZKRLQNHHSLQJZLWK
WKHJHQHUDWLRQDOFRQÀLFWLQWKHUHDOOLIH'RVWRHYVN\¶V5XVVLDDUHGLVWLQJXLVKHGE\
WKHLU\RXWK'RVWRHYVN\¶VORVVRIEHDULQJGHQRWHVKLVORVVRIPRUDODQGSROLWLFDO
direction. The unnamed reader, representing the generic reader, is pushing the
writer in a certain ideological direction.
%DNKWLQDQDO\]HVWKHVXSSUHVVHG³$W7LKRQ´FKDSWHULQThe Possessed in terms
RI WKH RWKHU ZKDW HPHUJHV LQ 6WDYURJLQ¶V FRQIHVVLRQ KH DUJXHV LV 6WDYURJLQ¶V
VSOLWFRQVFLRXVQHVVVHOIRWKHU,PSRUWDQWO\QRWXQOLNHWKHPRGHORILQWHUURJDWRU
LQWHUURJDWHGRXWOLQHGDERYHWKHFRQIHVVRUSULHVW7LKRQLVGUDZQLQWRWKLVFRQÀLFWXDO
consciousness:
6WDYURJLQ¶VGLDORJXHZLWK7LNKRQLVDPD[LPDOO\SXUHPRGHORIWKHFRQIHVVLRQDO
dialogue. The entire orientation of Stavrogin in this dialogue is determined by
KLVGXDODWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKH³RWKHUSHUVRQÉ\WKHLPSRVVLELOLW\RIPDQDJLQJ
ZLWKRXW KLV MXGJHPHQW DQG IRUJLYHQHVV DQG DW WKH VDPH WLPH E\ D KRVWLOLW\
WRZDUGKLPDQGUHVLVWDQFHWRKLVMXGJHPHQWDQGIRUJLYHQHVV«,WLVDVLIWZR
SHUVRQV ZHUH VSHDNLQJ ZLWK 7LNKRQ PHUJHG LQWHUUXSWHGO\ LQWR RQH 7LNKRQ
is confronted with two voices, into whose internal struggle he is drawn as a
SDUWLFLSDQW%DNKWLQ
6WDYURJLQLVDEOHERWKWRDVVLPLODWHDQGWRUHVLVWWKH³RWKHUSHUVRQ¶V´RSSRVLWLRQDO
FRQVFLRXVQHVVHV +HDG OLQNV WKLV ³FHQVRUZULWHU FRQIURQWDWLRQ´ WR D WUDQVLWLRQDO
moment in Coetzee’s writing: not only does it constitute an important stage in
WKH GHFRORQL]LQJ SURFHVV ZKHQ WKH FRORQL]HG VXEMHFW UHFRJQL]HV WKH SRURXVQHVV
146
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
of the boundaries that separate colonizer from colonized, more troublingly this
UHFRJQLWLRQPD\UHVXOWLQ³DGLVDEOLQJVHOIDFFXVDWLRQ´J. M. CoetzeeZKLFK
in certain contexts, I would interpose, should be read more positively as the
QHFHVVDU\WDVNRIDXWRFULWLTXH
'RVWRHYVN\ UHDOL]HV WKDW LW LV WR WKH RWKHU WKDW KH PXVW WXUQ DV WKH SDWK WR
DEVROXWLRQ DQG UHGHPSWLRQ IRU KLV WUDQVJUHVVLRQV 7KH RWKHU D ³OHDVW WKLQJ´ LV
VLJQL¿HG DV LQ Disgrace and Age of Iron UHVSHFWLYHO\ E\ D GRJ RU D GUXQNHQ
EHJJDU03$GHFUHSLWGRJRUWKHXQORYDEOH³EHJJDU´ZKRLVLQIDFWDFOHYHUO\
GLVJXLVHG SROLFH VS\ ZLOO KHOS 'RVWRHYVN\ KH LQLWLDOO\ EHOLHYHV WR UHVROYH KLV
feelings about his stepson’s death and about the betrayal, committed in the name
of writing, that he feels he has enacted of Pavel’s memory. He chances upon the
DQLPDOFKDLQHGWRDGUDLQSLSHDQGVHQVHVLWVRYHUZKHOPLQJWHUURUDNLQKHLPDJLQHV
to that his son must have experienced as he fell from the tower: “Pavel will not be
saved till he has freed the dog and brought it into his bed, brought the least thing´
RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV03,QDODVWVHOIFRQVFLRXVWZLVWSOXQJLQJLQWRWKHUHDOPV
RIPHWDWH[WXDOLW\'RVWRHYVN\UHFRJQL]HVWKHSLWIDOOVRIVHOIUHYHODWLRQ
+HLVZDLWLQJIRUDVLJQDQGKHLVEHWWLQJWKHUHLVQRJUDQGHUZRUGKHGDUHXVH
WKDWWKHGRJLVQRWWKHVLJQLVQRWDVLJQDWDOOLVMXVWDGRJDPRQJPDQ\GRJV
KRZOLQJLQWKHQLJKW%XWKHNQRZVWRRWKDWDVORQJDVKHWULHVE\FXQQLQJWR
distinguish things that are things from things that are signs he will not be saved.
03
$FNQRZOHGJLQJ WKH IDOOLELOLW\ RI LGHQWLI\LQJ WKH RWKHU WKH GRJ ZLWK VSLULWXDO
release and in the process testing his spiritual conviction – The Possessed, you
ZLOOUHPHPEHU LV LQ SDUWDQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI 'RVWRHYVN\¶V UHDZDNHQHGUHOLJLRVLW\
±&RHW]HH¶V'RVWRHYVN\HQWHUVWKHZRUOGRIVLJQVOLNHWKDWO\ULFDOO\LQKDELWHGE\
Friday at the end of FoeDQGWULHVWRPDNHVHQVHRIWR³UHDG´KLVH[SHULHQFHV
That the GRJRI9ODGLPLU¶VSRHPLQ6DPXHO%HFNHWW¶VWaiting for Godot
LV UHDG DV DQ LQYHUVLRQ RI ³JRG´ DQG WKXV DQ DI¿UPDWLRQ RI WKH DSRFDO\SWLF
DEVXUGLVWQDWXUHRIWKHSOD\PDNHV&RHW]HH¶VQRGWRZDUGV%HFNHWWDOOWKHPRUH
DSW DSDUWKHLG LV IUHTXHQWO\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH DEVXUG 'RVWRHYVN\ HOLGHV WKH
otherness of dogs and beggars with that of Nechaev who, amongst others, he
suspects is the apparition watching over his shoulder. It dawns on him that to bring
the grieving process to an end he must accept his son’s alliance and friendship with
1HFKDHYLQGHHGKHPXVWOHDUQWRORYH1HFKDHYZKRPKHUHJDUGVDVDQ³LPLWDWRU
DSUHWHQGHUDEODVSKHPHU´03DVKHZRXOGKLVVRQ,QSDUWWKLVLVDERXW
UHOLQTXLVKLQJKLVIDWKHUO\DQGDXWKRULDODXWKRULW\³$V1HFKDHYKDWHVWKHIDWKHUV
DQGPDNHVLPSODFDEOHZDURQWKHPVRPXVW3DYHOEHDOORZHGWRIROORZKLP"´KH
ZRQGHUV03
Responding to a period of seismic transition in South Africa, The Master of
Petersburg LV D QRYHO DERXW WKH ZULWHU WDNLQJ VWRFN FHQVRUVKLS LV QR ORQJHU DQ
immediate threat yet writers continue to be exercised by external pressures, as well
as by their own demons of conscience. The cusp of regime change in contexts as
Evading the Censor/Censoring the Self in The Master of Petersburg
147
H[WUHPHDVDSDUWKHLGLVQRWWKHPRPHQWIRUZULWHUVWRIRUJHWWKHWDVNRIWHVWLQJWKH
OLPLWVRIDFFHSWDEOHGLVFRXUVHOHVWWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIQHRFRORQLDOLVPUXQWKHLU
course. The heads of the new governments, Fanon warns, “are the true traitors
in Africa, for they sell their country to the most terrifying of all its enemies:
VWXSLGLW\´ Wretched ,Q &RHW]HH¶V ¿UVW QRYHO SXEOLVKHG SRVWDSDUWKHLG
'RVWRHYVN\JXDUGVWKHVDQFWLW\RI³DUWIRUDUW¶VVDNHÍRUKHQRWRQO\DGYRFDWHV
the release of writers from social obligations to society, but also that readers
VKRXOGQRWEHFRQ¿QHGWRWKHLURZQOLPLWLQJH[SHULHQFHV6LJQDOOLQJDQHZSKDVH
in South African writing, this is not a position the novel fully endorses, but rather,
E\QXUWXULQJWKH³HVRWHULFUHDGLQJFRPPXQLW\´WKDWFDQUHDGEHWZHHQWKHOLQHVLW
insists our engagement with texts should remain critical, attentive all the while to
WKHIDOOLELOLW\RI³FRUUHFWÚHDGLQJV
In Doubling the Point &RHW]HH OLNHQV WKH DFWLYLW\ RI FULWLFLVP WR WKH ³DFW RI
WULXPSKDQWO\ WHDULQJ WKH FORWKHV RII LWV VXEMHFW DQG GLVSOD\LQJ WKH QDNHGQHVV
EHQHDWK±µ%HKROGWKHWUXWK¶´,QWKLVKHDUJXHVFULWLFLVP³H[SRVHVDQDwYHWpRILWV
RZQ´'3+HZDUQVRIFULWLFLVPEHFRPLQJ³OD]\DQGHYHU\RUWKRGR[\JURZV
OD]\´WKDWLQLWVUROHRIGHP\VWL¿FDWLRQFULWLFLVP³SULYLOHJHVP\VWL¿FDWLRQV´'3
&ULWLFLVPLPSOLHVFRQVWUDLQWKHVXJJHVWVIRUZKHUHDV³7KHfeel of writing
¿FWLRQ LV RQH RI IUHHGRP RI LUUHVSRQVLELOLW\ RU EHWWHU RI UHVSRQVLELOLW\ WRZDUG
VRPHWKLQJWKDWKDVQRW\HWHPHUJHG´FULWLFLVPLPSOLHVDUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRZDUGV
DQLPDJLQHGJRDO'31XUWXULQJDGHHSHUFULWLFDOSUDFWLFHThe Master of
Petersburg alerts the reader to the problems of the author’s authority, encouraging
DVXVSLFLRQRIDXWKRULDODWWHPSWVWR³PDVWHU´WKHWH[W<HWWKHQRYHODOVRFDXWLRQV
WKDWWKLVDFWLYLW\VKRXOGEHVHOIUHÀH[LYHDV-DPHVRQDUJXHVHYHU\FRPPHQWDU\
should also be a metacommentary.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 8
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
1
Lizalise Idinga Lakho
³7KHIRUJLYHQHVVRIVLQVPDNHVDSHUVRQZKROH´;KRVDK\PQ2
- 0 &RHW]HH UHWXUQV WR D 6RXWK$IULFDQ VHWWLQJ LQ KLV VHFRQG %RRNHU 3UL]H
winning novel Disgrace ZKLFK WKURXJK WKH ³WULDO´ RI LWV SURWDJRQLVW
Professor David Lurie for his affair with one of his female students and his
VXEVHTXHQWFULVLVRIDXWKRULW\WDFLWO\FDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHSURFHVVHVRIWKHPXFK
PDOLJQHG7UXWKDQG5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ&RPPLVVLRQ75&ZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRID
QDWLRQLQWUDQVLWLRQ7KHQRYHODVNVZKDWNLQGRIWUXWKVFDQEHOHJLWLPDWHO\WROG
LQSXEOLF"%URXJKWEHIRUHDGLVFLSOLQDU\FRPPLWWHHDWWKHXQLYHUVLW\DWZKLFKKHLV
HPSOR\HG/XULHLVUHTXLUHGWRFRQIHVVKLVJXLOWIRUKLVDIIDLUZLWK0HODQLHZKR
E\6RXWK$IULFDQGHVLJQDWLRQLV³FRORXUHG´WKHWH[WLPSOLHVVLQFH/XULHLQZDUGO\
UHQDPHVKHU³0HOiQL´RU³GDUNRQH´',67KLVUHQDPLQJWKRXJKXQVSRNHQ
establishes a historical loop whereby the past is brought to bear on the present by
DOOXGLQJWRWKHREVHVVLYHFDWHJRUL]DWLRQRI³UDFH´XQGHUDSDUWKHLGWKDWODPHQWDEO\
FRQWLQXHVWRVWUXFWXUH6RXWK$IULFDQVRFLHW\WRGD\7KH\RNLQJRISDVWDQGSUHVHQW
in the narrative not only calls to mind the 1949 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages
Act and the 1950 Immorality Act through Lurie’s affair, for instance, but also the
TXHVWLRQRIODQGGLVWULEXWLRQWKURXJKWKHRZQHUVKLSRI/XULH¶VGDXJKWHU/XF\¶V
smallholding and Lucy’s perception of her rape by the three men as reparations.
7KHVHKLVWRULFDOUHVRQDQFHVSRLQWWRPXFKODUJHUTXHVWLRQVWKDQ/XULH¶VWDZGU\
DIIDLUTXHVWLRQVRIDFFRXQWDELOLW\UHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGGLVSRVVHVVLRQLQWKHSRVW
DSDUWKHLG VWDWH 7KXV WKH ³WULDO´ VFHQH IXQFWLRQV ¿UVWO\ DV D FDWDO\VW WKDW VHWV
LQ PRWLRQ D SURFHVV RI VHOIUHÀHFWLRQ DQG VHOIDEQHJDWLRQ RQ /XULH¶V SDUW ZKR
UHMHFWVFRQIHVVLRQLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUH\HWQHYHUWKHOHVVXQFRQVFLRXVO\VWULYHVIRU
self-forgiveness in the private, and, secondly, by analogy, as a vehicle to call
LQWR TXHVWLRQ WKH SROLWLFL]DWLRQ E\ WKH 75& RI WKH GLVFRXUVHV RI WUXWKWHOOLQJ
reparations and reconciliation in the public-national domain. DisgraceMRLQVWKH
JHQUHRI³75&QDUUDWLYHV´WKDWKDVSUROLIHUDWHGLQUHFHQW\HDUVLQ6RXWK$IULFD
WKDWLQJHQHUDOFDOOLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHYLDELOLW\RIWKH75&1DGLQH*RUGLPHU¶V
The House Gun $FKPDW 'DQJRU¶V Bitter Fruit DQG 1GHEHOH
1
An early version of this Chapter appeared in Scrutiny2
4XRWHG E\ &RPPLVVLRQHU %RQJDQL )LQFD WKLV K\PQ RSHQHG WKH ¿UVW 7UXWK
&RPPLVVLRQ KHDULQJ $QWMLH .URJ LQ Country of My Skull VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH
sentiment it expresses demonstrates that ideas of reconciliation, or redemption, are not
FRQ¿QHGWR&KULVWLDQFXOWXUHCountry
2
150
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
1MDEXOR¶VThe Cry of Winnie MandelaDUHMXVWDIHZH[DPSOHV7\SLFDOO\
VXFKQDUUDWLYHVSRLQWXSDNH\ÀDZRIWKHSURFHVVHVRIWKH75&WKDWGLVFRXUVHV
of truth and reconciliation are premised upon a Christianized, private ethics of
FRQIHVVLRQDQGDUHWKHUHIRUHLQHTXLWDEOHLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHRIWKH75&
$ PDMRU SUREOHP IDFLQJ WKH ³QHZ 6RXWK $IULFD´ IROORZLQJ WKH GHPLVH
RI DSDUWKHLG KDV EHHQ KRZ EODFNV DQG ZKLWHV RI WKH ROG UHJLPH FDQ QRZ OLYH
SHDFHDEO\ WRJHWKHU 7KH REMHFWLYH RI WKH 75& ZKLFK ZDV LQDXJXUDWHG LQ and covered the period 1 May 1960 to 10 May 1994, was national unity through
reconciliation with, rather than recrimination of, the former oppressor. This was
to be achieved through truth-telling, reparations and amnesty, by alleviating the
YLFWLPRIWKHEXUGHQRIPHPRU\PDNLQJ¿QDQFLDOUHFRPSHQVHDQGEULQJLQJWKH
abuses of perpetrators to light. (The reparations operation of the TRC was, as Tutu
conceded, found wanting because it failed to pay out anywhere near the sum to
YLFWLPVRULJLQDOO\PRRWHG>³)RUHZRUG´TRC @,QWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH75&ZH
VKRXOGDVN¿UVWO\KRZGRWUXWKWHOOLQJDQGDPQHVW\LPSLQJHXSRQMXVWLFH"$QG
VHFRQGO\IURPWKLVKRZGRZHPHDVXUHWUXWK"
Most commentators have noted that the TRC uncovered truth at the cost of
MXVWLFHUHVRXUFHVVXFKDVODQGIRULQVWDQFHKDYHQRWEHHQUHGLVWULEXWHGXQGHU
WKH QHZ FRQVWLWXWLRQ OHDGLQJ 0DKPRRG 0DPGDQL WR FRQFOXGH WKDW WKH 75&
ZDV ³ERUQ RI SROLWLFDO FRPSURPLVH´ 7UXWK DQG 5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ &RPPLVVLRQ
³7UDQVIRUPLQJ 6RFLHW\´ Q SDJ 0DPGDQL SRLQWV RXW WKDW XQGHU WKH 75&¶V
DXVSLFHV ³5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ LV D FRGH ZRUG IRU D GLPLQLVKHG WUXWK´ ³7UXWK´
± EHFDXVH DW OHDVW RQH SDUW\ LQ WKH FRQWUDFW RI UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ ZLOO DOZD\V
be compromised. Yet compromise should always be regarded as transitory, he
contends, enabling progression through an impasse. When in Disgrace Lurie tells
KLVGDXJKWHU/XF\³,ZDVRIIHUHGDFRPSURPLVHZKLFK,ZRXOGQ¶WDFFHSW´VKH
counsels him that compromise has its place: “You shouldn’t be so unbending,
'DYLG,WLVQ¶WKHURLFWREHXQEHQGLQJ,VWKHUHWLPHWRUHFRQVLGHU"´',6
0DPGDQLDVNV³ZKDWNLQGRIWUXWKGLGWKH75&SURGXFH´"7UXWKKHVXJJHVWV
can be thought of in two ways, individual and institutional. Individual truth,
originating from the Old Testament, sets truth against power and is the opposite
of lies. Institutional truth, theorized by critics of the Enlightenment from Marx
onwards, produces partial, ideological truths which protect the interests of the
institution. Mamdani argues that the truth of the TRC should be understood as
institutional,
DV WKH RXWFRPH RI D SURFHVV RI WUXWKVHHNLQJ RQH ZKRVH ERXQGDULHV ZHUH VR
QDUURZO\GH¿QHGE\SRZHUDQGZKRVHVHDUFKZDVVRFRPPLWWHGWRUHLQIRUFLQJ
the new power, that it turned the political boundaries of a compromise into
DQDO\WLFDO ERXQGDULHV RI WUXWKVHHNLQJ %\ UHLQIRUFLQJ D SROLWLFDO FRPSURPLVH
with a compromised truth … the TRC has turned a political into a moral
compromise and obscured the larger truth.
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
151
Whilst political compromise may be necessary to facilitate change, moral
LQGLYLGXDO LQWHOOHFWXDO FRPSURPLVH LV QRW DQG PD\ LQGHHG XQGHUPLQH WKH
SROLWLFDOFRPSURPLVHWKDWLWZDVLQWHQGHGWRVXSSRUW0DPGDQL³7UXWK´±
In her autobiographical account of the TRC hearings, Country of My Skull
WKH SRHW DQG MRXUQDOLVW$QWMLH .URJ UHFRJQL]HV WKH SUREOHP RI UHFRQFLOLQJ WUXWK
DQGMXVWLFHDWWKHKHDULQJV³,I>WKH&RPPLVVLRQ¶V@LQWHUHVWLQWUXWKLVOLQNHGRQO\
WRDPQHVW\DQGFRPSHQVDWLRQWKHQLWZLOOKDYHFKRVHQQRWWUXWKEXWMXVWLFH´,Q
order to be inclusive, she claims, the TRC was right to give precedence to truth
RYHUMXVWLFH³,I>WKH&RPPLVVLRQ@VHHVWUXWKDVWKHZLGHVWSRVVLEOHFRPSLODWLRQRI
people’s perceptions, stories, myths and experiences, it will have chosen to restore
PHPRU\DQGIRVWHUDQHZKXPDQLW\DQGSHUKDSVWKDWLVMXVWLFHLQLWVGHHSHVWVHQVH´
.URJ+RZHYHUWUXWKVVXFKDVWKLVREVFXUHZKDW0DPGDQLFDOOVWKH³EDQDO
UHDOLW\´ ± LWVHOI D NLQG RI WUXWK ± RI DSDUWKHLG WKDW ZDVQ¶W DFFRXQWHG IRU DW WKH
KHDULQJV³7UDQVIRUPLQJ6RFLHW\´QSDJ
The fact that the TRC, chaired by Tutu, was founded upon what some have
called a Christian ethics has led many of its critics to point up the debasement
in the process of the transposition to the public sphere of the hearings of the
NLQGV RI WUXWKWHOOLQJ IRUJLYHQHVV DQG UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ XVXDOO\ UHVHUYHG IRU WKH
private sphere and derived from religious confession. Benita Parry, for instance,
FRPPHQWVXSRQWKH³DWPRVSKHUHRIHXSKRULF&KULVWLDQUHYLYDOLVP´WKDWWDLQWHGWKH
hearings (Postcolonial StudiesZKLOVW-DFTXHV'HUULGDVXJJHVWVWKDW³ZKHQ
Desmond Tutu was named president of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission,
KH &KULVWLDQL]HG WKH ODQJXDJH XQLTXHO\ GHVWLQHG WR WUHDW µSROLWLFDOO\¶ PRWLYDWHG
FULPHV DQ HQRUPRXV SUREOHP «´ ³2Q )RUJLYHQHVV´ 'HUULGD GHPDUFDWHV
WKHUHDOPVRIMXGJHPHQWIDOOLQJZLWKLQWKHUHPLWRIWKHVWDWHDQGWKHSXEOLFVSKHUH
DQGIRUJLYHQHVVZKLFKRQO\WKHLQGLYLGXDOFDQJUDQW³2Q)RUJLYHQHVV´,QWKH
HWKLFDOHFRQRP\RIIRUJLYHQHVVWKHVWDWH³KDVQHLWKHUWKHULJKWQRUWKHSRZHU´WR
IRUJLYH'HUULGDFODLPVEHFDXVH³IRUJLYHQHVVKDVQRWKLQJWRGRZLWKMXGJHPHQW´
which doesIDOOZLWKLQWKHVWDWH¶VUHPLW³2Q)RUJLYHQHVV´$QWKRQ\+ROLGD\
ZKR SLFNV XS WKHVH DQ[LHWLHV DERXW WKH UHOLJLRXV LQÀHFWLRQV RI WKH 75&¶V
FRQVWLWXWLRQLVWURXEOHGE\WKHLQDGHTXDFLHVRIWKHFRQFHSWXDOFDWHJRULHVRIMXVWLFH
and truth at the hearings, arguing that “the conception of justice that informed the
75&¶VSURFHHGLQJVFRXOGVFDUFHO\EHFDOOHGµ&KULVWLDQ¶´HPSKDVLVDGGHG7KH
religious conception of forgiveness, he argues, is concerned with an “inner moral
OLIH´ZKLFKFDQQRWE\LWVYHU\QDWXUHEHUHJXODWHGE\SXEOLFERGLHV³IRUJLYHQHVV
by reason of its conceptual dependence on remorse, must be an intensely personal,
HYHQDSULYDWHPDWWHU´³)RUJLYLQJ´±
Nevertheless, the same critics of the TRC have tended to agree on what it did
achieve, even if in a limited fashion. Mamdani suggests that the TRC’s only real
SRZHUKDVEHHQWRLQVWLJDWHGHEDWH³7UDQVIRUPLQJ6RFLHW\´QSDJDQG1HYLOOH
$OH[DQGHU JUDQWV WKDW LQGLUHFWO\ LW FDWDO\]HG ³UDLVLQJ KLVWRULFDO FRQVFLRXVQHVV´
WKURXJK SXEOLF GHEDWH DERXW WKH SDVW TWG LQ 3DUU\ Postcolonial VHH DOVR
Alexander, Ordinary ,Q D PRUH FHOHEUDWRU\ WRQH 1GHEHOH ZHOFRPHV WKH
UHVWRUDWLYHIXQFWLRQRIWKHVXEPLVVLRQVWRWKH75&WRVXJJHVW³LWLV>WKH@UHÀHFWLYH
152
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
capacity, experienced as a shared social consciousness, that will be that lasting
OHJDF\RIWKHVWRULHVRIWKH75&´³0HPRU\0HWDSKRU´
Disgrace traces Lurie’s faltering steps towards reconciliation not only with
those directly touched by his actions but also with himself and with his own sense
of place – recently, he has found himself out of place – in South African history
DQGWKH³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´,QWKHQHZ'HSDUWPHQWRI&RPPXQLFDWLRQVKHIHHOV
³PRUH RXW RI SODFH WKDQ HYHU´ ',6 DQG RQ HVFDSLQJ WR /XF\¶V IDUP WKLQNV
³7KLVLVQRWZKDWKHFDPHIRU±WREHVWXFNLQWKHEDFNRIEH\RQG«,IKHFDPHIRU
anything, it was to gather himself, gather his forces. Here he is losing himself day
E\GD\´',65DWKHUWKDQVDWLVI\WKH'LVFLSOLQDU\&RPPLWWHH¶VUHTXLUHPHQW
that his apology be made sincerely, Lurie departs the city for the sanctuary of
KLV GDXJKWHU¶V IDUP 7KH IDUP LV EXUJOHG DQG /XF\ LV UDSHG E\ WKH WKUHH EODFN
men, an event which forces Lurie to reassess his own relationship with women.
1RQHWKHOHVVDWWKHRXWVHWKHLVHYHQ³RXWUDJHGDWEHLQJWUHDWHGOLNHDQRXWVLGHU´±
EHFDXVHKHLVDPDQ±LQWKHVWRU\RI/XF\¶VUDSH',6(YHQWKRXJKDV'HUHN
Attridge contends, “there is little to suggest … that [Lurie] is consciously and
deliberatelyHPEDUNLQJRQDFRPSOHWHUHLQYHQWLRQRIKLVZD\RIOLYLQJ´HPSKDVLV
DGGHG³$JHRI%URQ]H´VRPHNLQGRIUHLQYHQWLRQRFFXUVQHYHUWKHOHVV
/XULHKROGVWKHSRVLWLRQRI$GMXQFW3URIHVVRURI&RPPXQLFDWLRQVDWDWKLUGUDWH
university, Cape Technical University, formerly Cape Town University College,
KLVIRUPHUGHSDUWPHQWKDYLQJEHHQGLVEDQGHG³DVSDUWRIWKHJUHDWUDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ´
programme and evidence of the continuing global devaluation of the Arts. Attridge
JRHVDVIDUDVDUJXLQJWKDWWKHORVVRISULYDF\IHOWE\/XULHZKHQKHLVUHTXLUHG
to confess to the committee is not merely a mapping of the transitional period
ZLWKLQ6RXWK$IULFDSRVWDSDUWKHLGEXWORRNVEH\RQGWRWKHJOREDOHFRQRP\DQG
WKHLQFUHDVLQJLQÀXHQFHRIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV³$JHRI%URQ]H´±$WWULGJH
FRQWHQGVWKDW³7KLVQDUUDWLYH«LVQRWDQDWWDFNRQWKHQHZQDWLRQWKDWHPHUJHG
from the elections of 1994 and expresses no yearnings for the system of apartheid.
5DWKHU LW SRUWUD\V ZLWK LPPHQVH GLVWDVWH D QHZ JOREDO DJH´ ³$JH RI %URQ]H´
+RZHYHUZKLOVWDisgraceGRHVORRNEH\RQGLWVORFDOFRQWH[WVLWUHPDLQV
GHHSO\URRWHGLQORFDOFRQFHUQVPRVWVWULNLQJO\WKHSUREOHPVRIWKH75&WKDWDUH
parodied through the self-conscious staging of Lurie’s trial as global spectacle,
DV/XULHVD\V³D79VKRZLQIDFW´',6,WDOVRUDLVHVWKHODQGTXHVWLRQDQG
WKHTXHVWLRQRIUDSH0RUHRYHULWZRXOGEHZURQJWRVXJJHVWWKDWDFULWLTXHRIWKH
new nation necessarily implies nostalgia for the old. As Frantz Fanon has warned,
though we deplore the egregious abuses of the old regime, we should not ignore
the pitfalls of the new.
7R XQWDQJOH WKH SUREOHP RI WUXWKWHOOLQJ LQ WKH SXEOLF VSKHUH ZH PXVW ¿UVW
consider what truth means in the private and Coetzee’s essay “Confession and
'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´SURYLGHVD¿WWLQJVWDUWLQJSRLQW,QWKLVHVVD\&RHW]HH
UHDGVWKHFRQIHVVLRQDOZULWLQJRI7ROVWR\5RXVVHDXDQG'RVWRHYVN\WRUHYHDOWKH
ways in which truth in the private sphere can be compromised. Secular confession,
Coetzee argues, is characterized by the desire to “tell an essential truth about the
VHOI´'3+HUH&RHW]HHDSRORJL]HVIRUDFHUWDLQVOLSSDJHEHWZHHQVHFXODU
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
153
DQGUHOLJLRXVFRQIHVVLRQWKH¿UVWLVGLUHFWHGWRZDUGVDQDXGLWRURUDXGLHQFHDQG
WKHVHFRQGWRDFRQIHVVRUZKRKROGVWKHDXWKRULW\WRJUDQWDEVROXWLRQ'3
&RHW]HH DOVR FRQ¿QHV KLV GLVFXVVLRQ WR YROXQWDU\ FRQIHVVLRQ DQG QRW WR YLROHQW
IRUPV HOLFLWHG WKURXJK FRHUFLRQ OLNH WKRVH IDYRXUHG E\ &RORQHO -ROO LQ Waiting
for the Barbarians ZKRWDNHVVDGLVWLFSOHDVXUHLQH[WUDFWLQJFRQIHVVLRQV
WKURXJKWRUWXUHFODLPLQJKHLVDEOHWRUHFRJQL]HWKH³WRQHRIWUXWK´ZKLFKLVRQO\
SRVVLEOHLQD³VSHFLDOVLWXDWLRQ´³)LUVW,JHWOLHV\RXVHH±WKLVLVZKDWKDSSHQV
±¿UVWOLHVWKHQSUHVVXUHWKHQPRUHOLHVWKHQPRUHSUHVVXUHWKHQWKHEUHDNWKHQ
PRUHSUHVVXUHWKHQWKHWUXWK7KDWLVKRZ\RXJHWWKHWUXWK´:%1HYHUWKHOHVV
voluntary confessions also can be unreliable because understanding the truth
DERXWWKHVHOILVSUREOHPDWL]HGE\TXHVWLRQVRIGHFHSWLRQVHOIGHFHSWLRQDQGWKH
problem of closure: how to end the cycle of self-analysis and self-doubt into which
the confessant is liable to fall.
5HDGLQJ7ROVWR\&RHW]HHLGHQWL¿HVWKUHHHOHPHQWVRIWUXWKLQWKHSURWDJRQLVW¶V
FRQIHVVLRQ¿UVWO\WKHIDFWVRIWKHHYHQWXQGHUVFUXWLQ\VHFRQGO\WKHGLVFRYHU\
of the truth about the self attained through confessing, and thirdly, what Coetzee
FDOOV WKH ³XQFRQVFLRXV´ WUXWK ZKLFK ³VOLSV RXW LQ VWUDQJH DVVRFLDWLRQV IDOVH
UDWLRQDOLVDWLRQV JDSV FRQWUDGLFWLRQV´ 8QFRQVFLRXV WUXWKV LQ SDUW DFFRXQW IRU
ironic confessions, where confessants believe they are confessing to one thing,
EXWDUHLQIDFWFRQIHVVLQJWRVRPHWKLQJHQWLUHO\GLIIHUHQW'3\HWLQVSLWHRI
ZKLFKWKHVHNLQGVRIWUXWKDUHOLNHO\WREHWKHPRVWUHOLDEOH
The experience of conversion, where the confessant sees the light, conventionally
GLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQ³WUXH´DQG³IDOVH´VHOYHV³WKHIDOVHVHOIEHLQJUDWLRQDODQG
VRFLDOO\FRQGLWLRQHG´ZULWHV&RHW]HH³WKHWUXHVHOILQVWLQFWXDODQGLQGLYLGXDO´
The true/false binary can be mapped on to the private/public one, though in line
ZLWK&RHW]HH³IDOVH´GRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\PHDQPRUDOO\ZURQJ5DWKHUSXEOLFLW\
UHTXLUHVPDLQWDLQLQJIDFHZKLFKLVFOHDUO\DGLVWRUWLRQRIWKH³WUXH´VHOI&RHW]HH
DUJXHVWKDW7ROVWR\¶VZULWLQJZKLFKFDOOVLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHYHU\LGHDRIWUXWKPRYHV
EH\RQGWKLVSRODUL]DWLRQRI³WUXH´DQG³IDOVH´VHOYHV'3)RU7ROVWR\DVLQ
the case of Lurie, the confessant is unconsciously driven towards the truth, which
7ROVWR\FRQFHLYHVDV³WUXWKGLUHFWHGQHVV´RUDQ³LPSXOVHWRZDUG*RG´'3
The confessant undergoes a life-changing crisis, “a confrontation with his own
GHDWK´DFFRUGLQJKLPDVHOINQRZOHGJH³WKDWPDNHVLWDEVXUGIRUKLPWRFRQWLQXH
LQ D VHOIGHFHLYHG PRGH RI H[LVWHQFH´ '3 ,Q Disgrace Lurie plumbs the
depths of such a crisis in the aftermath of his affair with Melanie. In general, it
is the experience of the urgency of this crisis, the unstoppable process to which
FRQIHVVDQWVDUHVXEMHFWHGWKHLUIDOVHVHOYHVODLGEDUHDQGWKHGRJJHGTXHVWLQJIRU
WUXWKZKLFKLQVXPFRQVWLWXWHVLQFHULW\'3
At the disciplinary hearing Lurie is expected to express remorse as Farodia
Rassool, sitting on the Disciplinary Committee, explains, “The statement should
FRPHIURP>/XULH@LQKLVRZQZRUGV7KHQZHFDQVHHLILWFRPHVIURPKLVKHDUW´
',6$SSOLHGWRWKH75&KHDULQJVWKHTXHVWLRQRIVLQFHULW\LQFRQIHVVLRQ
particularly in relation to those applying for amnesty, is a particularly thorny one
DQG RQ D SROLWLFDO OHYHO LV XQWHQDEOH $OWKRXJK WKH 75& QHYHU UHTXLUHG WKRVH
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
154
DSSO\LQJ IRU DPQHVW\ WR PDNH SXEOLF DSRORJLHV LWV &KDLUSHUVRQ WKH 5HYHUHQG
7XWX DW WLPHV GLG 4XHVWLRQV RI VLQFHULW\ VXFK DV WKRVH H[SUHVVHG KHUH KDYH
been realized in their most abstract form at the hearings in amnesty applications
H[SUHVVLQJ JXLOW IRU IDLOXUH WR MRLQ WKH VWUXJJOH 7KH SUREOHP RI VLQFHULW\ LV
isolated in the trial scene in its allusion to the misplaced religiosity of the public
hearings. Lurie realizes that what is demanded of him is an apology “in the spirit
RIUHSHQWDQFH´ZKLFKKHEHOLHYHV³EHORQJVWR«DQRWKHUXQLYHUVHRIGLVFRXUVH´
',6+LVUHIXVDOWRYDOLGDWHWKH8QLYHUVLW\¶VYHUVLRQRIWKHWUXWKFDOOVLQWR
TXHVWLRQWKHHI¿FDF\RIFRQIHVVLRQLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHZLWKRXWRIIHULQJDQ\HDV\
VROXWLRQVKHLVSUHSDUHGWRDGPLWUHJUHWEXWUHIXVHVLQGRLQJVRWRFRQ¿UPKLV
VLQFHULW\ZKLFKLV³EH\RQGWKHVFRSHRIWKHODZ´',6
Writing about Rousseau’s confession of the ribbon story in Confessions,3 Paul
de Man argues that authentic truths are only apparent when the confessant, in
&RHW]HH¶VZRUGV³ODSVHVLQWRWKHODQJXDJHRIWKH2WKHU´6XFKODQJXDJHLVPDUNHG
E\DQXQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVW\OH³5RXVVHDXLVQRWVSHDNLQJIRUKLPVHOIVRPHRQHHOVH
LVVSHDNLQJWKURXJKKLP´'3,WLVRQO\WKURXJKXQFRQVFLRXVVHOIUHYHODWLRQ
WKDW³GHHSHU´WUXWKVDUHH[SRVHG5RXVVHDX¶V³ODQJXDJHRIWKH2WKHU´LVNH\WRP\
XQGHUVWDQGLQJRI/XULH¶V³HSLSKDQ\´ZKLFK,WXUQWREHORZLQZKLFKSURFHVVHV
RILGHQWL¿FDWLRQZLWKDQGV\PSDWK\IRUWKHRWKHUDUHDWZRUNFI$WWULGJHJ. M.
Coetzee±+ROODQG
Whilst Lurie may simply be nursing his wounded pride, the larger, historical
LPSOLFDWLRQV RI WKH ³WULDO´ DQG KLV UHIXVDO WR FRQIHVV RVWHQVLEO\ EHFDXVH KH
UHFRJQL]HV WKH ZHDN SRLQWV RI WKH &RPPLWWHH¶V SURFHGXUHV VKRXOG QRW EH
RYHUORRNHG,QYLWLQJFRPSDULVRQVZLWKWKHIHWLVKL]HGQDWXUHRIUHFRQFLOLDWLRQDQG
IRUJLYHQHVVERWKORFDOO\DQGLQWKH³:HVW´KHH[SODLQVWR/XF\³7KH\ZDQWHG
D VSHFWDFOH´ ',6 1RQHWKHOHVV /XULH ODPHQWV WKH HPHUJLQJ SUXULHQFH WKDW
KDV EHVHW WKH ³QHZ 6RXWK$IULFD´ ZKHUH ³3ULYDWH OLIH LV SXEOLF EXVLQHVV´ ',6
7KHQRYHOVXJJHVWVWKHORVVRIWKHSULYDWHLQWKHDSDUWKHLGHUDLVUHSODFHGE\
privacy that is made public, post-apartheid. Attridge is reminded of the Clinton/HZLQVN\DIIDLUZKLFKUHYHDOHGDSDUDGR[RIVRFLHWDODWWLWXGHVWRZDUGVVH[XDOLW\
where sexuality is brought into the public sphere, as a matter for public dissection,
according to Attridge, this generates “an increase in puritanical surveillance and
PRUDOLVWLFGHQXQFLDWLRQ´³$JHRI%URQ]H´
/XULH LV LQWURGXFHG DV D ³GLVJUDFHG GLVFLSOH´ RI:RUGVZRUWK ',6 ZKR
QRZ QHDULQJ WKH HQG RI KLV XQUHPDUNDEOH FDUHHU KDV LPPHUVHG KLPVHOI LQ WKH
OLIHDQGZRUNRIWKHVHQVXDOLVW%\URQ³FHOHEUDQW´DFFRUGLQJWR/DXUD&ODULGJH
³RIWKHPDWHULDOZRUOG´:RUGVZRUWKRQWKHRWKHUKDQG5LFKDUG%RXUNH
FODLPV³QHYHURYHUWO\SUHVFULEHGDµGHFDGHQW¶5RPDQWLFDHVWKHWLFLVPLQKLVSURVH
ZULWLQJV´ LQ Poems in Two Volumes :RUGVZRUWK GHFODUHV WKDW KLV
3
The story, according to Coetzee, which appears in both Confessions and Rêveries,
tells how, employed as a manservant, Rousseau is found in the possession of a ribbon he has
VWROHQ+HEODPHVDPDLGVHUYDQWIRUWKHWKHIWPDNLQJWKHDFFXVDWLRQLQKHUSUHVHQFH7KH
LQFLGHQWDSSDUHQWO\WURXEOHV5RXVVHDXIRUPDQ\\HDUV'3
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
155
poetry sets out “to teach the young and the gracious of any age [to become] more
DFWLYHO\DQGVHFXUHO\YLUWXRXV´TWGLQ%RXUNH/XULHLVVWUXJJOLQJWRZULWH
his opera Byron in ItalyZKLFKWHOOVWKHVWRU\RI%\URQÀHHLQJWR,WDO\WRDYRLG³D
VFDQGDO´KLVLQFHVWXRXVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKKLVKDOIVLVWHU$XJXVWDDQGRIKLV³ODVW
ELJORYHDIIDLU´ZLWK&RQWHVVD7HUHVD*XLFFLROL',6,WLVQRWLQVLJQL¿FDQW
that Lurie is presented as a mediocre academic and artist – Byron in Italy, he
FRQFHGHVZDV³PLVFRQFHLYHG´',6±ZKRVHH[SHULHQFHRIZULWHU¶VEORFN
FRLQFLGHVZLWKDQ[LHWLHVDERXWKLVZDQLQJVH[XDOLW\7KH³FRQFHSWLRQ´RIWKHRSHUD
± GHULYDWLYHV RI ³WR FRQFHLYH´ DSSHDU IRXU WLPHV RQ WKH WZR SDJHV GHVFULELQJ
/XULH¶VDWWHPSWVWRRYHUFRPHWKLVEORFNDJH±LVVHWDJDLQVWWKHOLWHUDOFRQFHSWLRQ
RI/XF\¶VFKLOGLQWKHWH[WZKRDVDFKLOGRIUDSHRIIHUVDEOHDNSUHGLFWLRQRI
6RXWK$IULFD¶VIXWXUH',6±
,QEURDGWHUPVWKH5RPDQWLFWUDGLWLRQLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\D³FULVLVRIDXWKRULW\´
%RXUNHDFULVLVZKLFKLQDisgraceLVLURQLFDOO\LQÀHFWHGXQGHUWKHWHQHWVRI
postcolonialism by the Romantics’ apparent elitism, bestowed posthumously, as
DUFKHW\SHVRIWKH³:HVWHUQ´FDQRQ<HW5RPDQWLFLVPVSHDNVWR/XULH¶VSUHGLFDPHQW
as a disaffected and dislocated white writer in other ways too, as Graham Pechey
points out:
South Africa’s British colonization coincides with a movement in the home
country of counter-Enlightenment, which harnesses poetry as the vehicle of
VWUXJJOHDJDLQVWDUHDVRQVHHQDVRSSUHVVLYH«/XULH¶VLGHQWL¿FDWLRQZLWK>WKH
Romantics] develops into a sharing of their fate, an exile that in his case is
LQWHUQDO³3XUJDWRULDO$IULFD´
(YHQVRWKLVLGHQWL¿FDWLRQZLOOEHWHVWHGGXULQJWKHFRXUVHRIWKHQDUUDWLYH/XULH
KDV ZULWWHQ WKUHH SRRUO\ UHFHLYHG ERRNV LQFOXGLQJ Wordsworth and the Burden
of the Past, which constitutes an ironic, titular reference to Lurie’s own struggle
IRUVHOIKRRGLQWKHQDVFHQWVWDWH$V3LHWHU9HUPHXOHQSRLQWVRXWWKHUHLVD
need both in Wordsworth’s The Prelude and for Lurie as undistinguished tutor of
the Romantics, to harmonize the imagination and what Lurie calls “the onslaughts
RIUHDOLW\´',64 Suggestive of a liberal consciousness that always until now
KDVPDQDJHGWRNHHSWKHUHDOLW\RIDSDUWKHLGDWED\/XULH¶VEXUGHQRIJXLOWDOVR
expresses the guilt experienced by white liberals for their albeit unwilling complicity
in South Africa’s past. Vermeulen glosses an early scene in Disgrace in which Lurie
ventures to enthuse his indifferent students in Wordsworth’s “failed encounter with
Mont Blanc in Book 6 of The Prelude´ 9HUPHXOHQ <HW WKH WZR SDVVDJHV
Lurie reads from which he intends to show how the imagination and reality might
³FRH[LVW´',69HUPHXOHQDUJXHV³GRQRWKDSSHQWRDGGXSWRDKDUPRQLRXV
VLWXDWLRQ´DSRLQWWKDWDV9HUPHXOHQQRWHV±/XULHKLPVHOIUHDOL]HV³7KH
>VHFRQG@SDVVDJHLVGLI¿FXOWSHUKDSVLWHYHQFRQWUDGLFWVWKH0RQW%ODQFPRPHQW´
4
For further discussion of the Romantic intertexts in Disgrace see Easton, “Coetzee’s
Disgrace´DQG0DUDLV³-0&RHW]HH¶VDisgrace´
156
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Lurie believes that, “Nevertheless, Wordsworth seems to be feeling his way toward
DEDODQFH´',60LNH0DUDLVFRQ¿UPVWKLVFRQWUDGLFWLRQZKHQKHDUJXHVWKDW
DQ³DPELJXLW\ÚHVLGHVDWWKH³KHDUWRI5RPDQWLFLVP´³WKHIDFWWKDWLWVDHVWKHWLF
FRQ¿GHQFHLVDFFRPSDQLHGE\DVHQVHRILQHYLWDEOHIDLOXUHÉURXJKWDERXWE\DQ
anxiety in Romantic nature poetry about authentic imitation rather than empty copy
³7DVN´±5 This failure of the imagination is evident in Lurie in his failure
WRUHVROYHWKHQHHGVRIKLVDUWZLWKKLVSODFHLQWKH³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´<HWOLNH
:RUGVZRUWKKH³IHHOVKLVZD\´WRZDUGVDV\QWKHVLVRIWKHWZR
Lurie reimagines his Byron text – the original concept for the opera failed
EHFDXVHLWGLGQRW³FRPHIURPWKHKHDUW´',6±ZKLOVWUHYLVLQJKLVUHDGLQJ
RI WKH ODQGVFDSH /XF\¶V KRPHVWHDG ZLWKLQ D:RUGVZRUWKLDQ VFKHPD ZKLFK
UHZRUNV WKH SDVWRUDO DV DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH LPDJLQDWLRQ ,Q White Writing
&RHW]HH KDV ORFDWHG ZKDW KH FDOOV WKH ³:RUGVZRUWKLDQ TXHVWLRQ´ ³,Q
ZKDW ZD\V KDYH , EHHQ PRXOGHG E\ WKH ODQGVFDSH LQ ZKLFK , KDYH OLYHG"´
::(DUO\(XURSHDQWUDYHOOHUVLQ6RXWK$IULFDZKRZHUHDEOHRQO\WR
conceptualize the African landscape through a European lens, typically inverted
WKLVSUREOHP::)DLOLQJWRPDNHWKHOHVVRQRQ:RUGVZRUWKUHOHYDQWWR
KLV VWXGHQWV RI ZKRP KH GHVSDLUV /XULH ORFDWHV MXVW VXFK D PRPHQW EXW KH
implies, this can only be understood by turning “toward the great archetypes
RI WKH LPDJLQDWLRQ ZH FDUU\ ZLWKLQ XV´ ',6 :KLOVW RQ ¿UVW VLJKW /XULH
describes Lucy’s farm as “poor land, poor soil … Exhausted. Good only for
JRDWV´ ',6 KH VXEVHTXHQWO\ UHDVVHVVHV WKLV GHVRODWH YLVLRQ WR FRQMXUH D
pastoral idyll. He catches sight of his daughter:
at the centre of the picture a young woman, das ewig Weibliche,6 lightly pregnant,
LQDVWUDZVXQKDW$VFHQHUHDG\PDGHIRUD6DUJHQWRUD%RQQDUG&LW\ER\VOLNH
KLPEXWHYHQFLW\ER\VFDQUHFRJQL]HEHDXW\ZKHQWKH\VHHLWFDQKDYHWKHLU
EUHDWKWDNHQDZD\',6
/XULH¶V UHDI¿UPDWLRQ RI D :RUGVZRUWKLDQ HWKLF LQ WKH HFRQRP\ RI FRQIHVVLRQ
VNHWFKHG KHUH FKLPHV ZLWK %RXUNH¶V FODLP WKDW :RUGVZRUWK LV D ¿JXUH ZKR
³SRHWLFDOO\ DVVXDJHV UHFRQFLOHV DQG UHGHHPV´ RU 6WHSKHQ 3ULFNHWW¶V
VXJJHVWLRQWKDW:RUGVZRUWKSUDFWLVHGWKH³KHDOLQJDUW´TWGLQ%RXUNH/XULH
ZKR PDNHV D V\PEROLF UHWXUQ WR WKH ODQG DV /XF\ KDV EHIRUH KLP KDV EHFRPH
reconciled to the beauty of the ordinary.
Lucy is the very antithesis of Lurie’s ideal woman. She resembles her father’s
mental picture of Byron’s middle-aged Teresa: plain, dumpy and, what is more,
WR/XULH¶VFKDJULQVKHLVJD\:KLOVW/XULHOLNH%\URQSHUFHLYHVKLPVHOIWREH
WKHUDNLVK³PDQRIWKHFLW\´',6/XF\HPEUDFHVWKHSDVWRUDO<HWVKHUHMHFWV
5
0DUDLV GUDZV XSRQ 7LORWWDPD 5DMDQ¶V Dark Interpreter: The Discourse of
RomanticismLQPDNLQJKLVDUJXPHQW
6
“Das ewig Weibliche´PHDQLQJ³WKHHWHUQDOIHPLQLQH´DUHWKHRSHQLQJZRUGVWRWKH
¿QDOOLQHLQ*RHWKH¶VFaust.
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
157
WKHPDVWHULQJRIWKHODQGWKDWLVWKHSULPDOVWXIIRIWKH$IULNDQHUplaasroman or
³IDUPQRYHOÉ\UHIXVLQJWRFDOOWKHKRPHVWHDGDIDUP³LW¶VMXVWDSLHFHRIODQG
ZKHUH,JURZWKLQJV´VKHVD\V',67KHGLDOHFWLFEHWZHHQPHWURSROLVDQG
rural in Disgrace, that also patterns the Byron/Wordsworth narrative, inverts the
plaasroman which, Coetzee writes in White Writing ³KDUNV EDFN « WR D ORVW
LGHDO HFRQRPLF LQGHSHQGHQFH WR WKH LGHD RI WKH IDUP DV D µNRQLQNU\NLH¶ OLWWOH
NLQJGRPZKHUHDPDQFDQEHKLVRZQPDVWHU´::%HWZHHQDQG
WKHSODDVURPDQ³DOPRVWH[FOXVLYHO\´FRQFHUQHGLWVHOIZLWKWKH$IULNDQHU¶V
“painful transition from farmer to townsman … [with] a renewal of the peasant
RUGHUEDVHGRQWKHP\WKRIWKHUHWXUQWRWKHHDUWK´::±7KHDQWLSDVWRUDO
RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG GRPLQDWHG E\ ³(QJOLVK´ 6RXWK$IULFDQV ZULWHV DJDLQVW WKLV
WUDGLWLRQ+XPDQNLQGDQGQDWXUHQRORQJHUH[LVWLQKDUPRQ\WKHODQGLVEDUUHQ
and hostile, the farming community its adversary. Stephen Gray, in his study of
Southern African literature, argues that
/DQGVFDSHLQ6RXWK$IULFDQUHDOLVW¿FWLRQQHYHUPHUHO\VXVWDLQVDQGPDJQL¿HV
PDQLWGZDUIVDQGRYHUZKHOPVLWUHPDLQVXQ\LHOGLQJDQGGHVWUXFWLYH«ZRUVW
of all [the land] disallows them from achieving man’s most sacred desire, the
GHVLUH WR WDNH URRW LQ WKH ODQG DQG EHORQJ « LWV FKDUDFWHUV GR QRW ± FDQQRW
– belong. (Southern African Literature±
*UD\LVUHIHUULQJVSHFL¿FDOO\WRWKHOLEHUDO$QJORSKRQHWUDGLWLRQRIWKHDQWLSDVWRUDO
ZKLFK³JRHVKDQGLQKDQGZLWKUHDOLVP´DQGZKLFKLVSHUKDSVEHVWLOOXVWUDWHGE\
Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm*UD\
/XULH ZDYHUV EHWZHHQ GLVGDLQ DQG DGPLUDWLRQ ',6 DV KH QRWLFHV WKDW
/XF\LVEHFRPLQJDSHDVDQWD³WKURZEDFN´Dboervrou',6+HSHUFHLYHV
KLVWRULFDOFRQWLQXLW\LQKLVGDXJKWHU¶VV\QWKHVLVRIQDWXUHDQGODQGWKDWZDVODFNLQJ
in her parents: “perhaps it was not [her parents] who produced her: perhaps history
KDGWKHODUJHUVKDUH«3HUKDSVKLVWRU\KDGOHDUQHGDOHVVRQ´',6±/XULH
UHÀHFWV³6KHWDONVHDVLO\DERXWWKHVHPDWWHUV$IURQWLHUIDUPHURIWKHQHZEUHHG
In the old days, cattle and maize. Today, dogs and daffodils. The more things
FKDQJHWKHPRUHWKH\UHPDLQWKHVDPH´',6
James Graham, writing about the farm novel of Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, argues
that stringent legislation of racial difference was used by the government of
5KRGHVLD WR VXSSRUW DQG PDLQWDLQ D VSHFL¿FDOO\ Rhodesian identity, rather than
RQHWKDWZDVVLPSO\³(XURSHDQ´RU%ULWLVK7KLVLQWXUQGHPDQGHG³DIDVWLGLRXV
regime of self-discipline [in which a] supposedly inviolable boundary was drawn
EHWZHHQ WKH IDUPKRXVH DQG WKH VXUURXQGLQJ ODQG´ *UDKDP ³$EMHFW /DQG´
QSDJ77KLVDOOOHGWR³DJHQGHUHGDVZHOODVUDFLDOL]HGVSDWLDORSSRVLWLRQ´,Q
RWKHUZRUGVZKLWH5KRGHVLDQZRPHQZHUH¿JXUHGGLIIHUHQWO\LQWKLVUHODWLRQIURP
7
This paper has now been published in English Studies in Africa DV³$Q$EMHFW/DQG"
Remembering Women Differently in Doris Lessing’s The Grass is SingingDQG&KHQMHUDL
Hove’s Bones¶´
158
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
white Rhodesian men: “As master of his African farm the white farmer could cross
this boundary at will, but as the vulnerable custodian of racial purity, middle-class
manners, Englishness and, encompassing all of these, domesticity, his wife could
QRW´*UDKDP³$EMHFW/DQG´QSDJ7KHZKLWHZRPDQLQWKH6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ
farm novel, overburdened with symbolism, is upheld as the guardian of white
QDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\LQFOXGLQJWKH³SXULW\´RIWKHUDFH7KLVH[SODLQVZK\/XF\DQG
KHUIDWKHULQDFRQWH[WRIEODFNGLVSRVVHVVLRQIURPWKHODQGFRPHWRSHUFHLYHKHU
as a commodity in the patriarchal system of exchange.
The dissipation of white ownership in the novel converges in the rape of Lucy
E\WKHEODFNPHQZKRUDLGKHUKRPHDQGZKRP/XULHFDXVWLFDOO\QDPHVWKHKRO\
WULQLW\³WKUHHIDWKHUVLQRQH´',6([SUHVVLQJQRWLRQVRIZKDWKDVEHFRPH
NQRZQ LQ 6RXWK $IULFD VLPSO\ DV ZKLWH JXLOW /XULH UDWLRQDOL]HV WKH DWWDFN DV
V\PEROLFUHSDUDWLRQIRUDKLVWRU\RIRSSUHVVLRQIRU/XULHWKHUDSHVLJQL¿HV³WKH
GD\RIWHVWLQJ´-XGJHPHQW'D\',6LW
ZDV KLVWRU\ VSHDNLQJ WKURXJK WKHP « $ KLVWRU\ RI ZURQJ « ,W PD\ KDYH
seemed personal, but it wasn’t. It came down from the ancestors … Booty, war
UHSDUDWLRQVDQRWKHULQFLGHQWLQWKHJUHDWFDPSDLJQRIUHGLVWULEXWLRQ',6
When Lurie confronts Pollux, child-rapist and relative of Petrus, he imagines
that the boy’s challenging demeanour demands, “By what right are you here"´
RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV',6DVHQWLPHQWWKDWTXHVWLRQVWKHSUHVHQFHRIZKLWHV
in the post-apartheid state by alluding to the historical land issue. In an article on
WKH6RXWK$IULFDQSDVWRUDOLQ³WKHHUDRIODQGUHIRUP´-HQQLIHU:HQ]HOEULGJHV
SDVWDQGSUHVHQWE\OLQNLQJWKHLVVXHRIODQGLQWKHplaasromanZLWKWKHWKHQ
imminent and far-reaching 1998 Land Reform programme in post-apartheid
South Africa:
The cycle of anti-apartheid protest and state repression that began in the 1940s
and climaxed in the 1980s challenged the logic of the plaasroman: the pastoral
promise of the return to the land was countered by the political imperative of
the return of the land. The 1994 elections represented one culmination of the
struggle against apartheid, and the moment of political transition brought with
LW WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI D UHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ RI ODQG RZQHUVKLS WKURXJK ODQG UHIRUP
the possibility, for white commercial farmers, of losing the farm (“Pastoral
3URPLVH´
Property describes and maintains the colonial and apartheid relation or, as James
Ferguson puts it, “property … is not a relation between people and things … [but] a
UHODWLRQEHWZHHQSHRSOHFRQFHUQLQJWKLQJV´TWGLQ:HQ]HO)HUJXVRQQSDJ
This dynamic between people and land is clearly what Lurie has in mind. Lucy,
OLNH KHU IDWKHU ZRQGHUV LI WKH DWWDFN LV UHWULEXWLRQ IRU WKH DEXVHV RI DSDUWKHLG
including dispossession from the land: “the price one has to pay for staying on
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
159
… They see me as owing something. They see themselves as debt collectors, tax
FROOHFWRUV´',6
Whilst Lurie anticipates the publicizing of Lucy’s story of her rape across the
district, suggesting that she has lost autonomy over her story – it is “Not her story
WRVSUHDGEXWWKHLUVWKH\DUHLWVRZQHUV>K@RZWKH\SXWKHULQKHUSODFHKRZWKH\
VKRZHGKHUZKDWDZRPDQZDVIRU´',6±/XF\SXUSRVHIXOO\PRYHVLWIURP
WKHSXEOLFWRWKHSULYDWHVSKHUHWKHDWWDFN³LVDSXUHO\SULYDWHPDWWHU,QDQRWKHU
time, in another place it might be held to be a public matter. But in this place, at
WKLVWLPHLWLVQRW,WLVP\EXVLQHVVDQGPLQHDORQH´',6:HVKRXOGQRW
PLVV WKH LURQ\ WKDW /XF\ PDNHV WKH VDPH FODLPV WR SULYDF\ ULJKWV DV KHU IDWKHU
at the disciplinary hearing nor the fact that the crime committed against her will
never go to court. If the effect of guarding the right to privacy in Lucy’s case is
VHHPLQJO\WRSURWHFWKHUDWWDFNHUVIURPWKHODZLQ/XULH¶VWKHUHYHUVHLVWUXHKLV
obdurate refusal to express remorse only mires him deeper in his disgrace.
Such resistance to public confession or testimony disavows the prevailing belief
that the post-apartheid era heralds a return to the private. Privacy in the context
RI/XF\¶VUHIXVDOWR³WHVWLI\´LVDODVWGLWFKDWWHPSWWRUHVLVWUDFLVWGLVFRXUVHVRI
³EODFNSHULOÚHVXUIDFLQJGXULQJWKLVWLPHDV,H[SODLQEHORZWKDWKDUNEDFNWR
DSDUWKHLG7KHFODLPWRSULYDF\LQWKHFRQWH[WRI/XF\¶VUDSHDOVRXVKHUVLQDNLQG
RIOHYHOOLQJIRU/XF\ZKR³SUHSDUHGWRGRDQ\WKLQJPDNHDQ\VDFUL¿FHIRUWKH
VDNHRISHDFH´',6DFNQRZOHGJHVWKDWWKHUDSH³LVKXPLOLDWLQJ%XWSHUKDSV
WKDWLVDJRRGSRLQWWRVWDUWIURPDJDLQ´',6
)RU/XF\UDSHVLJQL¿HVDOHYHOOHURIUDFLDOLQMXVWLFHWKDWFDQEHWUDFHGGLUHFWO\
EDFN WR ODQG 3UHJQDQW VKH FRQIRXQGV KHU IDWKHU ZLWK KHU GHFLVLRQ ¿UVWO\ WR
NHHS WKH FKLOG DQG VHFRQGO\ WR DFFHSW 3HWUXV¶V PDUULDJH SURSRVDO LQ UHWXUQ IRU
his protection. Historically, in the economy of the farm novel, Lucy’s acceptance
of Petrus’s proposal of marriage (a business arrangement rather than an affair
RIWKHKHDUWDQGKLVSURSRVDOWRFRPDQDJHWKHIDUPYLRODWHVWKHVDQFWLW\RIWKH
$IULNDQHUvrou en moederZLIHDQGPRWKHUDQGWKHWDERRRIPLVFHJHQDWLRQE\
WUDQVJUHVVLQJERXQGDULHVRIJHQGHUDQGUDFH:DUQLQJ/XF\VKHLVRQWKH³EULQN
RIDGDQJHURXVHUURUÉ\FKRRVLQJVXFKDSDWKYLDDORYHOHVVPDUULDJHWRDNLQG
of historical reconciliation, Lurie suggests, “You wish to humble yourself before
KLVWRU\´',6
7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIUDSHLQWKHWH[WGLVTXLHWLQJO\HTXDWHGZLWKWKHWURSHRI
WKH³UDSHRIWKHODQG´WKURXJKWKHPHWDSKRUVRIGHEWFROOHFWLRQDQGUHSDUDWLRQLV
highly problematic in a country in which rape is endemic, though of course reviled
DFURVVWKHSROLWLFDOVSHFWUXP9LROHQFHDIÀLFWVWKH³5DLQERZ1DWLRQ´ZKLFKKDV
failed to deliver the promises of social transformation and economic prosperity it
seemed to offer. Coetzee chooses to write about a criminal class of South African
VRFLHW\ZLWKZKLFK3HWUXVLVLQFRQQLYDQFH.QRZLQJZHOOWKHNLQGRIUHVSRQVHVXFK
a portrayal would elicit, Coetzee engages with controversial racist stereotypes:
LQ WKHVH VFHQHV EODFN DJHQF\ LV FRQ¿JXUHG LQ WKH DFW RI UDSH ZLWK GHYDVWDWLQJ
implications for a nation in which racist whites have regarded miscegenation with
DEKRUUHQFH DQG WKH EODFN PDQ DV WKH QDWXUDO UDSLVW /XF\¶V ULJKWV DV D ZRPDQ
160
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
have been displaced by the withdrawal of her rights as representative of the white
RSSUHVVRU(OOHNH%RHKPHUDUJXHVWKDW/XF\ZLOOQHLWKHUVSHDNSXEOLFO\RIWKHUDSH
QRU³VHHNLWVUHGUHVV´DQGULJKWO\SXWVWKHTXHVWLRQ³WKURXJKWKHPHGLXPRIWKH
tightly patterned narrative[, ] whether it is not outrageous to align this acceptance
IRUZKLFKDWOHDVWLQ/XF\¶VRSLQLRQWKHUHLVQRDOWHUQDWLYHZLWK/XULH¶VDFWVRI
XQFRQVFLRXVH[SLDWLRQ´³1RW6D\LQJ6RUU\´)RU*UDQW)DUUHGWKH³XELTXLW\
of violence, especially against women, constitutes the most damning instance of
GLVJUDFH´ ³0XQGDQDFLW\´ 1RQHWKHOHVV %RHKPHU¶V FRQWHQWLRQ WKDW /XF\
“insists that what the men did to her was not a historical act, not a symbolic
JHVWXUH RI UHYHQJH´ GHVSLWH PDNLQJ WKH VXEVHTXHQW FODLP WKDW VKH ³SK\VLFDOO\
LI QRW YHUEDOO\ DFFHSWV D EXUGHQ RI DFFRXQWDELOLW\ IRU WKH ZURQJV RI WKH SDVW´
³1RW6D\LQJ6RUU\´GRHVQRWWDOO\ZLWK/XF\¶VEHOLHIWKDWWKHUDSLVWV
VHHWKHPVHOYHVDV³GHEWFROOHFWRUV´7KLVODVWUHPDUNVXJJHVWVWKLVLVKRZ/XF\
SHUFHLYHVWKHPWRR/XF\DFNQRZOHGJHVWKHQHHGIRUQDWLRQEXLOGLQJWKDWFRXOGEH
KLQGHUHGE\WKHGDPDJLQJHIIHFWVRIZKDW/XF\*UDKDPLGHQWL¿HVDVWKHGLVFRXUVH
RI³EODFNSHULO´HYLGHQFHGIRUZKLWHUDFLVWVLQWKHSUHYDOHQFHRIUDSHDWWKHFXUUHQW
WLPH³8QVSHDNDEOH´±
Critics who have condemned the novel on grounds of race, David Attwell
DUJXHV KDYH SDLG OLWWOH DWWHQWLRQ WR 0DQDV 0DWKDEDQH WKH EODFN 3URIHVVRU RI
Religious Studies and chair of the disciplinary committee:
Mathabane is not mentioned because he falls outside the stereotype the novel is
WDNHQWREHSHGGOLQJ«,QKLVGHGLFDWLRQWRIDLUQHVVDQGSURFHGXUH0DWKDEDQH
is, in fact, the novel’s true representative of the Enlightenment, and his generally
forgiving stance echoes the presence of the clergy associated with the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission. (“Race in Disgrace´
$WWZHOO SRLQWV RXW WKDW DOO RI WKH FRPPLWWHH DUH EODFN ³LQ WKH LQFOXVLYH VHQVH´
although “None of these characters act out racial stereotypes … and the only hint
of racial discourse comes from Rassool, who draws the committee’s attention
WRWKHµRYHUWRQHV¶RIWKHFDVH´³5DFHLQDisgrace´5HDGHUVIDPLOLDUZLWK
Coetzee, who has prepared the ground for this novel with Age of Iron and The Master of PetersburgLQWKHLUFULWLTXHRISROLWLFDODFWLYLVPZLOO
UHFRJQL]HWKHFRPSOH[LWLHVRIWKHZRUNWKDWDUHLQSOD\7KLVEOHDNUHQGHULQJRI
WKH ³QHZ 6RXWK$IULFD´ ULVHV WR WKH FKDOOHQJH VHW E\ SURJUHVVLYHV OLNH 1DGLQH
*RUGLPHUDQG/HZLV1NRVLZKRZDUQLQJRIWKHSRWHQWLDOO\GHEDVLQJHIIHFWVRI
SURWHVWDUWDGYRFDWHGPRUHFULWLFDOUHÀH[LYLW\
The diptych structure of the novel allows Coetzee to parallel the violation of
Lucy with Lurie’s own abuse of women, women towards whom Lurie admits he
is predatory. In the case of Melanie, Lurie also abuses his position of authority in
his role as teacher and mentor. Comparable to Byron’s mistreatment of women
± ³$PRQJ WKH OHJLRQV RI FRXQWHVVHV DQG NLWFKHQPDLGV %\URQ SXVKHG KLPVHOI
LQWRWKHUHZHUHQRGRXEWWKRVHZKRFDOOHGLWUDSH´',6±/XULHGHHPVWKH
ODVW RFFDVLRQ RI KLV ORYHPDNLQJ ZLWK 0HODQLH WR EH ³QRW UDSH QRW TXLWH WKDW
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
161
EXW XQGHVLUHG QHYHUWKHOHVV XQGHVLUHG WR WKH FRUH´ ',6 /XULH PLVJXLGHGO\
ZDUPVWRDQGQRGRXEWLGHQWL¿HVZLWK%\URQWROHUDWLQJKLVFRXQWHQDQFHEHFDXVH
FRPSDUHG WR WKH NLQG RI YLROHQFH LQÀLFWHG XSRQ /XF\ %\URQ ³ORRNV YHU\ ROG
IDVKLRQHGLQGHHG´',6
Lurie realizes it is through loving what he cannot love – women such as Teresa
RUWKHHTXDOO\VTXDW%HY6KDZ±WKDWKHZLOOUHLJQLWHKLVV\PSDWKHWLFIDFXOW\DQG
RYHUFRPHZULWHU¶VEORFN,QWKHSURFHVVKHZLOOFRPHWRDEHWWHUVHOIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ
³&DQKH¿QGLWLQKLVKHDUWWRORYHWKLVSODLQRUGLQDU\ZRPDQ>7HUHVD@"&DQKH
ORYHKHUHQRXJKWRZULWH«PXVLFIRUKHU",IKHFDQQRWZKDWLVOHIWIRUKLP"´
',6$IWHUDOOKHWKLQNVDOOWKHZRPHQLQKLVOLIHWHDFKKLPVRPHWKLQJ,WLV
not incidental that Teresa transforms into a middle-aged woman in Lurie’s mind’s
H\H DW WKH WLPH RI KLV EULHI DIIDLU ZLWK WKH PLGGOHDJHG %HY 6KDZ ',6 In the economy of confession the novel promotes, Lurie is confronted therefore
ZLWKDGRXEOHELQGKHEHOLHYHVWKDWKHPXVW³¿QGKLPVHOI´WKURXJKZRPHQEXW
inevitably will fail because in doing so, he necessarily continues in a self-oriented
and therefore self-deceiving mode of existence.
Recent feminist critics have argued that the male Romantics typically
DSSURSULDWHG WKH IHPDOH RWKHU LQ WKHLU TXHVW IRU DXWRQRP\ DQG LQQRYDWLRQ IRU
LQ &ODULGJH¶V ZRUGV WKH ³DJJUDQGL]HPHQW RI WKH PDOH OLWHUDU\ FRQVFLRXVQHVV´
&ODULGJH DJUHHV ZLWK IHPLQLVWV WKDW WKH PDMRULW\ RI WKH PDOH 5RPDQWLFV¶ SRHPV
“aimed at recuperating the special potency that accrues to marginalized forces, in
WKLVFDVHZRPDQDVWKDWZKLFKLVQRWDOUHDG\ZULWWHQ´±6XFKDQHYDOXDWLRQ
RIWKHPDOH5RPDQWLF¶VOLWHUDU\HJRLVUHÀHFWHGLQ/XULH¶VGLVLQJHQXRXVDSRORJ\WR
Melanie’s father Mr. Isaacs and in his belief that all his relationships with women
KDYH³HQULFKHG´KLP³EnrichedWKDWZDVWKHZRUGWKHQHZVSDSHUVSLFNHGRQWR
MHHUDWÍROORZLQJWKH³WULDO´',6
+RZHYHULQKLVDWWHPSWVWRRYHUFRPHZULWHU¶VEORFN/XULH¿QDOO\WXUQVQRW
to the voice of Teresa but to the comic. Drawing the conclusion that Byron in
ItalyOLNHKHKLPVHOILV³JRLQJQRZKHUH´KHWDNHVXSKLVGDXJKWHU¶VWR\EDQMRWR
compose his opera in the realization that:
It is not the erotic that is calling to him after all, nor the elegiac, but the comic.
He is in the opera neither as Teresa nor as Byron nor even as some blending of
WKHWZRKHLVKHOGLQWKHPXVLFLWVHOILQWKHÀDWWLQQ\VODSRIWKHEDQMRVWULQJV«
6RWKLVLVDUWKHWKLQNVDQGWKLVLVKRZLWGRHVLWVZRUN',6±
+LVORIW\DHVWKHWLFLVPLVUHGXFHGWRWKHDEVXUGDQGKH¿QGVKLPVHOIKXPEOHGE\
the ordinary. The “plink-plunk´ RI WKH EDQMR KH VWUXPV ',6 FRQYH\V WKH
³ODQJXDJHRIWKHRWKHU´±DXWKHQWLFWUXWKV±REVHUYHGE\GH0DQLQ5RXVVHDX¶V
Confessions. John Banville is right to suggest in his review of Disgrace that “the
RSHUDWLFWKHPH¿WVRGGO\LQWRWKHVFKHPHRIWKHERRN´QRQHWKHOHVVKLVH[SODQDWLRQ
WKDWLWIXQFWLRQVDVD³FRXQWHUSRLQWWRWKHJHQHUDOPLQLPDOLVWEOHDNQHVVRIWKHVWRU\´
%DQYLOOH LV LQVXEVWDQWLDO 7KH RSHUD QDUUDWLYH GHOLEHUDWHO\ GUDZV DWWHQWLRQ
to itself as disjointed DQG LQ WKH PRGHO RI FRQIHVVLRQ VNHWFKHG E\ &RHW]HH RI
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
162
the confessant searching for self-truths, is a more authentic expression of Lurie’s
consciousness. Although initially he fails to connect with either Byron or the
³IHPDOHÝRLFH/XULH¶VLQFUHDVLQJLGHQWL¿FDWLRQZLWK7HUHVDPDUNVDQDFFHSWDQFH
RIDQHZHUWUXWKDQGDQXQVSRNHQEXWLQWHUQDOO\DUWLFXODWHGHWKLFDOWUDQVLWLRQ7KH
VSRQWDQHLW\KHDWWDLQVRQWKHVWULQJVRIWKHEDQMRFKDUDFWHUL]HV³GHHSHU´DXWKHQWLF
WUXWKVVLJQDOOLQJWKDW/XULHLVOHDUQLQJWRVSHDNIURPWKHKHDUW
DisgraceUHSHDWHGO\PDNHVDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQKXPDQDQGDQLPDOEHKDYLRXU
/XULH¶VVH[XDOSDVVLRQVDUHDQLPDOLVWLFSUHGDWRU\/XF\LVWUHDWHG³OLNHDGRJÉ\
WKHPHQZKRUDSHKHU',6ZKRWKHPVHOYHVEHKDYH³OLNHGRJVLQDSDFN´',6
3HWUXV/XF\¶VEODFNQHLJKERXUVDUGRQLFDOO\LQWURGXFHVKLPVHOIWR/XULHDV
WKH³GRJPDQ´',6RQO\WRUHMHFWWKLVSRVLWLRQDVKHJDLQVDXWRQRP\ZLWKLQ
WKH³QHZ6RXWK$IULFD´',6LQWKHRU\DVWKHZKLWHQRQGHPRFUDWLFSRZHU
base is dismantled. (Such a realignment of power can only be a symbolic gesture
in the novel since in the socio-economic contexts of the novel little has actually
FKDQJHG HYLGHQFHG LQ WKH RQJRLQJ KRXVLQJ DQG XQHPSOR\PHQW FULVHV8 The
FRQÀLFWEHWZHHQWKHVHWZRSDWULDUFKVUHDFKHVLWVFOLPD[ZKHQIROORZLQJ/XF\¶V
rape, Lurie helps Petrus to lay pipes on his land. Accruing Freudian connotations,
/XULHDVNV3HWUXV³'R\RXQHHGPHKHUHDQ\ORQJHU"´WRZKLFK3HWUXVUHVSRQGV
³1RQRZLWLVHDV\QRZ,PXVWMXVWGLJWKHSLSHLQ´',6/XULHLVUHGXFHGWR
WKHUROHRI³GRJPDQ´LQKLVZRUNZLWK%HY6KDZDQGLVUHVLWXDWHGDVRWKHUE\WKLV
newly conferred role. Whilst human behaviour in these examples is degraded and
debased by its comparison to animals, this allows Coetzee to distance the narrative
from racialized, racist discourse traceable to the Great Chain of Being with its
hierarchy of so-called species.
,WLV¿QDOO\WKURXJKGRJV±ZKLFKLQAge of Iron and The Master of Petersburg
SHUWDLQWR/HYLQDV¶V$EVROXWH2WKHUDVWKHSDURGLFLQYHUVLRQRI³*RG´±WKDW/XULH
VWUXJJOHVIRUDWRQHPHQW+HDW¿UVWUHJDUGHG/XF\DQG%HY¶VDIIHFWLRQIRUDQLPDOV
DV VHQWLPHQWDO ',6 DQLPDOV DUH RI D ORZHU RUGHU KH UHDVRQV DQG WKRXJK
WKH\VKRXOGEHWUHDWHGKXPDQHO\WKLVVKRXOGQRWEHPRWLYDWHGE\JXLOW',6
/XF\¶V VXJJHVWLRQ WKDW /XULH KHOS %HY DW WKH FOLQLF ³VRXQGV VXVSLFLRXVO\ OLNH
FRPPXQLW\VHUYLFH«OLNHVRPHRQHWU\LQJWRPDNHUHSDUDWLRQIRUSDVWPLVGHHGV´
',6 0RUHRYHU /XF\ QRWHV KHU IDWKHU¶V LQLWLDO GLVGDLQ IRU %HY 6KDZ DQG
her husband Bill built, Lucy believes, on the fact that if her father had his way
VKHZRXOGGHYRWHKHUVHOIWRDKLJKHUUDUH¿HGFXOWXUDORUGHUVKH³RXJKWWREH
SDLQWLQJVWLOOOLYHVRUWHDFKLQJ>KHU@VHOI5XVVLDQ´)ULHQGVOLNH%LOODQG%HYRQ
WKHRWKHUKDQG³DUHQRWJRLQJWROHDG>KHU@WRDKLJKHUOLIH´1RQHWKHOHVV/XF\¶V
service to animals, she lets slip, is itself self-interested: “I don’t want to come
EDFNLQDQRWKHUH[LVWHQFHDVDGRJRUDSLJDQGKDYHWROLYHDVGRJVRUSLJVOLYH
8
Unemployment in South Africa rose from 31.2 per cent in 1993 to a high of 41.8 per
FHQWLQ.LQJGRQDQG.QLJKWQSDJ$VWKHEncyclopedia of the Nations states, “only
DERXWRQHWHQWK´RIWKHGZHOOLQJVQHHGHGWRWDFNOHWKHKRXVLQJVKRUWDJHZHUHEHLQJEXLOWLQ
WKHODWHV³OHDYLQJWKHFRXQWU\ZLWKDVHULRXVKRXVLQJVKRUWDJH´QSDJ
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
163
XQGHUXV´>',6@,QVSLWHRIWKLV/XULHEHFRPHVV\PSDWKHWLFWRWKHFDXVHLQ
WKHZDNHRI/XF\¶VUDSH
7KHLGHDWKDWDQRGLRXVFKDUDFWHUVXFKDV/XULHFDQ¿QGUHGHPSWLRQWKURXJK
FDULQJ IRU VLFN DQLPDOV ZKHUH WKH MX[WDSRVLWLRQ RI DQLPDO DQG KXPDQ VXIIHULQJ
EULQJVWKHWZRIRUPVRIVXIIHULQJLQWRUHOLHILQWKHFRQWH[WRIHJUHJLRXVLQHTXDOLW\
that has been largely racially determined, might well be construed inappropriate.
Just as the oppression of women in Coetzee’s parody of the TRC corresponds
with apartheid’s oppressed, it is through alleviating animal suffering that Lurie
DWRQHVIRUKLVDEXVLYHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVZRPHQ$WVWDNHLVZKHWKHUE\SDUDOOHOLQJ
YHU\ GLIIHUHQW PRGHV RI RSSUHVVLRQ &RHW]HH VDFUL¿FHV VSHFL¿FLW\ DQG VLOHQFHV
WKHZRUNLQJVRIWKHSDUWLFXODU0DPGDQLZULWLQJDERXWWKH³WUXWKV´RIWKH75&
points out that the TRC read apartheid through the analogy of Latin American
dictatorships, thereby diminishing the truth of apartheid. Such an analogy, he
argues, erroneously papers over the racialized nature of oppression in South
$IULFDREVFXULQJ³WKHOLQNEHWZHHQSHUSHWUDWRUDQGEHQH¿FLDU\´>³7UXWK´@,
UHDOL]HWKDWWRPDNHP\SRLQW,WRRDPIDOOLQJEDFNXSRQDQDQDORJ\
Disgrace was published concurrently in 1999 with The Lives of Animals
(later republished in Elizabeth Costello >@ WZR OHFWXUHV JLYHQ E\ &RHW]HH
at Princeton University in which, standing before his audience, he seemingly
adopts the persona of Elizabeth Costello, a moderately successful and eccentric
author and academic who has been invited to Appleton College in the States to
OHFWXUHRQWKHWKHPHRIDQLPDOULJKWV0DUMRULH*DUEHULQKHUUHVSRQVHWRLives,
argues that the premise of Costello’s position on our treatment of animals resides
LQZKDW)UHXGFDOOVWKH³VHGXFWLRQRIDQDQDORJ\´DQLOOFRQFHLYHG\HWVHHPLQJO\
credible appropriation of one term – in Disgrace and Lives the suffering of animals
± WR LOOXPLQDWH DQRWKHU RSSUHVVHG SHRSOHV /$ 6XFK D ³VHGXFWLRQ´ LV EHVW
illustrated in Lives ZKHQ &RVWHOOR OLNHQV WKH WUHDWPHQW RI DQLPDOV LQ IDFWRU\
farms to that of the Jews in the Nazi concentration camps (the animals to humans
analogy is reversed in Disgrace$EUDKDP6WHUQD-HZLVKSRHWZKRUHVSRQGVWR
&RVWHOOR¶VSROHPLFLQDOHWWHUEHFDXVHKHFDQQRWVWRPDFKEUHDNLQJEUHDGZLWKKHU
warns: “The inversion insults the memory of the dead [and] trades on the horror of
WKHFDPSVLQDFKHDSZD\´/$7KHUHVSRQGHQWWRKHUWDON3URIHVVRU7KRPDV
O’Hearne, charges Costello with drawing an analogy between modes of oppression
WKDWDUHRID³GLIIHUHQWVFDOH´/$7HVWHGDJDLQVWDisgraceZHPLJKWDVNGRHV
/XULH¶VDVVXDJHPHQWRIJXLOWWKURXJKDQLPDOVWHHWHURQVKDN\HWKLFDOJURXQGWKDWLV
EDVHGZLWKLQWKHWH[WRQDQLOOFRQFHLYHGHTXLYDOHQFH"
7RDQVZHUWKLVTXHVWLRQZHFDQWXUQWR&RVWHOOR¶VFULWLTXHRI(QOLJKWHQPHQW
WKLQNLQJ LQ ZKLFK VKH VHWV WKH SRHWV DJDLQVW WKH SKLORVRSKHUV 6KH SRXUV VFRUQ
RQ WKH QRWLRQ WKDW EHFDXVH DQLPDOV ODFN WKH SRZHU WR UHDVRQ WKHLU VODXJKWHU
LV MXVWL¿HG LQ OLJKW RI WKLV ³UHDVRQ ORRNV WR PH VXVSLFLRXVO\ OLNH WKH EHLQJ RI
KXPDQWKRXJKW´VKHVD\V/$6KHTXLFNO\GLVPLVVHVWKHFKDUJHWKDWVKHLV
anthropomorphizing animal behaviour by claiming that animals and humans have
WKH FRPPRQ ERQG RI ³HPERGLHGQHVV WKH VHQVDWLRQ RI EHLQJ´ /$ ,I WKHUH
is a sense of community between all species, and if we are able to conceptualize
164
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
death, which is, after all, outside our experience, do we not have the capacity to
LPDJLQHRXUVHOYHVDVDQLPDOV/$",QDisgrace, suggestive of the otherness
RIGHDWKWKHXWWHUKXPLOLDWLRQLWHQJHQGHUV/XULHZRQGHUVLIGRJVOLNHKXPDQV
³IHHOWKHGLVJUDFHRIG\LQJ´',6&RVWHOORUHIHUVKHUDXGLHQFHWRKHUQRYHO
The House on Eccles Street, which portrays the life of Marion Bloom, wife of
Joyce’s Leopold in Ulysses: if writers can imagine the lives of their characters,
VKHUHÀHFWVVXUHO\LWLVSRVVLEOHWRLPDJLQHDQLPDOEHLQJ"1HYHUWKHOHVVDV³3HWHU
6LQJHU¶V´ GDXJKWHU VXJJHVWV RU WKH DQLPDO ULJKWV SKLORVRSKHU 6LQJHU KLPVHOI
ZKRDSSURSULDWHVDPHWDJHQHULFGHYLFHQRWXQOLNH&RHW]HH¶VLQKLV³UHÀHFWLRQ´RQ
LivesWKLVVHQWLPHQWLVTXLWHREYLRXVO\ÀDZHG/$±LPDJLQLQJRXUVHOYHV
into other human beings is very different from imagining ourselves into the being
RIDQLPDOV&RVWHOORDUJXHVWKDWWKHSRHWPLJKWEHPRUHDGHTXDWHO\HTXLSSHGWR
comprehend animal existence than the philosopher and urges us “to read the poets
ZKRUHWXUQWKHOLYLQJHOHFWULFEHLQJWRODQJXDJH´6KHFRQFOXGHVWKDW³,IWKHODVW
common ground that I have with [the philosopher she has read in preparation for
WKHWDON@LVUHDVRQDQGLIUHDVRQLVZKDWVHWVPHDSDUWIURPWKHYHDOFDOIWKHQWKDQN
\RXEXWQRWKDQN\RX,¶OOWDONWRVRPHRQHHOVH´Lives,WLVWKHV\PSDWKHWLF
imagination that ushers in authentic communion with the other.
Lurie passes through a stage of what might be called penitence in Coetzee’s
model of confession to form a close bond with the dogs under his care and strives
to return to the animals – even as corpses – their dignity: “He has learned by now,
IURP>%HY@WRFRQFHQWUDWHDOOKLVDWWHQWLRQRQWKHDQLPDOWKH\DUHNLOOLQJJLYLQJ
LWZKDWKHQRORQJHUKDVGLI¿FXOW\LQFDOOLQJE\LWVSURSHUQDPHORYH´',6
The novel closes, but does not offer closure, with Lurie giving up one particular
dog with which he has formed an especially close bond for euthanasia: “Bearing
KLPLQKLVDUPVOLNHDODPEKHUHHQWHUVWKHVXUJHU\µ,WKRXJKW\RXZRXOGVDYH
KLPIRUDQRWKHUZHHN¶VD\V%HY6KDZµ$UH\RXJLYLQJKLPXS"¶µ<HV,DPJLYLQJ
KLPXS¶´',6%\UHOLQTXLVKLQJKLVFDUHRIWKHGRJVDFUL¿FLQJWKHHPRWLRQDO
LQYHVWPHQWKHKDVPDGHLQLW/XULH¿QGVLQRQHVHQVHFORVXUHIRUWKHF\FOHRI
self-excoriation and self-revelation in which he has become entangled. He has
DWRQHGDOEHLWPLQLPDOO\IRUKLVWUDQVJUHVVLRQERWKLQZRUNLQJZLWKWKHGRJVDQG
LQWKLVDFWRIJLYLQJXSWKHJHVWXUHPDUNVDFRQFOXVLRQRIVRUWVWRWKLVSURFHVV
7KHGHQRXHPHQWUHDGVLQVWDUNFRQWUDVWWR&RHW]HH¶VVLQJXODUO\XQVHQWLPHQWDO
DQG KLJKO\ FHUHEUDO SURVH DQG FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK /XULH¶V UHDI¿UPDWLRQ RI D
:RUGVZRUWKLDQ HWKLF /XULH¶V DI¿QLW\ ZLWK WKH 5RPDQWLFV¶ UHZRUNLQJ RI WKH
sympathetic imagination underscores the very private nature of truth and
reconciliation portrayed in the novel, in turn laying bare the limitations of public
QRWLRQVRI³WUXWK´DQGWKHFRPSURPLVHVWKH\SURGXFHWKRXJK&RHW]HHRIIHUVQR
comforting resolution.
Coetzee is hesitant over the redemptive potential of confession and absolution.
Whether, ultimately, Lurie is able to say sorry with conviction or sincerity is
VXEMHFWWRGRXEWWKRXJK&RHW]HHFHUWDLQO\JHVWXUHVLQWKLVGLUHFWLRQ)LUVWO\/XULH
learns through processes of empathy to give voice to the Teresa character in his
RSHUDUDWKHUWKDQWKHVDODFLRXV%\URQZLWKZKRPKH¿UVWLGHQWL¿HV1RQHWKHOHVV
Truth and Reconciliation in Disgrace
165
WKH PRWLYH IRU WKLV JHVWXUH LV LWVHOI TXHVWLRQDEOH VLQFH KH FDQ RQO\ VXSSUHVV KLV
violent rage against Pollux through Teresa, “That is why he must listen to Teresa.
7HUHVDPD\EHWKHODVWRQHOHIWZKRFDQVDYHKLP´6HFRQGO\LQDJHVWXUH
RI NLQGQHVV KH JLYHV XS WKH VLFN GRJ ZLWK ZKLFK KH KDV IRUPHG D SDUWLFXODUO\
LQWLPDWHERQGIRUHXWKDQDVLD/XULHLVSURSHOOHGRQWRDMRXUQH\RIVHOIGLVFRYHU\
DQGSHUVRQDODWRQHPHQWZKLFKXOWLPDWHO\LVUHYHDOHGWREHPRUDOO\EDQNUXSWIRU
he visits Melanie’s family home and, in an act of what Graham Pechey calls
³JURWHVTXH REHLVDQFH´ ³3XUJDWRULDO$IULFD´ NLVVHV WKH IHHW RI KHU IDWKHU
all the while secretly lusting after Melanie’s even more beautiful sister, the aptly
named Desiree. Lurie’s failure to atone for the affair signals that this is also a novel
about saving oneself.
&RHW]HH¿QDOO\GUDZVWKHDQLPDODQGRSHUDVXEWH[WVWRJHWKHUZLWK/XULH¶VKDOI
LURQLFQRWLRQRILQWURGXFLQJDGRJLQWRWKHRSHUDSDURG\LQJWKH5XVVLDQQLKLOLVWV
PDQWUDWKHLQHIIHFWXDODFDGHPLFZRQGHUV³VXUHO\LQDZRUNWKDWZLOOQHYHUEH
performed, all things are permitted"´HPSKDVLVDGGHG',6+RZHYHUKH
V\PEROLFDOO\UHOLQTXLVKHVKLVDXWKRULW\DVZKLWHZULWHURULVrelinquished of this
DXWKRULW\ZKHQKHUHDOL]HVWKDWDVD³¿JXUHIURPWKHPDUJLQVRIKLVWRU\«>K@H
LVLQYHQWLQJWKHPXVLFRUWKHPXVLFLVLQYHQWLQJKLPEXWKHLVQRWLQYHQWLQJWKH
KLVWRU\´',6+HZRQGHUV³:LOOWKLV>WKH(DVWHUQ&DSH@EHZKHUHWKH
GDUNWULR>%\URQ7HUHVDDQGµWKHKXPLOLDWHGKXVEDQG¶@DUHDWODVWEURXJKWWROLIH
QRWLQ&DSH7RZQEXWLQROG.DIIUDULD"´',6+LVWRU\KDV³FRPHIXOOFLUFOH´
',6/XULHKDVFRQIURQWHGKLVSDVWLQWKHUHDOPVRIWKHSDVWRUDOEXWWKHQRYHO
UHTXLUHVXVWRTXHVWLRQWKHDXWKHQWLFLW\RIKLVHWKLFDOWUDQVLWLRQGHVSLWHWKHLPSOLHG
FULWLTXHRIWKH75&5DWKHUWKDQRIIHULQJDQDOWHUQDWLYHWRSXEOLFFRQIHVVLRQWKH
QRYHOUHMHFWVDXWKHQWLFWUXWKVERWKLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUHRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\&RPPLWWHH
KHDULQJVDQGE\DQDORJ\WKH75&DQGLQWKHSULYDWHUHDOPRI/XULH¶VVHOIGRXEW
because neither institutional nor individual truths, the narrative warns us, can be
properly tested.
This page has been left blank intentionally
Chapter 9
&RHW]HH¶V$FWVRI*HQUHLQWKH/DWHU:RUNV
Truth-telling, Fiction and the Public
Intellectual
Would that I could follow your advice, my dear Anya … But alas, it is a collection
of opinions I am committed to, not a memoir. A response to the present in which I
¿QGP\VHOI
J. M. Coetzee, Diary of a Bad Year
,DPLPPHQVHO\XQFRPIRUWDEOHZLWKTXHVWLRQV«WKDWFDOOXSRQPHWRDQVZHUIRU
LQ WZR VHQVHV P\ QRYHOV DQG P\ UHVSRQVHV DUH RIWHQ WDNHQ DV HYDVLYH « P\
GLI¿FXOW\LVSUHFLVHO\ZLWKWKHSURMHFWRIVWDWLQJSRVLWLRQVWDNLQJSRVLWLRQV
J. M. Coetzee, Doubling the Point
³:KDWGRHVHDFKUHYHODWLRQ,PDNHcost"´7KLVLVWKHTXHVWLRQWKDWSUHRFFXSLHV-0
&RHW]HHDVKHPDNHVKLVLQDXJXUDOSURIHVVRULDOOHFWXUH³7UXWKLQ$XWRELRJUDSK\´
WRWKHDVVHPEO\JDWKHUHGLQWKHKDOOVRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI&DSH7RZQRQWKHVXEMHFW
RI-HDQ-DFTXHV5RXVVHDX¶VConfessionsDQGWKHJHQUHRIDXWRELRJUDSK\
&RHW]HH ³7UXWK´ ,W LV WKH FRVW RI WUXWKWHOOLQJ WKDW SUHRFFXSLHV PXFK RI
&RHW]HH¶V ¿FWLRQ FU\VWDOOL]HG LQ WKH ODWHU ZRUNV The Lives of Animals Elizabeth CostelloDQGDiary of a Bad YearZKLFKWKURXJKWKHLU
very mode of address, through the radical defamiliarization of the discourses of
JHQUHFDOOLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHHWKLFRSROLWLFVRILQWHOOHFWXDOSUDFWLFHDVZHOODVWKH
truths of authorship.
The manner and mode of the lectures in Lives and Elizabeth Costello and J. C.’s
aphoristic opinion pieces in Diary allow Coetzee to grapple more openly with
the ethico-politics of intellectual practice. Indeed, his apparent direct engagement
with contemporary politics (the lectures and opinion pieces range from animal
ULJKWV WKH VWDWXV RI WKH QRYHO LQ$IULFD LQWHOOLJHQW GHVLJQ WKH ³ZDU RQ WHUURU´
and Harold Pinter’s controversial 2005 Nobel Prize acceptance speech on that
ZDUPD\VXUSULVHWKRVHPRUHXVHGWRDWDFLWXUQ&RHW]HHZKRUHIXVHVWRQDLOKLV
political colours to the mast. These lectures and novels invite public debate, albeit
FRQIRXQGLQJO\WKURXJKWKHFLSKHURI¿FWLRQ,QGHHGDV,ZLOODUJXHLWLVWKURXJK
the formRIWKHVHZRUNVWKURXJKZKDW,FDOO³DFWVRIJHQUH´FI:ULJKW³)HPLQLVW
9HJHWDULDQ´ *UDKDP ³7H[WXDO 7UDQVYHVWLVP´ UDWKHU WKDQ WKHLU VXEVWDQFH
WKDW WKH PRVW VLJQL¿FDQW LQWHOOHFWXDOL]LQJ LV GRQH ³$FWV´ FDSWXUHV QRW RQO\ WKH
168
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
SHUIRUPDWLYHVHOIFRQVFLRXVTXDOLW\RIWKHOHFWXUHVDQGWKHGXSOLFLW\RIJHQUHDVLW
PDQLIHVWVLQWKHVHZRUNVEXWDOVRWKHDJHQF\DQDFWHQJHQGHUV
%\ LVRODWLQJ WKH ³FRVW´ RI WUXWK &RHW]HH LV UHIHUULQJ WR WKH discourse of
autobiography rather than the sincerity of the author: “In terms of the economic
OLIH RI WKH GLVFRXUVH LW VRPHWLPHV FRVWV WRR PXFK WR PDNH FHUWDLQ UHYHODWLRQV
WKH\WKUHDWHQWKHDELOLW\RIWKHGLVFRXUVHWRJURZWKH\WKUHDWHQLWVIUHHGRP´KH
H[SODLQV ³7UXWK´ ,Q WKH HFRQRP\ RI DXWRELRJUDSK\ LQ RWKHU ZRUGV ZKDW
&RHW]HH FDOOV D FHUWDLQ ³EOLQGQHVV´ WR WKH WUXWK LV UHTXLUHG WR MXVWLI\ FRQIHVVLRQ
EHFDXVHLIRXUH\HVDUH³ZLGHRSHQ´WKHQWKHQHHGIRUFRQIHVVLRQTXLFNO\GLVVLSDWHV
³7UXWK´,IDV&RHW]HHDUJXHV³7KHRQO\VXUHWUXWKLQDXWRELRJUDSK\LVWKDW
RQH¶VVHOILQWHUHVWZLOOEHORFDWHGDWRQH¶VEOLQGVSRW´'3DQGLIZHDFFHSW
&RHW]HH¶VPD[LP³$OODXWRELRJUDSK\LVVWRU\WHOOLQJDOOZULWLQJLVDXWRELRJUDSK\´
'3GHHSHUVHOIWUXWKVLQDXWRELRJUDSK\DQGLQZULWLQJPRUHJHQHUDOO\UHVLGH
LQXQFRQVFLRXVVHOIUHYHODWLRQVZKLFKDUHWKXVGLI¿FXOWWRORFDWHOHWDORQHYHULI\
(YHQWKHDXWKRURIDERRNFDQQRWIXOO\NQRZLWVPHDQLQJDQGLVWKHUHIRUHGHQLHG
absolute authority over it. Meaning can reconstruct action or, alternatively, can
EHUHFRQ¿JXUHGE\DGHYHORSLQJFRQVFLRXVQHVV7KDW&RHW]HHLVFRQFHUQHGZLWK
³KRZWRWHOOWKHWUXWKLQDXWRELRJUDSK\´WKHUHIRUHGRHVQRWPHDQKHLVFRQFHUQHG
with truth per se, but with its telling. In other words, Coetzee is less interested
LQWKHWUXWKYDOXHRIQDUUDWLYHWKDQLQWKHPHFKDQLVPVE\ZKLFK³WUXWK´±DOZD\V
DFDWHJRU\WREHTXHVWLRQHGLQ&RHW]HH±LVEURXJKWWROLJKW,QWKHODWHUZRUNV
that foreground intellectual practice, Coetzee focuses not on the truth-value of the
public interventions his writer-intellectuals circulate but on the manner and mode
E\ZKLFKWKHVHLQWHUYHQWLRQVDUHGLVVHPLQDWHG:HDUHUHTXLUHGWREH³EOLQG´WR
such truths in order that the intellectual, whom we must rely upon to be truthful or
at least sincere, can enlighten us.
$Q LQFUHDVLQJO\ PHWDGLVFXUVLYH PRGH LQ &RHW]HH¶V ¿FWLRQ WKDW FRLQFLGHV
with his departure from South Africa for Adelaide, Australia in 2002, also for the
PRVW SDUW PDUNV D GHSDUWXUH LQ WKH RHXYUH IURP WKH SRVWFRORQLDO SDUDGLJP DW D
WLPH LURQLFDOO\ ZKHQ 6RXWK$IULFD LV IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH SURSHUO\ ³SRVWFRORQLDO´
IROORZLQJWKHLQFHSWLRQRIGHPRFUDF\LQ6RZKLOVWWKHVHODWHUZRUNVPD\
VHHPWRKDYHOHVVUHOHYDQFHLQDERRNDERXWSRVWFRORQLDODXWKRUVKLSWKH\GRPDNH
important contributions to debates on intellectualism and the author’s authority
SHUWLQHQWWRWKHSRVWFRORQLDO¿HOG)RULQVWDQFHLQ³/HVVRQ5HDOLVPÉlizabeth
Costello &RVWHOOR DSRORJL]HV WR KHU DXGLHQFH ³, DP QRW , KRSH DEXVLQJ WKH
SULYLOHJH RI WKLV SODWIRUP´ VKH LV GHOLYHULQJ D OHFWXUH RQ .DIND¶V ³5HG 3HWHU´
VWRU\LQGHIHQFHRIDQLPDOV(&,QDVHOIFRQVFLRXVWZLVWLQZKLFK&RHW]HH
apparently undermines his own procedures, the writer J. C. in Diary even
disparages Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault’s reduction of the authority of the
DXWKRUWRQRWKLQJPRUHWKDQ³DEDJIXORIUKHWRULFDOWULFNV´DQGUHPLQGVXVLQ³2Q
DXWKRULW\LQ¿FWLRQ´WKDW³$XWKRULW\PXVWEHHDUQHG´'%<-&VSHFXODWHV
LQ³2QKDYLQJWKRXJKWV´RQKLVULJKWWRDLUKLVRSLQLRQVDWDOOVLQFHKHKDV³QHYHU
EHHQ HDV\ ZLWK DEVWUDFWLRQV RU JRRG ZLWK DEVWUDFW WKRXJKW´ '%< \HW LQ
these words he repudiates the loftiness of the traditional intellectual that Antonio
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
169
*UDPVFLDQGVXEVHTXHQWO\(GZDUG6DLGKDYHUHMHFWHG&RHW]HHWLPHDQGDJDLQLQ
KLV¿FWLRQDQGHVVD\VVLJQDOVWKHFRQYLFWLRQWKDWKHKDVQ¶WHDUQHGWKLVULJKWSlow
Man VHW LQ$XVWUDOLD DQG WHOOLQJ WKH VWRU\ RI 3DXO 5D\PHQW FRPLQJ WR
terms with the loss of a leg following a bicycle accident, is a more conventional
novel and so for this reason I focus on what I will call the Costello lectures (Lives
DQGWKHOHFWXUHVFROOHFWHGDV³OHVVRQV´LQElizabeth CostelloDQGDiary. Set in a
postcolonial locale, Slow ManUDLVHVTXHVWLRQVDERXWLPPLJUDWLRQDQGHFRQRPLF
PLJUDQF\WKDWIDOOZLWKLQWKHUHPLWRIWKH³SRVWFRORQLDO´
2I FRXUVH PXFK RI &RHW]HH¶V HDUOLHU ZRUN DOVR GLVUXSWV RXU H[SHFWDWLRQV
of genre. Dusklands SUHVHQWV -DFREXV &RHW]HH¶V GLYHUJHQW DFFRXQWV IRU
instance, of the servant Klawer’s death, unsettling notions of verisimilitude to
ZKLFKWKHZRUN¶VSDUWMRXUQDOVW\OHQDUUDWLYHJLYHVFUHGHQFHIn the Heart of the
Country LQGLDU\IRUPDWHPSOR\VDVLPLODUGHYLFHZLWK0DJGD¶VPXOWLSOH
versions of her rape and two of the fate of her father. FoeUDGLFDOO\UHYLVHV
WKHFRORQLDOLVWLQGLYLGXDOLVW5RELQVRQDGHZLWKWKHGHDWKLQWKH¿UVWRIWKUHHSDUWV
of its hero Cruso, whose marginality is compounded by his usurpation by a female
narrator Susan Barton. Age of IronGLVWXUEVWKHJHQUHRIWKHHSLVWOHZLWK
Mrs. Curren’s improbable letter to her daughter (improbable because, as Dominic
Head points out, it incorporates dialogue and description [J. M. Coetzee@7KH
memoirs BoyhoodDQGYouthDUH¿FWLRQDOL]HGDFFRXQWVRIWKHDXWKRU
J. M. Coetzee’s life: the use of the third person narrator, out of place in memoir or
DXWRELRJUDSK\VXJJHVWVMXVWWKLVPRUHRYHUWKH$PHULFDQSXEOLVKHURIBoyhood
LQVLVWHGSURSHUQDPHVEHFKDQJHG±WKDWLV¿FWLRQDOL]HG±WRSURWHFWWKHLGHQWLWLHV
of the protagonists in John Coetzee’s life (Attridge, J. M. Coetzee±DQGWKH
GXVWMDFNHWRIYouthSOHGJHV¿FWLRQ5D\PHQW¶VOLIHLQSlow Man seems uncannily
to be repeating itself in the hands of the inimitable novelist Elizabeth Costello
ZKRPDNLQJDVXUSULVHDSSHDUDQFHLQWKLVQRYHOLVDEOHWRUHFRXQWYHUEDWLPWKH
report of Rayment’s accident which opens the narrative. Later Rayment will sum
up his aberrant and far-fetched encounter engineered by Costello with Marianna,
his blind paramour, as an “experiment, that is what it amounts to, an idle, biologicoOLWHUDU\H[SHULPHQW´60
,WLVLQWKHODWHU¿FWLRQVWKDW&RHW]HHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHHQJDJHVZLWKWKHHWKLFR
politics of public intellectual practice. Up until this point he has shied away from
the publicity such intellectualism entails. Yet the slipperiness that characterizes his
writing even here endures. The metageneric play of the Costello lectures and Diary
VHOIUHÀH[LYHO\VWULSVDZD\OD\HUVRILQWHOOHFWXDODXWKRULW\WRPDNH&RHW]HHERWK
accountable and not-accountable to the ethico-politics his characters promote. In
WKHVHODWHUZRUNVWKH¿JXUHRI&RHW]HHPRVWREYLRXVO\KDXQWV¿FWLRQDOL]HGWH[WV
WRGLVUXSWWKHSDFWVRIJHQUH,PSRUWDQWO\ERWK&RVWHOORDQG-&OLNH&RHW]HH
KLPVHOIDUHERWKQRYHOLVWVDQGSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOV,WLVWKHVOLSSDJHEHWZHHQWKH
WZR EHWZHHQ DXWKRU DQG DXWKRUSURWDJRQLVW WKDW HQHUJL]HV TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH
relationship between public intellectuals and the truths they promote.
The painfully uncharismatic Costello is the persona Coetzee has seemingly
elected to perform in a series of real-life lectures at various international venues,
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
170
ODWHUWREHSXEOLVKHGDV³OHVVRQV´LQElizabeth Costello (the two Princeton lectures
¿UVW DSSHDUHG LQ SULQW LQ DV The Lives of Animals1 DQG ZH NQRZ WKDW
similarities exist between Coetzee’s principles and Costello’s such as their shared
vegetarianism.2 Costello therefore, unsurprisingly, has been referred to variously
DV&RHW]HH¶V³PRXWKSLHFH´*UDKDP³7H[WXDO7UDQVYHVWLVP´KLV³VXUURJDWH´
$WWZHOO³/LIHDQG7LPHV´DQGKLV³DOWHUHJR´%HOO$OWKRXJK&RVWHOORLV
only one character amongst many in the lectures, suggesting that Coetzee cannot
VLPSO\ EH YHQWULORTXL]LQJ WKURXJK KHU &RVWHOOR LV WKH FRQQHFWLQJ WKUHDG LQ WKH
series of republished lectures that otherwise would function as discreet entities.
J. C. is the name the main narrator of Diary XVHVWRVLJQKLPVHOIRIILQKLVMRXUQDO
RI³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´±D¿FWLRQDOL]HG-RKQ&RHW]HH¶VUXPLQDWLRQVRQFRQWHQWLRXV
current debates. The similarities between author and narrator don’t end there:
-&LVD6RXWK$IULFDQRIDERXWWKHVDPHDJHDV&RHW]HHZKROLNH&RHW]HHKDV
PRYHGWR$XVWUDOLDOLNH&RHW]HHKHLVDQRYHOLVWZKRVHRHXYUHLQFOXGHVWaiting
for the BarbariansDQGOLNH&RHW]HH¶VKLVVERRNRQFHQVRUVKLSZDVTXLHWO\
received.
So in the Costello lectures and Diary the porousness of genre boundaries
misleadingly entices us down the path of biographical reading. We are tempted to
draw parallels and distinctions between Coetzee and his intellectual-protagonists,
ZRUNIRUOLWHUDU\FULWLFVQRWJHQHUDOO\UHJDUGHGZLWKPXFKHVWHHPH[FHSWLQWKH
¿HOGRIOLIHZULWLQJ:HVKRXOGQRWKRZHYHUWRRHDVLO\EHVHGXFHGLQWRUHDGLQJ
either Costello or J. C. as Coetzee, as a number of critics have pointed out, or to
LQWHUSUHWWKHZRUNVZLWKLQWKHLUSXUSRUWHGJHQUHV±EURDGO\VSHDNLQJWKHSXEOLF
LQWHUYHQWLRQ7KLVLVWKHPLVWDNHWKDW,DQ+DFNLQJPDNHVLQKLVUHYLHZRILives.3 The
trap of correspondences and similarities may have been laid, yet it is my contention
that the puzzlement the texts elicit, especially over Coetzee’s performance of
&RVWHOOR RQ VWDJH WKDW /XF\ *UDKDP FDOOV KLV ³WH[WXDO WUDQVYHVWLVP´ ³7H[WXDO
7UDQVYHVWLVP´DQGLQDiary over such obvious signposts to Coetzee’s life,
encourage us as readers to wrestle with what such performances might mean. It
would be all too easy for Coetzee to broadcast his beliefs but such a move would
À\LQWKHIDFHRIKLVSULQFLSOHGWKRXJKRYHUO\LGHDOLVWLFDQGHYHQQDwYHGLVDYRZDO
of political rhetoric, that, though “Sympathetic to the human concerns of the left,
he is alienated, when the crunch comes, by its language – by all political language,
LQIDFW´'3
1
1HLWKHUWKHODVWWZROHVVRQV³(URV´DQG³$WWKH*DWH´QRUWKH³3RVWVFULSW´XWLOL]H
the motif of the public address and are included as new material in Elizabeth Costello
(Attridge, J. M. Coetzee±
2
For an account of the contexts of the Costello lectures see Attridge, J. M. Coetzee
±
3
0LFKDHO %HOO QRWHV WKLV ÀDZ LQ +DFNLQJ¶V RWKHUZLVH ³SHQHWUDWLQJ´ UHYLHZ %HOO
³:KDWLVLWOLNH"´+DFNLQJ³2XU)HOORZ$QLPDOV´
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
171
7KHODWHUTXDVL¿FWLRQDOZRUNVDOOGHOLEHUDWHO\YLRODWHRUGLVUXSWWKH³SDFW´RI
JHQUHDV&RHW]HHZRXOGKDYHLW³7UXWKÉHWZHHQZULWHUVSHDNHUDQGUHDGHU
audience. Such pacts are, he says,
negotiated over the years between writers and readers (and always open to
UHQHJRWLDWLRQIRUHDFKRIWKHJHQUHVDQGVXEJHQUHVSDFWVZKLFKFRYHUDPRQJ
other things, what demands may be made of each genre and what may not, what
TXHVWLRQVPD\EHDVNHGDQGZKDWPD\QRWZKDWRQHPD\VHHDQGZKDWRQHPXVW
EHEOLQGWR³7UXWK´
I am suggesting that Lives, Elizabeth Costello and Diary DVN ZKDW LV WKH FRVW
RI WUXWK WR WKH JHQUHV RI WKH SXEOLF OHFWXUH DQG RSLQLRQ SLHFH" 2U ZKDW DUH WKH
QHFHVVDU\FRQGLWLRQVIRUWUXWKWREHVSRNHQ"
7KH TXHVWLRQ RI WUXWKLQ DUW LV WRR ZLGHUHDFKLQJWR DGGUHVV KHUH EXW FDQ EH
GLYLGHGEURDGO\LQWRWKUHHFDWHJRULHV¿UVWO\WKHSHUVRQDOWUXWKVRIFRQIHVVLRQDO
ZULWLQJVHFRQGO\³WUDQVFHQGHQWDOSRHWLF´WUXWKVRIWKHNLQGDVVRFLDWHGZLWKOLEHUDO
KXPDQLVP DQG WKLUGO\ SXEOLF WUXWKV RU ³VRFLRFXOWXUDO´ WUXWKV WKDW FKDOOHQJH
systems of power.4:KDWKDSSHQVZKHQWKHVHGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIWUXWKDUHEURXJKW
to bear upon each other within a single text and how might this affect the purchase
RI WKHLU SXEOLF LQWHUYHQWLRQV" 7KH GLVFRXUVH RU SDFW RI WKH SXEOLF LQWHUYHQWLRQ
GHSHQGVXSRQRXUIDLWKLQWKHDXWKRULW\WUXWKIXOQHVVRULQWHJULW\RIWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO
ZKRZLOOLPSDUWWUXWKVWRZKLFKZHDUHUHTXLUHGWREH³EOLQG´2QFHWKLVDXWKRULW\
EHFRPHVVXEMHFWWRGRXEWWKHLQWHUYHQWLRQLWVHOILVWKUHDWHQHG&RVWHOORDQG-&
violate the pacts of the genres in which they engage, as I go on to explain, in
Costello’s case, purposively.
,I SXEOLF LQWHOOHFWXDOLVP LV EXLOW LQ WKH ZRUGV RI 6DLG RQ ³VSHDNLQJ WUXWK
WR SRZHU´ Representations ZH VKRXOG DVN ZKDW WKHQ LV WUXWK"$QG ZKDW
LV &RHW]HH¶V LQYHVWPHQW LQ WUXWK" $OWKRXJK SRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVW DQG SRVWFRORQLDO
WKHRULHVKDYHWDXJKWXVWREHVNHSWLFDORIWUXWKIRUWKHSXUSRVHVRIWKLVFKDSWHU
, DP FRQFHUQHG ZLWK WKH WUXWKV VSRNHQ E\ SXEOLF LQWHOOHFWXDOV ZKLFK DUH \RNHG
to free speech: based on ethico-political conviction, the capacity to say what we
OLNHWRZKRPZHOLNHDQGZKHQ,QWXUQIUHHVSHHFKWDNHVWKUHHGLVWLQFWIRUPV
DOORIZKLFKSRWHQWLDOO\FDQEHEORFNHG7KH¿UVWLVPHDVXUHGE\REOLJDWLRQVWR
society (and, in extreme contexts such as apartheid, regulated by the state through
PHFKDQLVPV OLNH FHQVRUVKLS WKH VHFRQG E\ VHOIUHJXODWLRQ RU VHOIFHQVRUVKLS
WKH FHQVRU ZLWKLQ DQG WKH WKLUG E\ XQFRQVFLRXV GULYHV D PRGH RI FHQVRUVKLS
which supersedes both that of the state and the conscious self. Coetzee’s writing
even suggests that private thoughts are not, as commonly held in Enlightenment
GLVFRXUVH IUHH IURP SROLFLQJ +RZ DQG ZKHQ WKHUHIRUH FDQ ZH NQRZ WKDW WKH
WUXWKLVEHLQJVSRNHQ"&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQUHYHDOVWKDWHYHQWUXWKVDSSDUHQWO\WROG
IUHHO\DUHVXEMHFWWRGRXEW&RQYHUVHO\LWWHVWVWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKRQH¶VLQQHUPRVW
4
,Q³:KDWLVD&ODVVLF"´&RHW]HHHODERUDWHVXSRQWZRDSSDUHQWO\GLYHUJHQWPRGHVRI
criticismWKH³WUDQVFHQGHQWDOSRHWLF´DQGWKH³VRFLRFXOWXUDO´66
172
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
thoughts and feelings can be brought acceptably into the public domain. How far
FDQRQHH[SORUHDQGUHYHDOWKH³GHSWKV´RIFRQVFLRXVQHVVDQGFRQVFLHQFHYouth
DQGUHPDLQZLWKLQWKHOLPLWVRIWKHHWKLFDO"
7KLVLV&RVWHOOR¶VWRSLFLQ³/HVVRQ7KH3UREOHPRI(YLO´,QYLWHGWRVSHDN
RQ ³WKH DJHROG SUREOHP RI HYLO´ DW D FRQIHUHQFH LQ$PVWHUGDP (& VKH
argues “certain things are not good to read or to write´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV(&
6KH SXEOLFO\ FRQGHPQV WKH UHDOOLIH DXWKRU 3DXO :HVW¶V QRYHO The Very
Rich Hours of Count von Stauffenberg ZKLFK EDVHG RQ IDFWXDO HYHQWV
GHSLFWVLQVLFNHQLQJO\LQWLPDWHGHWDLOWKHH[HFXWLRQRIDEDQGRI+LWOHU¶VZRXOGEH
DVVDVVLQV³RQHFDQQRWFRPHDZD\XQVFDWKHGDVDZULWHUIURPFRQMXULQJXSVXFK
VFHQHV´ (& VKH EHOLHYHV 3ULYDWHO\ VKH UHÀHFWV WKDW VXFK UHSUHVHQWDWLRQV
DUH³2EVFHQHEHFDXVHKDYLQJWDNHQSODFHWKH\RXJKWQRWWREHEURXJKWLQWRWKH
OLJKW EXW FRYHUHG XS DQG KLGGHQ IRUHYHU LQ WKH ERZHOV RI WKH HDUWK´ (& 6XFKPRUDOL]LQJZKLFKVHHPVWRXQGRWKHSULQFLSOHVRIIUHHVSHHFKLVQRWXQOLNH
IHPLQLVWV¶UHVSRQVHWRSRUQRJUDSK\IHPLQLVWVZKRFODLPV-&LQ³2Q3DHGRSKLOLD´
DQGHFKRHGE\&RHW]HHLQ³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´>*2@KDYH³FKRVH>Q@WRJRWR
EHGZLWKWKHUHOLJLRXVFRQVHUYDWLYHV´'%<
The position of Anya, the neighbour J. C. employs as his secretary to transcribe
KLV RSLQLRQ SLHFHV WKDW DFWV GR QRW QHFHVVDULO\ IROORZ WKRXJKWV ³DUH ZLFNHG
WKRXJKWVUHDOO\VRZLFNHG«)RUDQROGPDQDIWHUDOOZKDWLVWKHUHOHIWLQWKH
ZRUOGEXWZLFNHGWKRXJKWV"´>'%<@LVFORVHUZHPLJKWVXSSRVHWR&RHW]HH¶V
RZQ,Q³7KH7DLQWRIWKH3RUQRJUDSKLF´&RHW]HHVHWVVWUDLJKW'+/DZUHQFHZKR
exercises taboo in order to exorcize it of its offensive meaning, by arguing that the
“moral [Lawrence] is really after is that only a mind already tainted can be touched
E\WDLQW´'3$Q\DLVUHSXOVHGE\-&¶VZULWLQJVRQSDHGRSKLOLDZKLFK-&
WDFLWO\GHIHQGVE\HYRNLQJDQHWKLFRIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDWDQDGXOWDFWLQJWKHSDUW
RIDFKLOGLVDIDUFU\IURPFKLOGSRUQRJUDSK\LWVHOI>'%<@1RQHWKHOHVVVKH
VKRZVFRPSDVVLRQIRUKLV³SULYDWHWKRXJKWV´WKDWDUHDERXWKHUDQGLVGLVWXUEHG
E\$ODQ¶V DWWHPSWV WR SRNH DERXW LQ WKHP '%< 1RW LQFLGHQWDOO\ SODFHG
EHORZ-&¶VUHÀHFWLRQV³2Q&RPSDVVLRQ´$Q\DWHOOVKLP³IUDQNO\´WKDWVKHZDV
“never embarrassed by your thoughts, I even helped them along a little … And
LI\RXZDQWWRZULWHDQGWHOOPH\RXUWKRXJKWVWKDWLV2.WRR,FDQEHGLVFUHHW´
'%<1HYHUWKHOHVV-&¶VODVFLYLRXVIDQWDVLHVDERXW$Q\D¶V³GHUULqUH>@VR
QHDUWRSHUIHFWDVWREHDQJHOLF´LQVHUWHGGLUHFWO\EHORZKLVWKRXJKWV³RQWKH
RULJLQVRIWKHVWDWH´RQTXHVWLRQVRIFLWL]HQU\DQGVXEMHFWKRRGFHUWDLQO\WKUHDWHQ
WRWHVWWKHPRUDOKLJKJURXQGKHWDNHVLQKLVSXEOLFLQWHUYHQWLRQVRUDWOHDVWPDUN
a clear division between them.
&RVWHOOR LQ ³7KH 3UREOHP RI (YLO´ YLVLWV WKH QRYHOLVW:HVW ZKR E\ LOO OXFN
LVDWWHQGLQJWKHVDPHFRQIHUHQFHWRZDUQKLPRIWKHVXEVWDQFHRIKHUWDON<HW
³SURFHHG>LQJ@ZLWKWKHWDVNRIZDWHULQJGRZQKHUSDSHU´WRVDYH:HVW¶VVHQVLELOLWLHV
and her face, she realizes that, “Ineluctably she is arguing herself into the position
RIWKHROGIDVKLRQHGFHQVRU´(&'RQHLQKHUROGDJHZLWKXQFULWLFDOEHOLHILQ
VWRU\WHOOLQJ(&RIZKLFK³6KHLVQRWVXUH«ZKHWKHUVKHEHOLHYHVDQ\ORQJHU
LQ´(&VKHWHOOVKHUDXGLHQFHWKDWDVDQRYHOLVWVKH³ZRXOGQRWOHW>KHU@VHOI
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
173
QRWDQ\PRUH´HQWHUVFHQHVRIKXPDQGHSUDYLW\DVWKRVHGHSLFWHGE\:HVW(&
6KH OLNHQV VWRU\WHOOLQJ WR ³D ERWWOH ZLWK D JHQLH LQ LW´ WKDW RQFH ³UHOHDVHG
LQWRWKHZRUOGÚHHNVKDYRFWKDWZRXOGEHGLI¿FXOWWRUHSDLUDQGFRQFOXGHVWKDW
“Her position, her revised position, her position in the twilight of life: better, on the
ZKROHWKDWWKHJHQLHVWD\LQWKHERWWOH´HPSKDVLVDGGHG(&&RVWHOOR¶VVHOI
UHÀH[LYLW\DQGVKLIWLQJFRQVFLRXVQHVVPDUNWKHWUDLWVRIWKHFULWLFDOPLQGVHWWKDWDUH
WKHOLQFKSLQRIWKHLQWHOOHFWXDO³ZKRVHZKROHEHLQJLVVWDNHGRQDFULWLFDOVHQVH´
DQGUHTXLUHVDZLOOLQJQHVVWRVSHDNRXWLQSXEOLF6DLGRepresentations
7KHGLVMXQFWLRQEHWZHHQ&RVWHOORDQG&RHW]HHRQWKHSUREOHPRIUHSUHVHQWLQJ
WKHREVFHQHDQGWKHYLROHQWLQ¿FWLRQKRZHYHULVVWULNLQJO\DSSDUHQWZHRQO\
KDYHWRWKLQNRI(XJHQH'DZQ¶VSKRWRJUDSKVLQDusklands, the scenes of torture
in Waiting for the Barbarians, the mutilation of Friday in Foe, the murder of
%KHNLFKLOGUHYROXWLRQDU\LQAge of Iron or the rape of Lucy in Disgrace, to see
that Coetzee is a novelist more than familiar with representing acts of inhumanity,
even, as in the case of Dusklands and Barbarians, in the most stomach-churningly
intimate detail. Violence in Foe and Disgrace may not be represented explicitly:
LQ WKH FDVH RI )ULGD\¶V SRVVLEOH JHQLWDO PXWLODWLRQ %DUWRQ UHÀHFWV ³:KDW KDG
been hidden from me was revealed. I saw, or, I should say, my eyes were open to
ZKDWZDVSUHVHQWWRWKHP´6LPLODUO\VKHUHSRUWVWKDWZKHQ&UXVRKHOG)ULGD\¶V
PRXWKRSHQ³WRVKRZPHKHKDGQRWRQJXH´VKH³DYHUWHG´KHUH\HV)/XULH
as focalizer in Disgrace, does not witness Lucy’s rape but hears it through the
ZDOOVRIDORFNHGWRLOHWGRRU<HWWKHVXJJHVWLYHLPDJLQDWLYHFDSDFLW\RIDUWLQ
HDFKFDVHDOORZVXVWRFRQMXUHZKDWLVOHIWXQDUWLFXODWHG6RZHZRXOGEHULJKWWR
TXHVWLRQ&RHW]HH¶VJDPH.
It is my contention that the effect of such a radical disruption of genre –
&RHW]HH¶V ³JHQUH DFWV´ ± LV WR OD\ EDUH WKH DXWKRU¶VVSHDNHU¶V GHYLFH WXUQLQJ
WKH FULWLFDO JD]H EDFN VHOIUHÀH[LYHO\ XSRQ ZKDW 0LFKHO )RXFDXOW ZRXOG FDOO
WKH³DXWKRUIXQFWLRQ´³:KDWLVDQ$XWKRU"´DQGKHUHWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKH
LQWHOOHFWXDO DQG UHQGHULQJ WKH ¿FWLRQ SURIRXQGO\ HWKLFRSROLWLFDO , HQMRLQ WKH
two terms, ethical and political, where others have tended to polarize Coetzee’s
ZULWLQJEHWZHHQWKHWZR³(WKLFRSROLWLFDO´H[SUHVVHVZKDW$WWULGJHUHIHUVWRDV
D³SROLWLFVZRUWKHVSRXVLQJ´RQHWKDW³LVVXUHO\DSROLWLFVWKDWERWKLQFRUSRUDWHV
WKHHWKLFDODQGLVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQLWZKLOHDFNQRZOHGJLQJWKHLQHVFDSDEOHWHQVLRQ
DQG FRQWLQXDO UHYDOXDWLRQ WKDW WKLV PXWXDO LQFRUSRUDWLRQ LPSOLHV´ ³7UXVWLQJ
WKH 2WKHU´ ± 5REHUW 6SHQFHU DUJXHV WKDW WKH IRUP RI &RHW]HH¶V QRYHOV
³SRWHQWLDOO\ PDNHV WKHP HWKLFDOO\ DQG XOWLPDWHO\ KHUH P\ HPSKDVLV GLIIHUV
VXEWO\EXW,WKLQNFUXFLDOO\IURP$WWULGJH¶VpoliticallyFRQVHTXHQWLDOH[SHULHQFHV
IRUWKHLUUHDGHUV´6SHQFHU³:DURQ7HUURU´QSDJ5 In Spencer’s eyes Attridge
UHOLHVWRRKHDYLO\RQDQ³XQGHUWKHRULVHGHWKLFDOUKHWRULF´WKDWLVGHSHQGHQWRQD
FRPPLWPHQWWKDWLVFRQFHLYHGLQ³HYHQP\VWLFDO«WHUPV´ZKLFKDUH³DWDQ\UDWH
«DQWLSROLWLFDO´³:DURQ7HUURU´QSDJ
5
7KHXQSXEOLVKHGYHUVLRQRI6SHQFHU¶VHVVD\VXEVHTXHQWO\DSSHDUHGLQInterventions
DV³-0&RHW]HHDQG&RORQLDO9LROHQFH´
174
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Before I explore the problem of genre I should lay my cards on the table and
H[SODLQ WKH LPSOLHG DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ D QRYHOLVW OLNH &RHW]HH DQG WKH SXEOLF
LQWHOOHFWXDOZKRE\GH¿QLWLRQVSHDNVWUXWKWRSRZHU7RWKRVHIDPLOLDUZLWKWKH
DXWKRU¶VZRUN&RHW]HHDQGSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOLVPPD\VHHPSHFXOLDUEHGIHOORZV
though the former occupies the seemingly paradoxical position of shunning
SXEOLFLW\ZKLOVWKHKDVEHHQNQRZQWRPDNHDIHZYHU\SXEOLFVDOOLHVLQWRSXEOLF
GHEDWHV$WWZHOOSRLQWVRXWWKDWDOWKRXJKWKHUHDUHRFFDVLRQDO³ODSVHV´LQ&RHW]HH¶V
UHVLVWDQFHWREHLQJ³GUDZQLQWRWKHSXEOLFVSKHUH´³/LIHDQG7LPHV´KHLVQRW
a public intellectual in the sense that Said means. Firstly, Coetzee is notoriously
HOXVLYH DQG ³UHPDLQV LQ D SDUWLFXODU VHQVH WKH OHDVW NQRZQ RI 6RXWK $IULFDQ
ZULWHUV´6HFRQGO\&RHW]HHLVDOZD\VVNHSWLFDORIDVVHUWLQJSRVLWLRQVKLVVWRULHV
UHVLVW ³GHOLYHU>LQJ@ D XVDEOH HWKLFDO FRQWHQW´ EXW IRU PH WKLV UHVLVWDQFH VLJQDOV
MXVWWKHRSSRVLWH(FKRLQJ&RHW]HH¶VVHQWLPHQWLQ³5HDOLVP´&RVWHOORDVNVKHU
LQWHUORFXWRU³DP,REOLJHG>DVDQRYHOLVW@WRFDUU\DPHVVDJH"´>(&@7KLUGO\
WKHUHLVWKHTXHVWLRQRI&RHW]HH¶VRSDFLW\ZKLFKKDVIUXVWUDWHGVRPHUHDGHUVZKR
KDYHPLVVHG$WWZHOOLPSOLHVWKH¿FWLRQ¶VQXDQFHVDQG³WKHHQLJPDVRIWKHSXEOLF
SHUIRUPDQFH´$WWZHOOZDUQVWKDW³PDN>LQJ@DSXEOLFFDVHRQKLVEHKDOILV«WR
ULVN WUDGXFLQJ WKH YHU\ TXDOLWLHV RI KLV ZULWLQJ RQH PRVW UHVSHFWV LQFOXGLQJ KLV
XQFDQQ\FRPELQDWLRQVRISRZHUDQGLQVWDELOLW\LQWHQVLW\DQGHOXVLYHQHVV´³/LIH
DQG7LPHV´±7KHXWRSLDQLVPRI6DLG¶VSXEOLFLQWHOOHFWXDOKRZHYHULVQRW
lost on Coetzee: “I would deny that the vocation of the intellectual is possible in
WKH DEVHQFH RI D FHUWDLQ LGHDOLVP DQG FHUWDLQ LGHDO VWDQGDUGV´ ³&ULWLF &LWL]HQ´
\HWSDUDGR[LFDOO\&RHW]HH¶VRZQ³SXEOLFLQWHUYHQWLRQV´W\SLFDOO\UDGLFDOO\
disrupt what it means to be one.
2Q WKLV SRLQW 7KHRGRU $GRUQR¶V GLVFXVVLRQ RI DUWLVWLF ³FRPPLWPHQW´
SURYHV HQOLJKWHQLQJ 6XJJHVWLQJ WKDW ³SURSHU´ FRPPLWPHQW ZRUNV DW WKH OHYHO
RI ³IXQGDPHQWDO DWWLWXGHV´ KH GLVWLQJXLVKHV EHWZHHQ ³DXWRQRPRXV DUW´ DQG
³FRPPLWWHGDUW´±QRWXQOLNHWKHWZRNLQGVRIFULWLFLVP³WUDQVFHQGHQWDOSRHWLF´
DQG³VRFLRFXOWXUDO´RXWOLQHGE\&RHW]HHLQ³:KDWLVD&ODVVLF"´66:KLOVW
$GRUQRODXGV-HDQ3DXO6DUWUH¶VREMHFWLYHLQFRPPLWWHGOLWHUDWXUH³WRDZDNHQWKH
IUHH FKRLFH RI WKH DJHQW > @ WKDW PDNHV DXWKHQWLF H[LVWHQFH SRVVLEOH DW DOO´ KH
FRQFOXGHVWKDW6DUWUHLVXQDEOHWRFRQMXUHWKHQHFHVVDU\DHVWKHWLFUHVRXUFHVWRPDNH
this free choice possible. In Sartre, “What remains is merely the abstract authority
RIFKRLFHHQMRLQHGZLWKQRUHJDUGIRUWKHIDFWWKDWWKHYHU\SRVVLELOLW\RIFKRRVLQJ
GHSHQGVRQZKDWFDQEHFKRVHQ´$GRUQR³&RPPLWPHQW´2QWKHJURXQGVRI
what distinguishes the category of the literary, Adorno laments the reductiveness
RI6DUWUH¶VPD[LP³7KHZULWHUGHDOVZLWKPHDQLQJV´What is Literature?ZKLFK
Adorno interprets as content-bound. Every word, Adorno contends, is altered by
its transposition to literature, and each word and idea assumes new textures in
GLIIHUHQWJHQHULFFRQWH[WV³&RPPLWPHQW´
)RU$GRUQRDUWLVWKHGLDOHFWLFEHWZHHQPHDQLQJDQGIRUP³&RPPLWPHQW´
DQGKLVRZQLQFOLQDWLRQWRZDUGVDPRGHUQLVWDHVWKHWLFRYHUUHDOLVP±WRWKH³VKRFN
RIWKHXQLQWHOOLJLEOH´³&RPPLWPHQW´±LVHYLGHQWLQKLVDVVHUWLRQWKDWSURSHUO\
FRPPLWWHGDUWZKLFKUHVLGHVDWWKHOHYHORI³IXQGDPHQWDODWWLWXGHVÚDWKHUWKDQ
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
175
³DPHOLRUDWLYHPHDVXUHVOHJLVODWLYHDFWVRUSUDFWLFDOLQVWLWXWLRQV´LVGLI¿FXOW. If we
return to Sartre’s principle of choice, Adorno reminds us, “what gives commitment
its aesthetic advantage over tendentiousness also renders the content to which the
DUWLVWFRPPLWVKLPVHOILQKHUHQWO\DPELJXRXV´³&RPPLWPHQW´+HODPEDVWHV
6DUWUH¶V DUW DV SKLORVRSK\ ZKDW KH FDOOV 6DUWUH¶V ³RZQ SKLORVRSK\´ EHFDXVH
WKRXJKWVDUH³QHYHU>@PXFKPRUHWKDQRQHRIWKHPDWHULDOVIRUDUW´&RHW]HH
ZRXOG PRVW OLNHO\ V\PSDWKL]H ZLWK$GRUQR¶V QRWLRQ RI FRPPLWPHQW VR LW ZLOO
have been with a measure of surprise that many of his readers encountered in the
Costello lectures and Diary these out-of-character ventures into the political fray.
&RHW]HH VXJJHVWV LQ ³7KH 1RYHO 7RGD\´ WKDW H[SHULPHQWDO ¿FWLRQ KDV WKH
capacity to operate on a different discursive plane from other modes of discourse:
this is the source of its power:
the offensiveness of stories lies not in their transgressing particular rules but
LQWKHLUIDFXOW\RIPDNLQJDQGFKDQJLQJWKHLURZQUXOHV7KHUHLVDJDPHJRLQJ
RQEHWZHHQWKHFRYHUVRIDERRNEXWLWLVQRWDOZD\VWKHJDPH\RXWKLQNLWLV
17±
For Coetzee, then, the very form of the experimental novel – its anti-realist
strategies and genre acts – can usefully counterpoint received discourses. We
hardly need be reminded that History, against which Coetzee directs “The Novel
7RGD\´LVGLVFXUVLYHDQGKLJKO\SROLWLFL]HGSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKHFRQWH[WRI
DSDUWKHLG 6RXWK$IULFD GXULQJ ZKLFK WLPH WKH WDON ZDV GHOLYHUHG 0HGLDWHG E\
WKHVWDWH+LVWRU\LVSDUWRIWKHPDNHXSRIWKHQDWLRQDOFRQVFLRXVQHVVDQGJLYHV
credence to the myth of national origins, serving in this case to bolster apartheid
ideology. By disrupting the conventions of realism – the pact between novelist
DQGUHDGHU±WKHH[SHULPHQWDOQRYHOOD\VEDUHWKHZRUNLQJVRIQDUUDWLYHDQGWKH
author-function. What might be the implications of this line of reasoning for the
public interventions made by Coetzee’s protagonists in the Costello lectures and
Diary"3XWDQRWKHUZD\ZKDWHIIHFWGRHVWKHSURFHVVRI¿FWLRQDOL]LQJKDYHXSRQ
WKHYDOLGLW\RI&RHW]HH¶VVRUWLHVLQWRSXEOLFSROLWLFDOGHEDWH"
7KHODWHUZRUNVUHTXLUHXVWRDVNZKRVSHDNV&RHW]HHWKHDXWKRUZKREHFRPHV
LPSOLFDWHGLQKLVQDUUDWLYHVDVDNLQGRILQYLVLEOHSUHVHQFHRUWKHFKDUDFWHUVKH
SRUWUD\V"$WWKH&RVWHOOROHFWXUHVDV$WWULGJHREVHUYHV&RHW]HHFKRVHWRUHVSRQG
WRTXHVWLRQVIURPWKHÀRRULQWKHWKLUGSHUVRQ³,WKLQNWKDWZKDW&RVWHOORZRXOG
say iVWKDW«´J. M. CoetzeeZKLFKPLJKWZHOOEHFRQVWUXHGLQWHOOHFWXDO
VLGHVWHSSLQJ7KLVZRXOGEHVXSSRUWHGE\$WWULGJH¶VUHPDUNWKDW³2QHQHJDWLYH
response to Elizabeth CostelloKDVEHHQWRFRPSODLQWKDW&RHW]HHXVHV¿FWLRQDO
creations to advance arguments … without assuming responsibility for them, and
LVWKXVHWKLFDOO\DWIDXOW´J. M. Coetzee7KLVLVWKHSRLQWWKDW3HWHU6LQJHU
moots in his response to LivesSXEOLVKHGLQWKHVDPHYROXPHDVWKHOHFWXUHV
6LQJHUFRXQWHUVOLNHZLWKOLNHE\¿FWLRQDOL]LQJKLVRZQSRVLWLRQRQWKHOHFWXUHVWR
DVNZKHWKHU&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIZULWHUVDOORZKLPDVDSULYDWH
individual, to withdraw from the public sphere whilst PDNLQJ interventions,
176
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
WKURXJKFKDUDFWHUL]HGSHUVRQDH³%XWDUHWKH\&RHW]HH¶VDUJXPHQWV"«&RHW]HH¶V
GHYLFH HQDEOHV KLP WR GLVWDQFH KLPVHOI IURP WKHP´ /$ &ULWLFV ZKR KDYH
claimed that Singer misses the point forget that pinning Singer down is complicated
E\KLVRZQVHOI¿FWLRQDOL]LQJGHYLFH
/LNH 6LQJHU *DUEHU LQ WKH VHFRQG RI WKH IRXU ³UHÀHFWLRQV´ RQ Lives, also
UHFRJQL]HVWKHGLVWDQFHHVWDEOLVKHGEHWZHHQVSHDNHUDQGVRFDOOHGPRXWKSLHFHEXW
PDNHVKHUFRQFOXVLRQDWWKHSRLQWDWZKLFKWKHDUJXPHQWPDGHKHUHWDNHVRIIE\
DVNLQJ³,QWKHVHWZRHOHJDQWOHFWXUHVZHWKRXJKW-RKQ&RHW]HHZDVWDONLQJDERXW
DQLPDOV&RXOGLWEHKRZHYHUWKDWDOODORQJKHZDVUHDOO\DVNLQJµ:KDWLVWKH
YDOXHRIOLWHUDWXUH"¶´/$+RZHYHU*DUEHULVVRPHZKDWRIIWKHPDUNEHFDXVH
DV'RPLQLF+HDGSRLQWVRXW&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQ±DQGLivesLVD¿FWLRQ±IXQFWLRQV
RQ³GLIIHUHQWSODQHVRIVLJQL¿FDWLRQ´VLPXOWDQHRXVO\³%HOLHILQ)URJV´3XW
DQRWKHUZD\WKHVHODWHUQRYHOVDUH³DERXW´WKHWRSLFVWKH\LQWHOOHFWXDOL]HMXVWDV
they are about intellectualism itself. What is more, Garber’s analysis isn’t far
UHDFKLQJHQRXJK7KHODWHUZRUNVLives, Elizabeth Costello and DiaryTXHVWLRQ
QRW RQO\ WKH YDOXH RI OLWHUDWXUH &RHW]HH XWLOL]HV OLWHUDWXUH WR H[SRVH WKH ZHDN
SRLQWVRILQWHOOHFWXDOSUDFWLFHFHQWULQJRQTXHVWLRQVRIDXWKRULW\DQGVSHDNLQJRQ
others’ behalf.
By unsettling ideas of truth and the distance between the voice of author/
lecturer and protagonist, Coetzee maintains the paradoxical position of nonposition
WRZKLFKKHPDNHVFODLPLQDoubling the Point±³P\GLI¿FXOW\LVSUHFLVHO\ZLWK
WKHSURMHFWRIVWDWLQJSRVLWLRQVWDNLQJSRVLWLRQV´'3±DQGZKLFKKHFOHDUO\
favours in his analysis of the Erasmus of Praise of Folly*2,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJ
that an author who so doggedly resists being positioned consistently stages a
drama of positionality, inviting us, teasingly, to enter his literary game playing in
the struggle for meaning that the act of reading engenders. Attridge contends that
those who criticize Coetzee on the grounds of evasiveness are assuming wrongly
they are dealing with “arguments presented as arguments´ZKHUH$WWULGJHSUHIHUV
WR WKLQN RI WKHP DV ³arguings´ VXJJHVWLQJ SURFHVV ³7KH\ DUH WKDW LV HYHQWV
VWDJHGZLWKLQWKHHYHQWRIWKHZRUN´DQG³LQYLWHWKHUHDGHU¶VSDUWLFLSDWLRQ´J. M.
Coetzee±)RU$WWULGJHWKLVLVDQHWKLFDOPRYHERUQRXWE\WKHDUJXPHQW
I am forwarding here: Coetzee is less concerned with the truths his characters
SURPRWHWKDQZLWKWKHPRGHVRU³SDFWVÉ\ZKLFKWKHVHWUXWKVDUHFRQYH\HGLQWKLV
way testing the ethico-politics of intellectual practice.
,QWKHVHZRUNV&RHW]HHLQFRUSRUDWHVWKHVFHQHRILQWHOOHFWXDOGHEDWH)LJXUHV
OLNe Stern and Norma in Lives are given the opportunity to respond to Costello’s
LQWHUYHQWLRQV RQ DQLPDO ULJKWV LQ ZKLFK VKH PDNHV WKH FRPSDULVRQ EHWZHHQ
factory-farmed animals and the Holocaust – Stern as a Holocaust survivor and a
poet, Norma as a philosopher and the stereotyped daughter-in-law-as-antagonist.
In Diary J. C.’s public voice is tempered by the various private ones, including his
RZQ$Q\DIRULQVWDQFHZKRFDOOVKHUVHOIKLV³JXDUGLDQDQJHO´LVXQDIUDLG
WR WHOO KLP WKDW WKH LPSOLHG DXWKRULW\ RI KLV ³VWURQJ RSLQLRQV´ ZLOO DOLHQDWH
KLV UHDGHU ³7KHUH LV D WRQH « D WRQH WKDW UHDOO\ WXUQV SHRSOH RII$ NQRZLW
all tone. Everything is cut and dried: I am the one with all the answers, here is
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
177
how it is, don’t argue, it won’t get you anywhere´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV'%<
$Q\D¶VER\IULHQG$ODQGLVSDUDJHV-&IRUKLVODFNRIDFWLRQDUHTXLUHPHQWRI
WKHRUJDQLFLQWHOOHFWXDORIZKLFK*UDPVFLZULWHV,QWKHVHZRUGV$ODQTXHVWLRQV
-&¶VLQWHOOHFWXDOLQWHJULW\³,DVNP\VHOI,IKHUHDOO\EHOLHYHVLQWKHVHKXPDQ
ULJKWVZK\LVQ¶WKHRXWLQWKHUHDOZRUOG¿JKWLQJIRUWKHP"´'%<7KURXJK
the conduits of Costello and J. C., Coetzee puts ideas on the table, inviting
debate rather than imperiously pressing observable truths or offering nullifying
GLUHFWLYHV7KLV LV D PRUH REYLRXV LQVWDQFH RI ZKDW /DXUD:ULJKW LGHQWL¿HV DV
&RHW]HH¶VGLDORJLVP³LQWKH%DNKWLQLDQVHQVH>LQZKLFKKH@UHIXVHVWRFODLPWKH
narrative position of the monologic insider, the textual presence that has access to
WKHDQVZHUVRUDFFHVVWRFRQWHVWHGQRWLRQVRIWKHWUXWK´Writing 12
,WLVWKHYLRODWLRQRIWKHSDFWVRIJHQUHRIWKHVHZRUNVWKDWJLYHVWKHVWDJHG
LQWHOOHFWXDOLVP LWV HGJH 7KH LQLWLDO SXEOLFOHFWXUH VHWWLQJ RI WKH ³OHVVRQV´
HVWDEOLVKHVWKHSDFWEHWZHHQOHFWXUHUDQGDXGLHQFHDXWKRULWDWLYHVSHDNHULQVWUXFWV
UHFHSWLYH DXGLHQFH WKDW LV VHYHUHO\ WHVWHG E\ WKH NQRZOHGJH WKDW &RHW]HH LV
SUHVHQWLQJ¿FWLRQ7KHVXEMHFWPDWWHURI-&¶V³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´DiaryZKLFK
Spencer describes as, “In length, tone and style resemble[ing] nothing so much as
the philosophical apercus of Nietzsche or the Minima MoraliaRI$GRUQR´³:DU
RQ7HUURU´QSDJDQGZKLFK$ODQFDOOV-&¶V³PRUDOLW\SOD\´'%<SURIHVV
WKHNLQGRIWUXWKIXOQHVVDQGDXWKRULW\WKDWDFFUXHVWRHWKLFRSROLWLFDOFRQYLFWLRQ
WKURXJKWKHLUYHU\PRGHRIDGGUHVV±WKHRSLQLRQSLHFH$WVWDNHLVZKHWKHU¿FWLRQ
and intellectualism in this context are a happy marriage and, furthermore, whether
Coetzee can successfully or indeed productively align his various personae of
author, critic, public intellectual and citizen (or private individual with both rights
DQGREOLJDWLRQVWRVRFLHW\
Michael Bell, Graham and Wright all point up the manner in which, through
the lectures and lessons, Coetzee performs his so-called alter ego and the effect
such a performance generates. Bell contends that Costello is a device that allows
&RHW]HH WR H[SUHVV RSLQLRQV KH RWKHUZLVH ZRXOG SXEOLFO\ VKLUN \HW ZDUQV WKDW
LI &RVWHOOR ZHUH D ³VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG PRXWKSLHFH´ WKHQ WKH UHDGLQJV &RHW]HH
PDNHV through &RVWHOOR RI WKH OLNHV RI /DZUHQFH DQG 7HG +XJKHV ZRXOG EH
³GLVLQJHQXRXV´6LPLODUO\WKHGLVMXQFWXUHEHWZHHQ&RVWHOORDQG&RHW]HHLV
evident, Bell implies, in Costello’s tendency “to override the internal niceties of
LURQ\LQDOLWHUDU\ZRUNDQGJRGLUHFWO\IRULWVH[LVWHQWLDOSUHPLVHV´6XFK
DPDQRHXYUHZRXOGEUHDNZLWK&RHW]HH¶VVNHSWLFLVPRISRVLWLRQDOLW\'LUHFWLQJ
us to a comment by Coetzee in Doubling the Point in which he explains that
³7KHUHLVQRHWKLFDOLPSHUDWLYHWKDW,FODLPDFFHVVWR>@(OL]DEHWK>&XUUHQLQAge
of Iron] is the one who believes in should´%HOOFRQFOXGHVWKDW³Lives is a closely
VWUXFWXUHGH[DPLQDWLRQRIZK\&RHW]HHKLPVHOIFDQQRWUHDGLO\EHOLHYHLQµEHOLHYHV
LQ¶´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV'3%HOO
Wright analyzes Coetzee’s genre acts from almost an antithetical perspective
WR %HOO E\ FODLPLQJ WKDW &RHW]HH LV SHUIRUPLQJ D IHPLQLVW ³UDQW´ ³FORWKHG LQ
WKH DXVSLFHV RI D ¿FWLRQ´ 6KH SLFNV XS RQ WKH TXHVWLRQ RI WKH SDFW RI JHQUH WR
which I am referring when she argues that Lives “examines the interaction and
178
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
GLVMXQFWLRQ between two modes of discourse WKH VHHPLQJO\ REMHFWLYH UKHWRULF
RIDSKLORVRSKLFDOOHFWXUHDQGWKHVXEMHFWLYHOLYHGH[SHULHQFHRIWKHSROHPLFDO
GLDWULEH´HPSKDVLVDGGHG³)HPLQLVW9HJHWDULDQ´*UDKDPDUJXHVWKDWWKH
Costello lectures should be read within the context of female voices in Coetzee’s
oeuvUHZKLFKDOOVHOIUHÀH[LYHO\TXHVWLRQ³GLVFRXUVHVRIDXWKRULW\DQGRULJLQ´
³7H[WXDO7UDQVYHVWLVP´%RWK:ULJKWDQG*UDKDPVXJJHVWWKDWLWLVWKURXJK
DIRUPRI³H[FLWDEOHVSHHFK´-XGLWK%XWOHUTWGLQ:ULJKW³)HPLQLVW9HJHWDULDQ´
RUDOWHUQDWLYHO\³K\VWHULFL]HGQDUUDWLYH´*UDKDP³7H[WXDO7UDQVYHVWLVP´
ZKLFKFRQWUDYHQHWKHSKDOORFHQWULFHFRQRP\RIDXWKRUVKLSWKDW&RVWHOOR¶V
interventions are effectually, that is ethico-politically, made.
:KDW KDSSHQV ZKHQ WKH LGHD RI VHFXODU EHOLHI LV PHGLDWHG DV LW LV KHUH
WKURXJKWKHSULVPRI¿FWLRQ"%HOOQRWHVWKDWLQWKHFDVHRILives the transposition
of pieces that were originally staged as lectures to novel form alters the nature
of Coetzee’s intellectual intervention in important ways: “The[ lectures] become
SDUW RI D KRUL]RQWDO D[LV RI PXWXDO UHIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ VLPLODU ¿FWLRQV UDWKHU
WKDQ YHUWLFDO SHQHWUDWLRQV RI WKH LQWHUIDFH EHWZHHQ ¿FWLRQ DQG WKH ZRUOG RI
H[WUD¿FWLRQDO UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV´ ³:KDW LV LW OLNH"´ 7KURXJK D SURFHVV RI
UHYLVLRQ WKH SXEOLF LPSDFW RI WKH ³OHVVRQV´ DSSDUHQWO\ LV ZHDNHQHG 7KRXJK
Diary is a novel, Coetzee offers tantalizing clues that J. C.’s strong opinions
might be Coetzee’s own.
&RVWHOOR LQ ³/HVVRQ 7KH 3KLORVRSKHUV DQG WKH $QLPDOV´ WHVWV WKH SDFW
RI WKH SXEOLF OHFWXUH DQG WKH SDWLHQFH RI KHU DXGLHQFH ZLWK KHU SROHPLFDO
comparison of the treatment of the Jews during the Holocaust with the treatment
RIIDFWRU\IDUPHGDQLPDOV7KH¿FWLRQDOSRHW$EUDKDP6WHUQFDOOVKHUDQDORJ\
³DWULFNZLWKZRUGVZKLFK,ZLOOQRWDFFHSW´³,I-HZVZHUHWUHDWHGOLNHFDWWOHLW
GRHVQRWIROORZWKDWFDWWOHDUHWUHDWHGOLNH-HZV´(&7KLVVXSSRVHGWULFN
ZKLFKGHFHSWLYHO\FRPPHQWVRQ&RHW]HH¶VJHQUHWULFNPD\QRWEHDWULFNDWDOO
Costello actually refutes the very concept of a hierarchy of human and nonhuman animals, basing her animal ethics on natural rights theory rather than
utilitarianism.6 As Singer suggests in his response to Lives, a “comparison is not
QHFHVVDULO\DQHTXDWLRQ´/$2QDPHWDGLVFXUVLYHOHYHO&RHW]HHWKURXJK
&RVWHOORH[SRVHVWKHZHDNSRLQWVRIDQDORJ\LQDPRYHZLWKZKLFKZHDUHQRZ
familiar. Moreover, by referring to her own novel The House on Eccles Street
DQGFDOOLQJXSRQ.DIND¶VVWRU\RIWKHDSH³5HG3HWHU´WRVXSSRUWKHUFDVHRQRXU
commonality with animals, Costello herself transgresses the pact of the public
LQWHUYHQWLRQE\LQYRNLQJ¿FWLRQWRGHIHQGDUDWLRQDODUJXPHQW
Diary is more than a series of opinion pieces. It presents several distinct yet
FRQFXUUHQW ³YRLFHV´ HDFK JUDSKLFDOO\ XQGHUVFRUHG RQ WKH SDJH7KH WRS SDUW LV
GHYRWHG¿UVWO\LQ3DUW2QHWRWKHDJHLQJQRYHOLVW-&¶VGLDU\RI³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´
DQGLQ3DUW7ZRWRPRUHSHUVRQDOGLDU\HQWULHVIURPWKH³6HFRQG'LDU\´WKDW$Q\D
FDOOVKLV³6RIW2SLQLRQV´'%<7KHRSLQLRQSLHFHVDUHRIIVHWRQWKHORZHU
6
/DXUD :ULJKW PDNHV VXFK D GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ PRGHV RI DQLPDO ULJKWV WKHRULHV
³)HPLQLVW9HJHWDULDQ´
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
179
SDUWRIWKHSDJHE\WKHSHUVRQDOQDUUDWLYHRI-&DVKH¿UVWHQFRXQWHUV$Q\DZKR
LVFRTXHWWLVK\HWXOWLPDWHO\VLQFHUH$Q\D¶VYRLFHVKRUWO\LQWHUMHFWVDVDWKLUGDQG
LVVXEVHTXHQWO\MRLQHGE\WKDWRIWKHGLVJUXQWOHGDQGMHDORXV$ODQZKRSORWVWR
VLSKRQPRQH\IURP-&¶VEDQNDFFRXQW)LQDOO\WKHYRLFHVRIWKHVHWZRJUDGXDOO\
displace the personal voice of J. C. which recedes into his second diary. Through
V\QFUHWL]HGVWUDWHJLHVRIMX[WDSRVLWLRQDQGGHIDPLOLDUL]DWLRQ±ZHDUHREOLJHGWR
PRYH EDFNZDUGV DQG IRUZDUGV WKURXJK WKH WH[W LI ZH DUH WR IROORZ WKH VWRULHV
VLPXOWDQHRXVO\±SULYDWHDQGSXEOLF¿UVWDUHEURXJKWLQWRVKDUSUHOLHIJUDGXDOO\
to reveal the mediation of political thoughts by private ones embodied in J. C.’s
transitional consciousness.
Christopher Tayler reads the narrative device in Diary as a “comedy of
FRQÀLFWLQJSHUVSHFWLYHVRIKLJKUKHWRULFDQGORZDLPV´LQZKLFK³>-@&¶VSROLWLFDO
ZULWLQJV«DUHDFFRPSDQLHGE\KLVDWWDFNRQKLVFUHGHQWLDOVDVDJXUX±DQDWWDFN
JURZLQJ RXW RI WKH TXHVWLRQLQJ RI WKH QRYHOLVW¶V DXWKRULW\´ 7D\OHU Q SDJ
+LODU\0DQWHOFULWLTXLQJWKHERRN¶Vgraphic effect on the page, corroborates my
argument about defamiliarization in her suggestion that the format of DiaryPDNHV
LWLPSRVVLEOHWR³FRQFHQWUDWHRQWKHDUJXPHQW´ZKLFK³VKDU>HV@WKHVSDFH´ZLWK
DQRWKHU VWRU\ 0DQWHO Q SDJ ,Q DQ DQDO\VLV QRW XQOLNH 7D\OHU¶V VKH LQWRQHV
³DERYHWKHOLQH>-&@FRQWLQXHVWRDVVHUWKLPVHOI«%HORZWKHOLQHKHWUHPEOHV´
0DQWHOQSDJ6SHQFHUWDNHVDUDWKHUGLIIHUHQWYLHZWKHFDFRSKRQ\RIYRLFHV
in Diary means that “the process of dialogue is here built more openly into the
YHU\IRUPRIWKHWH[W´³&RORQLDO9LROHQFH´DWHFKQLTXHWKDWKHGH¿QHVDV
³FRQWUDSXQWDO´ ³PDGH XS RI LQWHUZHDYLQJ YRLFH SDUWV7KLV PHDQV not that the
thoughts of J. C. are supplanted or discredited in any way but rather that his too
SURXGDQGRUDFXODUYRLFHLVTXDOL¿HGE\WKDWRI$Q\DZKRVHRZQIUHTXHQWO\ÀLSSDQW
RXWORRNLVPRGL¿HGLQWXUQ´HPSKDVLVDGGHG6SHQFHU³&RORQLDO9LROHQFH´
:KLOVWWKHLGHDWKDWWKHWH[WLQFRUSRUDWHVDFRQWUDSXQWDOWHFKQLTXHULQJVWUXHWKH
YHU\ ³TXDOL¿FDWLRQ´ RI - &¶V SXEOLFSROLWLFDO YRLFH VXJJHVWV D VXSSODQWLQJ RI
VRUWVSDUWLFXODUO\DVWKH³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´DUHVXSHUVHGHGE\WKHVRIWRQHVLQWKH
second part. Importantly, Mantel argues, as Anya becomes a stronger presence
VKHVWUXJJOHVIRUKHUSODFHLQWKHQDUUDWLYHDVNLQJ³%XWZKDWDERXWPH>Z@KR
OLVWHQV WR P\ RSLQLRQV"´ >'%< @ LW EHFRPHV SDLQIXOO\ DSSDUHQW WKDW WKH
³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´RIWKHLQWHOOHFWXDOL]LQJ-&DUHXQGHUPLQHGE\$Q\D¶VJUHDWHU
worldliness (experience being the elixir of creative writing Coetzee’s protagonists,
LQFOXGLQJ-&IUXLWOHVVO\FKDVH0DQWHOQSDJ$Q\D¶VYRLFHIRULQVWDQFHFXWV
DFURVV-&¶VUHÀHFWLRQV³2QSDHGRSKLOLD´³,VDZHQRXJKRIROGPHQDQGOLWWOH
JLUOVLQ9LHW1DP´VKHVD\V'%<-&¶VUHÀHFWLRQVRQWKHDJHLQJZULWHU¶V
VKLIWIURPGLGDFWLFLVPWRDQDI¿UPDWLRQRIOLIHQRWDEO\FRPHDIWHU$Q\D¶VUHSHDWHG
DVVHUWLRQVWKDWSROLWLFDOGLDWULEHVMXVWZRQ¶WVHOO
The multiple voices in Diary – what, in a different context, Wright calls
&RHW]HH¶VGLDORJLVP±FRQVWLWXWHDPpODQJHRI³GLDULHV´HDFKZLWKLWVUHVSHFWLYH
genre pacts. Firstly, we have J. C.’s contributions to Strong Opinions: a volume of
opinion pieces from six eminent writers whose brief from the German publisher
LV³WKHPRUHFRQWHQWLRXVWKHEHWWHU´DQGZKLFKLVOLNHO\WKHUHIRUHWRFRPSURPLVH
180
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
WKH LQWHOOHFWXDO ³WUXWKV´ RI WKH ZULWLQJ '%< 6HFRQGO\ WKH PRUH SHUVRQDO
XQSXEOLVKHG6HFRQG'LDU\LVDNLQGRIMRXUQDOZKLFKHYHQLIPRUHIRUPDOWKDQ
WKHFRQYHQWLRQDOGLDU\LQFRUSRUDWHVWKH¿UVWSHUVRQSURQRXQXVHGRQO\VSDULQJO\
LQWKH³VWURQJRSLQLRQV´DQGWKDWGHVSLWH-&¶VFODLPVWRWKHFRQWUDU\LVDUHVXOWRI
KLVLQWHUDFWLRQZLWK$Q\D-&¶V³VRIWRSLQLRQV´FRLQFLGHZLWKKLVGHFOLQHWRZDUGV
GHDWK±D\HDUROGYLFWLPWR3DUNLQVRQ¶VKHDSSDUHQWO\GLHVDWWKHQRYHO¶VFORVH
The confessional aura of the second set of entries, denoted by pronoun usage and
VXEMHFWPDWWHU±LQJHQHUDODPRYHDZD\IURPWKH³KXUO\EXUO\´RISROLWLFV'%<
WRSULYDWHUHÀHFWLRQRQOLYHGH[SHULHQFH±LVJLYHQPRUHFUHGHQFHE\WKLVYHU\
IDFWDV&RHW]HHDUJXHVLQ³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´FRQIHVVDQWVRQWKH
EULQNRIGHDWKDUHOLNHO\WREHPRUHWUXWKIXOEHFDXVHWKH\KDYHOHVVWRORVHLQWHOOLQJ
WKHWUXWK'3,ZRXOGDUJXHWKDWWKHQRYHOSUHVHQWVXVZLWKDWKLUGIRUPD
notional private diary situated at the bottom of the page containing the expression
of day-to-day thoughts and experiences (notional because it is never referred to as
VXFKDQGOLNH0UV&XUUHQ¶VOHWWHULWLQFOXGHVUHSRUWHGVSHHFK7KHLQWHUDFWLRQ
RI WKHVH WKUHH PRGHV RI ³VSHHFK´ FRQVWLWXWHV D VWUDWHJ\ RI GHP\VWL¿FDWLRQ7KH
VWURQJRSLQLRQVDUHMX[WDSRVHG¿UVWO\ZLWK-&¶VVHFRQGGLDU\HQWULHVZKLFKOLNH
&RVWHOOR¶VUHÀHFWLRQVRQWKHOLYHVRIDQLPDOVFHQWUHRQWKHH[SHULHQFHRIEHLQJ
DQGVHFRQGO\ZLWKWKHHYHU\GD\UXPLQDWLRQVRIWKHWKLUG³GLDU\´2QWKLVSRLQW
&RHW]HH¶V HVVD\ ³$SDUWKHLG 7KLQNLQJ´ LV LQVWUXFWLYH XQGHU RSSUHVVLYH UHJLPHV
OLNHDSDUWKHLGDXWRELRJUDSK\FDQXVHIXOO\EHUHFDOLEUDWHGZLWKLQWKHSXEOLFVSKHUH
WR GHP\VWLI\ DSDUWKHLG LGHRORJ\ WKH REMHFWLYH RI ZKLFK ZDV WR ³GHIRUP> @ DQG
KDUGHQ>@´±GHKXPDQL]H±WKHKHDUW*27KH³KHDUWVSHHFK´RIDXWRELRJUDSK\
ZRXOGFKDOOHQJHDSDUWKHLGLQWKH³ODLURIWKHKHDUW´*2,QDiary, through
his more private diary entries, therefore, J. C. is feeling his way to a fuller, more
V\PSDWKHWLFXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISROLWLFDOOLIH
Coetzee’s public interventions therefore typically defer to the intensely private.
In turn, representations of the private illuminate the interests of the public sphere.
0RUHRYHU³SXEOLF´LVSUREOHPDWL]HGE\WKHSULYDWHQDWXUHRIFLWL]HQU\DVZHOODV
E\WKHUHTXLUHPHQWVRIIUHHVSHHFK/HFWXULQJRQDQLPDOULJKWVLQLives, Costello
is mistrustful of reason – the intellectual faculty – on the grounds that it is the
UHDVRQHGLGHDWKDWDQLPDOVODFNUHDVRQWKDWLVLQYRNHGWRMXVWLI\XVKXPDQVHDWLQJ
DQLPDOÀHVK/LNHXVVKHDUJXHVDQLPDOVH[SHULHQFHWKH³VHQVDWLRQRIEHLQJ´DQG
WKHUHIRUHGHVHUYHRXUKXPDQLW\/$&RVWHOORFODLPVWKDWWKHKHDUWLV³WKHVHDW
of a faculty, sympathyWKDWDOORZVXVWRVKDUHDWWLPHVWKHEHLQJRIDQRWKHU´/$
E\VKDULQJH[SHULHQFHRQHPDNHVRQHVHOIDFFRXQWDEOHWRRQH¶VIHOORZDQLPDOV
human and non-human, and to society. It is a feeling towards a sense of community
rather than a community of correct feeling. She brings the sympathetic faculty to
bear upon the discourses of reason that feed public, intellectual debate. Costello
SUHVVHVWKHFRQFHSWRIHPERGLPHQWVHWWLQJWKHSURFHVVRIWH[WXDOVLJQL¿FDWLRQLQ
UHYHUVHE\FRPSDULQJWKHDQLPDOLPDJHU\LQ5LONHDQG+XJKHVZKLOVWLQ5LONH
³DQLPDOVVWDQGIRUKXPDQTXDOLWLHV´+XJKHVWKURXJK³SRHWLFLQYHQWLRQ´Lives
LV³IHHOLQJKLVZD\WRZDUGDGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIEHLQJLQWKHZRUOGRQHZKLFK
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
181
LVQRWHQWLUHO\IRUHLJQWRXV«7KHSRHPDVNVXVWRLPDJLQHRXUZD\LQWRWKDWZD\
RIPRYLQJWRLQKDELWWKDWERG\´Lives±
If Costello advocates what Attwell calls a “redemptive, ontological
FRQVFLRXVQHVV´³DYDORULVDWLRQRIEHLQJLWVHOI´³/LIHDQG7LPHV´-&WXUQV
to music: “Music expresses feeling, that is to say, gives shape and habitation to
IHHOLQJQRWLQVSDFHEXWLQWLPH´KHLQWRQHV'%<*URXFKLO\EHPRDQLQJ
WKH³WKXGGLQJPHFKDQLFDOPXVLFIDYRXUHGE\WKH\RXQJ´WKHROGFXUPXGJHRQ
FRQWHQGVWKDWIHHOLQJV³PXVWKDYHDKLVWRU\WRR´ZKLFKOHDGVKLPWRWKHEOHDN
FRQFOXVLRQWKDWFHUWDLQ³TXDOLWLHVRIIHHOLQJ>@KDYHQRWVXUYLYHGLQWRWKHWZHQW\
¿UVWFHQWXU\´'%<+HSLQSRLQWVWKHHWKLFDOLW\RIPXVLFFODLPLQJWKDWLQ
“nineteenth-century art-song … singing meant to convey moral nobility … [t]he
YHU\VRXQGWKHVLQJHUSURGXFHG«KDGDUHÀHFWLYHTXDOLW\´'%<
7KHVHDUHWZRH[DPSOHVRIZKDW$WWZHOOGUDZLQJXSRQ6DLGZKROLNH-&
LVWDONLQJDERXWPXVLFFDOOVLQVWDQFHVRIRWKHU³languages´RWKHUPRGHVRI
³VRFLDOSUDFWLFH´WKDWFDQQXUWXUHWKHNLQGRIGLVVHQWLQJPLQGVHWWKDWTXHVWLRQV
the social order and that is the lifeblood of intellectualism. From such modes
of experience, we would learn, in Said’s words, “to grasp and dissent from our
IDWHDVFLWL]HQVLQVRFLHW\WRPDNHDQGXQPDNHWRFRQVWUXFWDQGGHFRQVWUXFW
the forms of life into which we have been formed and from which mortality
GHFUHHVWKDWZHPXVWOHDYH´TWGLQ$WWZHOO³/LIHDQG7LPHV´³7UXWKV´RI
WKHNLQG&RVWHOORDQG-&GLVVHPLQDWHYLDWKHV\PSDWKHWLFLPDJLQDWLRQPLJKW
UHVRQDWH GLIIHUHQWO\ IURP 6DLG¶V SXEOLF WUXWKVSHDNLQJ DFFRUGLQJ WR $WWZHOO
(who is writing about Elizabeth CostelloEXWWKH\FKLPHZLWKKLVSULQFLSOHRI
³VHYHUDOODQJXDJHV´³/LIHDQG7LPHV´
9LDKLVDVVRFLDWLRQZLWK$Q\DZKLFKVORZO\ZDUPVWRIULHQGVKLS-&PDNHV
DPRYHQRWXQOLNH&RVWHOOR¶VLQ³7KH3UREOHPRI(YLO´$Q\DIXQFWLRQVDVDNLQG
RI V\PSDWKHWLF PHGLXP WKDW OHDGV - & WR PRGHUDWH KLV ³VWURQJ RSLQLRQV´ LQ
WKH¿UVWSDUWWR³VRIW´RQHVLQ3DUW7ZRWKH6HFRQG'LDU\PDUNHGE\DVKLIWWR
WKHFRQIHVVLRQDO³,´$Q\DUHPLQGVKLPRIKHUSODFHLQWKHGLDULHV³,UHDOO\GR
hope you will publish your soft opinions one day. If you do, remember to send a
FRS\WRWKHOLWWOHW\SLVWZKRVKRZHG\RXWKHZD\´'%<%DVHGRQ$Q\D¶V
FRPSDVVLRQIRUKLV³SRVWSK\VLFDO´QHHGV'%<LWLV-&¶VIULHQGVKLSZLWK
$Q\DWKDWOHDGVKLPWRUHYLVHKLVVHQVHRIFRQYLFWLRQMXVWDV&RVWHOORUHYLVHGKHUV
“What has begun to change since I moved into the orbit of Anya is not my opinions
WKHPVHOYHVVRPXFKDVP\RSLQLRQRIP\RSLQLRQV´KHVD\V&DQKHVWDQG
E\WKH³KDUG´RSLQLRQVKHKDVSXEOLVKHG"7KURXJK$Q\D¶VH\HVDVKLVV\PSDWKHWLF
PHGLXPKHFDQVHH³KRZDOLHQDQGDQWLTXDWHGWKH\PD\VHHP´'%<HYHQ
though his opinions are “now so strong … that aside from the odd word here and
WKHUHWKHUHZDVQRFKDQFHWKDWUHIUDFWLRQWKURXJKKHUJD]HFRXOGDOWHUWKHLUDQJOH´
'%<<HWKLVWXUQWRWKH6HFRQG'LDU\GRHVLQGHHGVLJQLI\DFKDQJHRIKHDUW
J. C. defers to the intimacy of death as he remembers a recurring dream of his own
GHDWKDQGWKHSUHVHQFHRIDJLUOZKRZHDVVXPHLV$Q\DZKR³ZDVGRLQJKHUEHVW
WRVRIWHQWKHLPSDFWRIGHDWKZKLOHVKLHOGLQJPHIURPRWKHUSHRSOH´'%<
182
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Anya too experiences a change of heart, confessing as she signs her penultimate
PHVVDJHWR-&³$Q\D>DQDGPLUHUWRR@´'%<
7KH LQWHJULW\ RI WKH LQWHOOHFWXDO LV WKHUHIRUH WHVWHG E\ WKH TXHVWLRQ WR ZKDW
SRLQWGR,VWDQGP\JURXQG"³/HVVRQ$WWKH*DWH´LQElizabeth Costello stages
DQDOOWRROLWHUDU\GHDWKRI&RVWHOOR±D³SXUJDWRU\RIFOLFKpV´±LQDSDURG\RI
.DIND¶V ³%HIRUH WKH /DZ´ HPEHGGHG LQ The Trial LQ ZKLFK &RVWHOOR LV
FDOOHGXSRQE\WKHNHHSHURIWKHJDWHWRSUHSDUHDVWDWHPHQWRIKHUEHOLHI$VLQ
.DINDKHUHDUO\DWWHPSWVDUHUHMHFWHGOLNH&RVWHOOR.QHYHUSDVVHVWKHWHVWKHLV
H[HFXWHG³OLNHDGRJ´+HUHLV&RVWHOOR¶V¿UVWRIIHULQJ
,DPDZULWHUDWUDGHULQ¿FWLRQV … . ,PDLQWDLQEHOLHIVRQO\SURYLVLRQDOO\¿[HG
beliefs would stand in my way. I change my beliefs as I change my habitation or
my clothes, according to my needs. On these grounds – professional, vocational
– I request exemption from a rule … that every petitioner at the gate should hold
to one or more beliefsRULJLQDOHPSKDVLV(&
1RWXQOLNH&RHW]HH¶VSRVLWLRQRIQRQSRVLWLRQ&RVWHOORVXEVFULEHVWRWKHLGHDWKDW
³8QEHOLHILVDEHOLHI´(&+HUZRUGVWKDWSUHIDFHWKLV¿UVWDWWHPSWWKDWDVD
novelist, “It is not my profession to believe … I do imitations´HPSKDVLVDGGHG
(& KLQWV DW &RHW]HH¶V GHYLFH LQ KLV DFWV RI JHQUH +HUH &RVWHOOR VWDQGV
E\ WKH SULQFLSOH RI RSHQHQGHGQHVV LQ ¿FWLRQ WKDW WKH HWKLFRSROLWLFDO SXUFKDVH
RI FUHDWLYH ZULWLQJ FKDQQHOOHG E\ ¿[HG EHOLHI LV LQ GDQJHU RI EHLQJ VW\PLHG ±
$GRUQR¶V ³ÀDW REMHFWLYLW\´ ³&RPPLWPHQW´ <HW VKH LV IRUFHG WR UHFRQVLGHU
her statement if she wishes to pass through purgatory. Unable to commit herself
WRDSRVLWLRQRI³EHOLHYHVLQ´±³LQP\ZRUNDEHOLHILVDUHVLVWDQFHDQREVWDFOH´
(&VKHH[SODLQV±VKHUHIRUPXODWHVKHUVFULSW7KLVVHQWLPHQWKRZHYHUMDUV
ZLWKKHUSDVVLRQDWHGHIHQFHRIDQLPDOVDQGZLWKKHUEHOLHILQWKHPRUDOEDQNUXSWF\
RIUHSUHVHQWLQJHYLO/LNH&RHW]HHVKHVHDPOHVVO\ZLWKGUDZVEHKLQGKHUSULYDWH
persona as novelist as and when she chooses. She revisits the sympathetic faculty,
UHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHODQJXDJHRIWKHKHDUWZKLFKLVDQDOWHUQDWLYH³HWKLFDOVXSSRUW>@´
WREHOLHI(&,QDQHQYLURQPHQWWKDWLV³Too literary, too literary!´DQGZKLFK
Costello says she must “get out of [ ] before I die!´ (& VKH UHYLVHV KHU
VXEPLVVLRQWRDEHOLHILQWKHH[SHULHQFHVLPSO\RIEHLQJ,QDSDVVDJHIUHTXHQWO\
commented upon by critics, she commits herself to belief in the tiny frogs of the
'XOJDQQRQPXGÀDWV
Excuse my language. I am or have been a professional writer … . In my account,
for whose many failings I beg your pardon, the life cycle of the frog may sound
allegorical, but to the frogs themselves it is no allegory, it is the thing itself, the
only thing … . It is because of the indifference of those little frogs to my belief
«WKDW,EHOLHYHLQWKHP(&
7KLV KHU ¿QDO VWDWHPHQW LV PLVLQWHUSUHWHG E\ WKH MXGJHV DV DOOHJRU\ ³7KHVH
Australian frogs of yours embody the spirit of life, which is what you as a storyteller
Coetzee’s Acts of Genre in the Later Works
183
EHOLHYH LQ´ $FTXLHVFLQJ WR WKLV PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJ DV VKH DOVR DFTXLHVFHV WR
WKH3ROLVKZRPDQ¶VDGYLFHWR³6KRZ>WKHMXGJHV@SDVVLRQDQGWKH\ZLOOOHW\RX
WKURXJK´(&FRPSURPLVHV&RVWHOOR¶VXQEHOLHI6KHUHPDLQVVLOHQW³VKH
reins herself in. She is not here to win an argument, she is here to win a pass, a
SDVVDJH´(&,QRWKHUZRUGVLQKHULQFDUQDWLRQKHUHDVQRYHOLVWUDWKHUWKDQ
public intellectual, she compromises her belief whilst albeit silently holding to her
¿UVWVWDWHPHQWWKDWRIXQEHOLHI7KHVHDUHKHUZULWHUO\SULQFLSOHVZKLFKDUHLQIDFW
ZKDW+HDGFDOOV&RHW]HH¶V³HQGXULQJIDLWKLQ¿FWLRQÍRULWVFDSDFLW\WRIXQFWLRQ
DV DQRWKHU XQLYHUVH RI GLVFRXUVH 7KH MXGJHV¶ ZLOIXO PLVUHDGLQJ RI &RVWHOOR¶V
statement, as Head points out,
brings with it another paradox: the writer cannot escape the imposition
of metaphorical levels on his or her expression, and this may produce the
nightmarish sense of being misunderstood (as in Costello’s parodically
.DINDHVTXHH[SHULHQFH³DWWKHJDWH´,QWKLVVHQVHWKHIUXVWUDWLRQRI&RVWHOORLV
DZD\IRU&RHW]HHWRH[SORUHDQGH[SUHVVWKHOLPLWVRI¿FWLRQDQGRIWKHZULWHU¶V
DXWKRULW\³%HOLHI´
-&PDNHVDQDI¿UPDWLRQRIOLIHLQWKH6HFRQG'LDU\LURQLFDOO\DVKHLVHDVHG
WRZDUGV GHDWK E\$Q\D +H UHÀHFWV RQ WKH VRIWHQLQJ RI RSLQLRQV LQ WKH DJHLQJ
ZULWHU ZKR H[SHULHQFHV D ³JURZLQJ GHWDFKPHQW IURP WKH ZRUOG´ :KLOVW WKH
³V\QGURPH´LVRIWHQDWWULEXWHGWR³DZDQLQJRIFUHDWLYHSRZHU´³IURPWKHLQVLGH
WKHVDPHGHYHORSPHQWPD\EHDUDTXLWHGLIIHUHQWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQDVDOLEHUDWLRQD
FOHDULQJRIWKHPLQGWRWDNHRQPRUHLPSRUWDQWWDVNV´+HQRWLFHVDVKLIWLQ7ROVWR\
IURPGLGDFWLFLVPWRWKHTXHVWLRQRI³KRZWROLYH´'%<,WLVWKLVTXHVWLRQ
which colours the Second Diary to which J. C. is guided by Anya, who promises
to see him on his passage to death: “I can’t go with you but what I will do is hold
\RXUKDQGDVIDUDVWKHJDWH´'%<
Coetzee’s morbid fascination with the effect of imminent death upon the
ZULWHUZKLFKDWKHDUWH[SUHVVHVDQDQ[LHW\DERXWDXWKRULW\LQ¿FWLRQLVDWURSH
that resurfaces throughout the oeuvre. In the face of death any inhibitions Mrs.
Curren may have harboured in expressing her convictions are easily dispelled.
Paul Rayment in Slow Man, apparently surviving his accident, imagines preparing
DVWDWHPHQWRIEHOLHI³:KHQKHDUULYHVDWWKHJDWH´³:KHQ,ZDVOLYLQJ,GLGQRW
XQGHUVWDQGIDWKHUEXWQRZ,XQGHUVWDQGQRZWKDWLWLVWRRODWHDQGEHOLHYHPH
father, I repent, I repent me, je me repensDQGELWWHUO\WRR´RULJLQDOHPSKDVLV
607RZKRP5D\PHQWFRQIHVVHVLVOHIWLQGRXEWJLYHQWKDW&RHW]HHFKRRVHV
QRWWRFDSLWDOL]H³IDWKHU´&RXOGWKLVEHWKHDXWKRULDOIDWKHUUHSODFLQJWKH'LYLQH
ZKRLQWKHJXLVHRI(OL]DEHWK&RVWHOORWXUQVRXWWREHDPRWKHUDIWHUDOO"&RVWHOOR
WHOOV5D\PHQWWKDW³\RXFDPHWRPHDV,WROG\RXWKHPDQZLWKWKHEDGOHJ´60
±¿WWLQJPDWHULDOIRUDERRN
,EHJDQWKLVFKDSWHUZLWK&RHW]HH¶VTXHVWLRQZKDWGRHVHDFKUHYHODWLRQ,PDNH
FRVW"%\WKLV&RHW]HHPHDQVZKDWFRVWWRWKHGLVFRXUVHRIJHQUHGRHVWUXWKWHOOLQJ
HQWDLO" ,Q WKHVH ODWHU TXDVL¿FWLRQDO ZRUNV &RHW]HH PD\ DSSHDU WR EH PDNLQJ
184
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
public interventions in the familiar format of the public lecture and the opinion
piece. Indeed, the similarity in belief and personal traits between Coetzee and his
FKDUDFWHUVLQWKHZRUNVGLVFXVVHGKHUHPLJKWVHHPWREHDUWKLVRXW%XWVFUDWFK
EHORZ WKH VXUIDFH DQG TXLWH D GLIIHUHQW VWRU\ HPHUJHV7KH IRUXP RI WKH SXEOLF
lecture in Lives and Elizabeth Costello and of the opinion piece in Diary provides
an opening for the more private, sympathetic voice to emerge, one less certain of
LQWHOOHFWXDOWUXWKV&RVWHOOR¶VVRQ-RKQLQ³5HDOLVP´DVNV³,VQ¶WWKDWZKDWLVPRVW
LPSRUWDQWDERXW¿FWLRQWKDWLWWDNHVXVRXWRIRXUVHOYHVLQWRRWKHUOLYHV"´(&
If Coetzee transgresses the pact of the public intervention through the medium of
¿FWLRQVRWRRGR&RVWHOORDQG-&E\LQYRNLQJWKHV\PSDWKHWLFIDFXOW\DQGLQ
&RVWHOOR¶VFDVH¿FWLRQWRR
Wright argues that, “by enacting Elizabeth Costello in The Lives of Animals,
Coetzee gets a rant and a sentimental voice presented through rational argument´
HPSKDVLV DGGHG ³)HPLQLVW9HJHWDULDQ´ +RZHYHU WKH DUJXPHQW FDQ EH
reversed: public intellectualism can be measured by the sentimental voice and by
¿FWLRQ&RHW]HHLVDOZD\VKHHGIXORIWKHSDUDGR[RIDXWKRUVKLSWKDWJHWWLQJRQH¶V
voice heard is always at the cost of imposing authority, humorously implied in
Costello’s parody of the myth of Genesis when she comforts Rayment in Slow Man:
³,ZLOOWHDFK\RXKRZWRVSHDNIURPWKHKHDUW>R@QHWZRKRXUOHVVRQDGD\VL[GD\V
DZHHNRQWKHVHYHQWKGD\ZHFDQUHVW´60&RHW]HHXWLOL]HV¿FWLYHIRUXPV
to test the limits of the intellectual’s authority, which as I have shown is itself a
worthy intellectual endeavour. This does not mean that Costello or J. C.’s polemics
DUHIRUQRXJKW&RHW]HH¶V¿FWLRQLVWRRFRPSOH[WREHUHGXFHGWRVLQJOHSODQHVRI
VLJQL¿FDWLRQ RU VWUDLJKWIRUZDUG DOOHJRU\ 7KURXJK LWV SDUDGR[HV RI SRVWFRORQLDO
DXWKRUVKLS&RHW]HH¶VRHXYUHLQ$GRUQR¶VZRUGVVHWVDERXW³DZDNHQ>LQJ@WKHIUHH
FKRLFHRIWKHDJHQW´DQGXOWLPDWHO\WKLVLVWKH¿FWLRQ¶VHWKLFRSROLWLFDOFXUUHQF\
:RUNV&LWHd
Primary Sources
Coetzee, J. M. Age of Iron. 1990. London: Penguin, 1991.
—–––. Boyhood: A Memoir. 1997. London: Vintage, 1998.
²±±± ³&ULWLFDQG&LWL]HQ$5HVSRQVH´Pretexts±
—–––. Diary of a Bad Year/RQGRQ+DUYLOO6HFNHU
—–––. Disgrace/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
—–––. Doubling the Point: Essays and Interviews. Ed. David Attwell. Cambridge
0DVVDFKXVHWWV/RQGRQ+DUYDUG83
—–––. Dusklands. London: Vintage, 1998. First published 1974.
—–––. Elizabeth Costello/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
²±±± ³(OL]DEHWK&RVWHOORDQGWKH3UREOHPRI(YLO´Salmagundi±
48–64.
—–––. Foe. 1986. Middlesex: Penguin, 1987.
—–––. Giving Offense: Essays on Censorship. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1996.
—–––. The Humanities in Africa. Die Geisteswissenschaften in Afrika. Intro.
Heinrich Meier. Munich: Carl Friedrich von Siemens Stiftung, 2001.
—–––. In the Heart of the Country. 1977. London: Vintage, 1999.
—–––. Life & Times of Michael K. 1983. Middlesex: Penguin, 1985.
—–––. The Lives of Animals:LWK:HQG\'RQLJHU0DUMRULH*DUEHU3HWHU6LQJHU
and Barbara Smuts. Ed. and intro. Amy Gutmann. Princeton: Princeton UP,
1999.
—–––. The Master of Petersburg. 1994. London: Minerva, 1995.
²±±± ³7KH1RYHO7RGD\Úpstream±
—–––. Slow Man: A Novel1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ
—–––. Stranger Shores: Essays 1986–1999/RQGRQ6HFNHU:DUEXUJ
²±±± ³7UXWKLQ$XWRELRJUDSK\´8QSXEOLVKHG,QDXJXUDO/HFWXUH8QLYHUVLW\RI
Cape Town, 1984.
—–––. Waiting for the Barbarians. 1980. London: Minerva, 1997.
²±±± ³:KDWLV5HDOLVP"´Salmagundi6SULQJ6XPPHU±
—–––. White Writing: On the Culture of Letters in South Africa. London & New
Haven: Yale University, 1988.
Secondary Sources
Achebe, Chinua. Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays: 1965–1987. Oxford:
Heinemann, 1988.
186
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
—–––. Things Fall Apart. 1958. African Writers Series. London: Heinemann,
1986.
$GRUQR7KHRGRU³&RPPLWPHQWŃew Left Review±
²±±± ³1RWHV RQ .DIND´ Franz Kafka. Ed. and intro. Harold Bloom. Modern
&ULWLFDO 9LHZV 1HZ <RUN 3KLODGHOSKLD &KHOVHD +RXVH 3XEOLVKHUV 95–105.
$KPDG$LMD] ³-DPHVRQ¶V 5KHWRULF RI 2WKHUQHVV DQG WKH µ1DWLRQDO$OOHJRU\¶´
Social Text±
Alexander, Neville. An Ordinary Country: Issues in the Transition from Apartheid
to Democracy in South Africa1HZ<RUNDQG2[IRUG%HUJKDKQ%RRNV
2003.
—–––. “A Plea for a New World: Review of FoeE\-0&RHW]HH´Die SuidAfrikaan
$WWULGJH'HUHN³$JHRI%URQ]H6WDWHRI*UDFH0XVLFDQG'RJVLQ&RHW]HH¶V
DisgraceŃovel±
—–––. “Expecting the Unexpected in Coetzee’s Master of Petersburg and
'HUULGD¶V5HFHQW:ULWLQJVÁpplying: To Derrida. Ed. John Brannigan et al.
%DVLQJVWRNHDQG/RQGRQ0DFPLOODQ±
—–––. “J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace ,QWURGXFWLRQ´ J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace.
(G'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG3HWHU'0F'RQDOG6SHFLVVXHRI Interventions 4.3
±
—–––. J. M. Coetzee and the Ethics of Reading: Literature in the Event. Chicago:
Chicago UP, 2004.
—–––. “Trusting the Other: Ethics and Politics in J. M. Coetzee’s Age of Iron´
The Writings of J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Michael Valdez Moses. Spec. issue of South
Atlantic Quarterly ±
$WWZHOO 'DYLG ³µ'LDORJXH¶ DQG µ)XO¿OPHQW¶ LQ - 0 &RHW]HH¶V Age of Iron´
Writing South Africa: Literature, Apartheid, and Democracy, 1970–1995. Ed.
'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG5RVHPDU\-ROO\&DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH83±
65.
—–––. J. M. Coetzee: South Africa and the Politics of Writing %HUNHOH\ /RV
$QJHOHV/RQGRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV
—–––. “The Life and Times of Elizabeth Costello: J. M. Coetzee and the Public
6SKHUH´J. M. Coetzee and the Idea of the Public Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner.
Athens, Ohio: Ohio UP, 2006. 25–41.
—–––. “Race in Disgrace´ J. M. Coetzee’s 'LVJUDFH (G 'HUHN$WWULGJH DQG
Peter D. McDonald. Spec. issue of Interventions ±
—–––. Rewriting Modernity: Studies in Black South African Literary History.
Scottsville: U KwaZulu-Natal P, 2005.
%DNKWLQ0LNKDLOProblems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. Ed. and trans. Caryl Emerson.
Intro. Wayne C. Booth. Theory and History of Literature 8. Manchester:
Manchester UP, 1984.
Banville, John. “Endgame: Disgrace E\ - 0 &RHW]HH´ New York Review 20
January 2000: 23–25.
Works Cited
187
Barnard, Rita. “Dream Topographies: J. M. Coetzee and the South African
3DVWRUDO´ The Writings of J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Michael Valdez Moses. Spec.
issue of South Atlantic Quarterly±
—–––. ³µ,PDJLQLQJWKH8QLPDJLQDEOH¶-0&RHW]HH+LVWRU\DQG$XWRELRJUDSK\´
Rev. of Doubling the Point: Essays and Interviews by J. M. Coetzee and ed. by
David Attwell. Postmodern Culture 2QOLQHSRVWLQJKWWSPXVHMKX
HGXMRXUQDOVSRVWPRGHUQBFXOWXUHYUBEDUQDUGKWPO
%DUWKHV5RODQG³7KH'HDWKRIWKH$XWKRU´Modern Literary Theory: A Reader,
2nd edn. Ed. Philip Rice and Patricia Waugh. London: Edward Arnold, 1992.
114–18.
—–––. Mythologies. 1957. Selected and trans. Annette Lavers. London: Vintage,
2000.
%HFNHWW 6DPXHO Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable. 1959. London: John
Calder, 1976.
%HJDP 5LFKDUG ³6LOHQFH DQG 0XWHLODWLRQ :KLWH :ULWLQJ LQ - 0 &RHW]HH¶V
Foe´The Writings of J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Michael Valdez Moses. Spec. issue of
South Atlantic Quarterly ±
Beinart, William. Twentieth-Century South Africa. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
%HOO 0LFKDHO ³:KDW ,V ,W /LNH WR %H D 1RQUDFLVW" &RVWHOOR DQG &RHW]HH RQ
WKH /LYHV RI$QLPDOV DQG 0HQ´ J. M. Coetzee and the Idea of the Public
Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner. Athens, Ohio: Ohio UP, 2006. 172–92.
%KDEKD+RPL³7KH2WKHU4XHVWLRQ²7KH6WHUHRW\SHDQG&RORQLDO'LVFRXUVH´
Screen±
²±±± ³3RVWFRORQLDO $XWKRULW\ DQG 3RVWPRGHUQ *XLOW´ Cultural Studies. Ed.
/DZUHQFH*URVVEHUJ&DU\1HOVRQDQG3DXOD7UHLFKOHU/RQGRQDQG1HZ<RUN
Routledge, 1992. 56–65.
%LNR6WHYHI Write What I Like: A Selection of His Writings. 1978. Ed. Aelred
Stubbs C. R.. Oxford: Heinemann, 1987.
Blanchot, Maurice. The Work of Fire. 1949. Trans. Charlotte Mandell. Stanford:
Stanford UP, 1995.
%RHKPHU (OOHNH Colonial and Postcolonial Literature. Oxford: Oxford UP,
1995.
²±±± ³1RW6D\LQJ6RUU\1RW6SHDNLQJ3DLQ*HQGHU,PSOLFDWLRQVLQDisgrace´
J. M. Coetzee’s'LVJUDFH(G'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG3HWHU'0F'RQDOG6SHF
issue of Interventions±
²±±± ³7UDQV¿JXULQJ &RORQLDO %RG\ LQWR 3RVWFRORQLDO 1DUUDWLYH´ Novel 26.1
±
%RXUNH5LFKDUGRomantic Discourse and Political Modernity: Wordsworth, the
Intellectual and Cultural Critique. Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf,
1993.
Breytenbach, Breyten. Buffalo Bill. Johannesburg: Taurus, 1984.
—–––. End Papers. London: Faber, 1986.
—–––. Mouroir: Mirrornotes of a Novel1HZ<RUN)DUUDU6WUDXV*LURX[
1984.
188
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
—–––. The True Confessions of an Albino Terrorist. London: Faber and Faber,
1984.
%ULQN$QGUp DQG - 0 &RHW]HH (GV A Land Apart: A South African Reader.
Boston and London: Faber and Faber, 1987.
%URZQ:HQG\³:RXQGHG$WWDFKPHQWV´Political Theory±
Burgess, Anthony. “The Beast Within: Waiting for the BarbariansŃew York 26
April 1982. 88.
Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex”1HZ<RUN
and London: Routledge, 1993.
—–––. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity 7KLQNLQJ
*HQGHU/RQGRQDQG1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
&DUWZULJKW-XVWLQ³6WUDQJHUWKDQ)LFWLRQ´The Guardian 19 April 2001. Online
SRVWLQJKWWSZZZJXDUGLDQFRXNJVWRU\KWPO
&DYDI\ & 3 ³:DLWLQJ IRU WKH %DUEDULDQV´ Scanning the Century: The
Penguin Book of the Twentieth Century in Poetry. Ed. Peter Forbes. London:
Penguin, 2000. 5–6.
&KDWWHUMHH 3DUWKD The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial
Histories. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1993.
Claridge, Laura. Romantic Potency: The Paradox of Desire1HZ<RUN&RUQHOO
UP, 1992.
Clingman, Stephen. “Beyond the Limit: The Social Relations of Madness in
6RXWKHUQ$IULFDQ)LFWLRQ´The Bounds of Race: Perspectives on Hegemony
and Resistance(G'RPLQLFN/D&DSUD,WKDFDDQG/RQGRQ&RUQHOO83
231–54.
²±±± ³/HWWHUWR0U)pOL[)DXUH3UHVLGHQWRIWKH5HSXEOLF´Émile Zola, The
Dreyfus Affair. Ed. Alain Pagés. New Haven: Yale UP, 1996. 43–53.
Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness1HZ<RUN1HZ$PHULFDQ/LEUDU\
Dangor, Achmat. Bitter Fruit. Cape Town: Kwela, 2001.
Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe1HZ<RUN%DQWDP%RRNV
—–––. Roxana: the Fortunate Mistress /RQGRQ 6LPSNLQ 0DUVKDOO
Hamilton, Kent & Co., n.d.
'HUULGD -DFTXHV Acts of Literature. (G 'HUHN $WWULGJH /RQGRQ 1HZ <RUN
Routledge, 1992.
²±±± ³2Q )RUJLYHQHVV´ On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness 7KLQNLQJ LQ
$FWLRQ/RQGRQDQG1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
—–––. Writing and Difference. Trans. and intro. Alan Bass. London: Routledge,
1978.
'LUOLN$ULI³µ/LNHD6RQJ*RQH6LOHQW¶7KH3ROLWLFDO(FRORJ\RI%DUEDULVPDQG
Civilization in Waiting for the Barbarians and The Legend of the Thousand
Bulls´Diaspora±
'RVWR\HYVN\)\RGRUThe Idiot. 1868. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford
UP, 1992.
—–––. The Possessed. 1872. Trans. Constance Garnett. Foreword Avrahm
<DUPROLQVN\1HZ<RUN0RGHUQ/LEUDU\QG
Works Cited
189
Dovey, Teresa. The Novels of J. M. Coetzee: Lacanian Allegories. Craighall: Ad.
'RQNHU
—–––. “Waiting for the Barbarians$OOHJRU\RI$OOHJRULHVĆritical Perspectives
on J. M. Coetzee (G *UDKDP +XJJDQ DQG 6WHSKHQ :DWVRQ %DVLQJVWRNH
London: Macmillan, 1996. 138–51.
Easton, Kai. “Coetzee’s Disgrace%\URQLQ,WDO\DQGWKH(DVWHUQ&DSHF´
Journal of the Commonwealth Literature±
(FNVWHLQ%DUEDUD³,FRQLFLW\,PPHUVLRQDQG2WKHUQHVV7KH+HJHOLDQµ'LYH¶RI
- 0 &RHW]HH DQG$GULHQQH 5LFK´ Mosaic 2QOLQH SRVWLQJ 6HSWHPEHU KWWSOLRQFKDGZ\FNFRXNSXJZDVKOLEZDUZLFNDFXN
VHDUFK)XOOWH[WGR"LG 5GLY/HYHO DUHD DEHOOIRUZDUG FULWUHIB
ft.
Emants, Marcellus. A Posthumous Confession. Trans. and intro. J. M. Coetzee.
/RQGRQ4XDUWHW
Erasmus, Desiderius. Praise of Folly. 1509. Trans. Betty Radice. Intro. A. H. T.
Levi. London: Penguin, 1971.
Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks7UDQV&KDUOHV/DP0DUNPDQQ
London: Pluto Press, 1986.
—–––. The Wretched of the Earth. 1961. Trans. Constance Farrington. Penguin:
London, 1990.
Farred, Grant. “The Mundanacity of Violence: Living in a State of Disgrace´
J. M. Coetzee’s 'LVJUDFH(G'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG3HWHU'0F'RQDOG6SHF
issue of Interventions±
)HOPDQ6KRVKDQD³:RPHQDQG0DGQHVV7KH&ULWLFDO3KDOODF\´The Feminist
Reader: Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism. Ed. Catherine
%HOVH\ DQG -DQH 0RRUH QG HGQ %DVLQJVWRNH /RQGRQ 0DFPLOODQ 117–32.
—–––. Writing and Madness: (Literature/Philosophy/Psychoanalysis). Trans.
Martha Noel Evans and Shoshana Felman. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985.
Ferguson, James. The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development,’ Depoliticisation and
Bureaucratic State Power in Lesotho. Cape Town: David Philip, 1990.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. 1975. Trans.
Alan Sheridan. London: Penguin, 1991.
—–––. Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason.
1965. Trans. Richard Howard. London: Routledge, 1989.
—–––. ³:KDWLVDQ$XWKRU"´Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist
Criticism(G-RVXp9+DUDUL,WKDFD1HZ<RUN&RUQHOO83±
Freud, Sigmund. “A Child is Being Beaten: A Contribution to the Study of
WKH 2ULJLQ RI 6H[XDO 3HUYHUVLRQ´ The Standard Edition of Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 17. Ed. and trans. James Strachey.
London: Hogarth and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1955. 175–204.
—±±± ³/HFWXUH ;;;,,, )HPLQLQLW\´ The Standard Edition of Complete
Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 22. Ed. and trans. James Strachey.
London: Hogarth and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1964. 112–35.
190
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
Gallagher, Susan Van Zanten. A Story of South Africa: J. M. Coetzee’s Fiction in
Context. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP, 1991.
—–––. “Torture and the Novel: J. M. Coetzee’s Waiting for the Barbarians´
Contemporary Literature±
Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer
and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale UP, New Haven, 1979.
Gilroy, Paul. Against Race: Imaging Political Culture Beyond the Color Line.
Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2000.
Glenn, Ian. “Game Hunting in In the Heart of the CountryĆritical Perspectives
on J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Graham Huggan and Stephen Watson. Preface Nadine
*RUGLPHU%DVLQJVWRNH0DFPLOODQ±
Gordimer, Nadine. Burger’s Daughter. 1979. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980.
—–––. The Conservationist. 1974. London: Penguin, 1978.
—–––. The Essential Gesture: Writing, Politics and Places. Ed. Stephen Clingman.
London: Jonathan Cape, 1988.
—–––. The House Gun. 1998. London: Bloomsbury, 1999.
—–––. “The Idea of Gardening: Life and Times of Michael KE\-0&RHW]HH´
New York Review of Books±
—–––. July’s People. 1981. London: Penguin, 1982.
*UDKDP -DPHV ³$EMHFW /DQG 5HWKLQNLQJ WKH &RQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ :RPHQ
Land and Nation in Doris Lessing’s The Grass is SingingDQG&KHQMHUDL+RYH¶V
Bones´8QSXEOLVKHGSDSHU
²±±± ³$Q$EMHFW/DQG"5HPHPEHULQJ:RPHQ'LIIHUHQWO\LQ'RULV/HVVLQJ¶V
The Grass is SingingDQG&KHQMHUDL+RYH¶VBones¶Énglish Studies in Africa.
±
*UDKDP/XF\³5HDGLQJWKH8QVSHDNDEOH5DSHLQDisgrace´Journal of Southern
African Studies±
²±±± ³7H[WXDO 7UDQVYHVWLVP 7KH )HPDOH 9RLFHV RI - 0 &RHW]HH´ J. M.
Coetzee and the Idea of the Public Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner. Athens, Ohio:
Ohio UP, 2006. 217–35.
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. Ed.
4XLQWLQ +RDUH DQG *HRIIUH\ 1RZHOO 6PLWK /RQGRQ /DZUHQFH :LVKDUW
1971.
Gray, Stephen. Southern African Literature: An Introduction. Cape Town: David
3KLOLS/RQGRQ5H[&ROOLQJV
Grossvogel, David I. “The Trial 6WUXFWXUH DV 0\VWHU\´ Franz Kafka. Ed. and
LQWUR+DUROG%ORRP0RGHUQ&ULWLFDO9LHZV1HZ<RUN3KLODGHOSKLD&KHOVHD
House Publishers, 1986. 183–98.
La Guma, Alex. In the Fog of the Season’s End+DUDUH%DREDE%RRNV
+DFNLQJ ,DQ ³2XU )HOORZ $QLPDOV´ 5HY RI The Lives of Animals by J. M.
Coetzee, and Ethics into Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement
by Peter Singer. The New York Review 29 June 2000: 20–26.
Works Cited
191
+HDG'RPLQLF³$%HOLHILQ)URJV-0&RHW]HH¶V(QGXULQJ)DLWKLQ)LFWLRQ´
J. M. Coetzee and the Idea of the Public Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner. Athens,
Ohio: Ohio UP, 2006. 100–17.
—–––. J. M. Coetzee. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997.
Higgins, Linda and Brenda Silver. Rape and Representation1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD
UP, 1991.
Holiday, Anthony. “Forgiving and Forgetting: the Truth and Reconciliation
&RPPLVVLRQŃegotiating the Past: The Making of Memory in South Africa.
Ed. Sarah Nuttall and Carli Coetzee. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. 43–56.
+ROODQG0LFKDHO³µPlink-Plunk’: Unforgetting the Present in Coetzee’s Disgrace´
J. M. Coetzee’s'LVJUDFH(G'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG3HWHU'0F'RQDOG6SHF
issue of Interventions±
Hulme, Peter. Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Caribbean 1492–1797.
London: Methuen, 1986.
Irigaray, Luce. The Irigaray Reader. Ed. and intro. Margaret Whitford. Oxford:
%ODFNZHOO
—–––. This Sex Which Is Not One. 1975. Trans. Catherine Porter. Ithaca: Cornell
UP, 1985.
-DPHVRQ)UHGULF³0HWDFRPPHQWDU\´PMLA,±
—–––. Postmodernism: Or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. North Carolina:
'XNH83
²±±± ³7KLUG:RUOG/LWHUDWXUHLQWKH(UDRI0XOWLQDWLRQDO&DSLWDOLVP´Social
Text ±
JanMohamed, Abdul R. “The Economy of Manichean Allegory: The Function of
5DFLDO'LIIHUHQFHLQ&RORQLDOLVW/LWHUDWXUH´(G+HQU\/RXLV*DWHV-U“Race,”
Writing, and Difference. Spec. issue of Critical Inquiry
Jolly, Rosemary Jane. Colonization, Violence, and Narration in White South
African Writing: André Brink, Breyten Breytenbach, and J. M. Coetzee. Athens,
2KLR2KLR83-RKDQQHVEXUJ:LWZDWHUVUDQG83
.DIND)UDQ]³%HIRUHWKH/DZ´7UDQV(GZLQ0XLUDQG:LOOD0XLUFranz
Kafka: The Complete Stories. Ed. Nahum N. Glatzer. Centennial edn. 1946.
1HZ<RUN6FKRFNHQ%RRNV
—–––. The Castle. Trans. Willa and Edwin Muir. London: Minerva, 1992.
²±±± ³$ +XQJHU$UWLVW´ Franz Kafka: The Complete Stories. Ed. Nahum N.
*ODW]HU)RUHZRUG-RKQ8SGLNH1HZ<RUN6FKRFNHQ%RRNV
²±±± ³7KH+XQJHU6WULNH´Parables and Paradoxes: In German and English.
1HZ<RUN6FKRFNHQ%RRNV.
²±±± ³,QWKH3HQDO&RORQ\´7UDQV(GZLQ0XLUDQG:LOOD0XLUFranz Kafka:
The Complete Stories(G1DKXP1*ODW]HU&HQWHQQLDOHGQ1HZ<RUN
6FKRFNHQ%RRNV
²±±± ³0\ 'HVWLQDWLRQ´ Parables and Paradoxes: In German and English.
1HZ<RUN6FKRFNHQ%RRNV
—–––. Parables and Paradoxes: In German and English 1HZ <RUN
6FKRFNHQ%RRNV
192
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
—–––. The Trial. Trans. Willa and Edwin Muir. 1925. Harmondsworth: Penguin
%RRNV
.DQGL\RWL'HQL]³,GHQWLW\DQG,WV'LVFRQWHQWV:RPHQDQGWKH1DWLRQĆolonial
Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader (G 3DWULFN :LOOLDPV DQG
Laura Chrisman. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf,
1993. 376–91.
.DQW ,PPDQXHO ³7KH &DWHJRULFDO ,PSHUDWLYH´ Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer.
Oxford Readers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. 274–79.
—–––. The Moral Law: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Trans. and
analyzed H. J. Paton. 1948. London: Routledge, 1991.
²±±± ³7KH 1REOH 'HVFHQW RI 'XW\´ Ethics. Ed. Peter Singer. Oxford
Readers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. 39–41.
²±±± ³2QD6XSSRVHG5LJKWWR/LHIURP$OWUXLVWLF0RWLYHVÉthics. Ed.
Peter Singer. Oxford Readers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994. 280–81.
Kingdon, Geeta and John Knight. “Unemployment in South Africa: A
0LFURHFRQRPLF $SSURDFK´ &HQWUH IRU WKH 6WXG\ RI $IULFDQ (FRQRPLHV
2QOLQH SRVWLQJ -DQXDU\ KWWSZZZFVDHR[DFXNUHVSURJVXVDP
default.html.
Knox-Shaw, Peter. “Dusklands$0HWDSK\VLFVRI9LROHQFHĆontrast: Southern
African Literary Journal±
Kossew, Sue. Pen and Power: A Post-Colonial Reading of J. M. Coetzee and
André Brink. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi, 1996.
.URJ $QWMLH Country of My Skull. London: Jonathan Cape, 1999. London:
Vintage, 1999.
Lawrence, D. H. Lady Chatterley’s Lover 1HZ <RUN 0RGHUQ /LEUDU\
1957.
—–––. A Propos of Lady Chatterley’s Lover /RQGRQ 0DQGUDNH 3UHVV 9–10.
Lazarus, Neil. “Modernism and Modernity: T. W. Adorno and Contemporary
:KLWH 6RXWK $IULFDQ /LWHUDWXUH´ Modernity and Modernism/Postmodernity
and Postmodernism. Spec. issue of Cultural Critique±±
Leatherbarrow, W. J. “The DevilsLQWKH&RQWH[WRI'RVWRHYVN\¶V/LIHDQG:RUNV´
Dostoevsky’s The Devils: A Critical Companion. Ed. W. J. Leatherbarrow.
Illinois: Northwestern UP, 1999. 3–59.
Levinas, Emmanuel. 7RWDOLW\DQG,Q¿QLW\$Q(VVD\RQ([WHULRULW\. Trans. Alphonso
/LQJLV+DJXH%RVWRQ/RQGRQ0DUWLQXV1LMKRII
/L 9LFWRU ³*OREDOL]DWLRQ¶V 5RELQVRQDGH &DVW $ZD\ DQG 1HR/LEHUDO 6XEMHFW
)RUPDWLRQ´ &RQIHUHQFH SDSHU 5HURXWLQJ WKH 3RVWFRORQLDO 1RUWKDPSWRQ
University: n.p., 2007.
/RZU\ (OL]DEHWK ³/LNH D 'RJ´ 5HY RI Disgrace by J. M. Coetzee. London
Review of Books±
/XNiFV*HRUJThe Meaning of Contemporary Realism7UDQV-RKQDQG1HFNH
Mander. London: Merlin, 1962.
Works Cited
193
0DPGDQL0DKPRRG³7KH7UXWK$FFRUGLQJWRWKH75&´The Politics of Memory:
Truth, Healing and Social Justice(G,¿$PDGLXPHDQG$EGXOODK$Q1DLP
1HZ<RUN=HG%RRNV±
Mannoni, O. Prospero and Caliban: The Psychology of Colonization1HZ<RUN
Praeger, 1964.
Mantel, Hilary. “The Shadow Line: Diary of a Bad YearE\-0&RHW]HHŃew
York Review of Books -DQ2QOLQHSRVWLQJKWWSZZZQ\ERRNV
com/articles/20936.
Marais, Michael. “J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace DQG WKH 7DVN RI WKH ,PDJLQDWLRQ´
Journal of Modern Literature±
—–––. “Places of Pigs: The Tension Between Implication and Transcendence
in J. M. Coetzee’s Age of Iron and The Master of Petersburg´ Journal of
Commonwealth Literature±
0DU[ -RKQ ³3RVWFRORQLDO /LWHUDWXUH DQG WKH :HVWHUQ /LWHUDU\ &DQRQ´ The
Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Literary Studies. Ed. Neil Lazarus.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. 83–96.
0EHNL7KDER ³:KHQ LV *RRG 1HZ %DG 1HZV"´ ANC Today: Online Voice of
the African National Congress2QOLQHSRVWLQJ0DUFK
http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2004/at39.htm.
McDonald, Peter D. “Disgrace (IIHFWV´ J. M. Coetzee’s 'LVJUDFH (G 'HUHN
Attridge and Peter D. McDonald. Spec. issue of Interventions ±
30.
²±±± ³µ1RW8QGHVLUDEOH¶+RZ-0&RHW]HH(VFDSHGWKH&HQVRU´TLS 19 May
2000: 14–15.
²±±± ³7KH:ULWHUWKH&ULWLFDQGWKH&HQVRU´J. M. Coetzee and the Idea of the
Public Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner. Athens, Ohio: Ohio UP, 2006. 42–62.
Memmi, Albert. The Colonizer and the Colonized. 1965. Trans. Howard Greenfeld.
London: Souvenir Press, 1974.
0HULYDOH3DWULFLD³$XGLEOH3DOLPSVHVWV&RHW]HH¶V.DINDĆritical Perspectives
on J. M. Coetzee (G *UDKDP +XJJDQ DQG 6WHSKHQ :DWVRQ /RQGRQ 1HZ
<RUN0DFPLOODQ±
Millin, Sarah Gertrude. God’s Step-Children. 1924. 2nd edn. London: Constable,
1951.
0RUSKHW7RQ\³7ZR,QWHUYLHZVZLWK-0&RHW]HHDQG´TriQuarterly
±
0RVHV0LFKDHO9DOGH]³6ROLWDU\:DONHUV5RXVVHDXDQG&RHW]HH¶VLife & Times
of Michael K´ The Writings of J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Michael Valdez Moses.
Spec. issue of South Atlantic Quarterly±
Mulisch. Harry. The Discovery of Heaven7UDQV3DXO9LQFHQW1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ
1996.
1GHEHOH 1MDEXOR 6 The Cry of Winnie Mandela: A Novel. Claremont: David
Philip, 2003.
194
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
²±±± ³0HPRU\0HWDSKRUDQGWKH7ULXPSKRI1DUUDWLYHŃegotiating the Past:
The Making of Memory in South Africa. Ed. Sarah Nuttall and Carli Coetzee.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.
—–––. South African Literature and Culture: Rediscovery of the Ordinary.
0DQFKHVWHU1HZ<RUN0DQFKHVWHU83
Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Use and Abuse of History. Trans. Adrian Collins. 2nd
edn. Indianapolis: The Library of Liberal Arts, 1984.
1L[RQ5RE³$IWHUPDWKV´Transition ±
1NRVL/HZLVHome and Exile/RQGRQ1HZ<RUN/RQJPDQ
²±±± ³)LFWLRQE\%ODFN6RXWK$IULFDQV5LFKDUG5LYH%ORNH0RGLVDQH(]HNLHO
0SKDKOHOH$OH[/D*XPDÍntroduction to African Literature: An Anthology
of Critical Writing. Ed. Ulli Beier. London: Longman, 1979. 221–27.
Offord, D. C. “The Devils in the Context of Contemporary Russian Thought
DQG 3ROLWLFV´ Dostoevsky’s The Devils: A Critical Companion. Ed. W. J.
Leatherbarrow. Illinois: Northwestern UP, 1999. 63–99.
2UZHOO *HRUJH ³3ROLWLFV DQG WKH (QJOLVK /DQJXDJH´ Orwell and Politics. Ed.
Peter Davison. London: Penguin, 2001.
Parry, Benita. “J. M. Coetzee. White Writing´ 5HYLHZ Research in African
Literatures±
—–––. “The Moment and Afterlife of Heart of DarknessĆonrad in the TwentyFirst Century. Ed. Carola Kaplan, Andrea White, and Peter Mallios. London:
Routledge, 2004. Unpublished version.
—–––. Postcolonial Studies: A Materialist Critique /RQGRQ DQG 1HZ <RUN
Routledge, 2004.
²±±± ³5HVLVWDQFH 7KHRU\ 7KHRULVLQJ 5HVLVWDQFH´ Colonial Discourse/
Postcolonial Theory (G )UDQFLV %DUNHU HW DO 0DQFKHVWHU 1HZ <RUN
Manchester UP, 1994. 172–96.
—–––. “Robinson Crusoe´/HFWXUH8QLYHUVLW\RI:DUZLFN1G1SDJ
²±±± ³6SHHFK DQG 6LOHQFH LQ WKH )LFWLRQV RI - 0 &RHW]HH´ Writing South
Africa: Literature, Apartheid, and Democracy, 1970–1995(G'HUHN$WWULGJH
and Rosemary Jolly. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. 149–65.
Peace, Richard. Dostoevsky: An Examination of the Major Novels. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1971.
Pechey, Graham. “Coetzee’s Purgatorial Africa: The Case of Disgrace´ J. M.
Coetzee’s'LVJUDFH(G'HUHN$WWULGJHDQG3HWHU'0F'RQDOG6SHFLVVXHRI
Interventions±
²±±± ³7KH3RVWDSDUWKHLG6XEOLPH5HGLVFRYHULQJWKH([WUDRUGLQDU\´Writing
South Africa: Literature, Apartheid, and Democracy, 1970–1995(G'HUHN
Attridge and Rosemary Jolly. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. 57–74.
3HWHUVHQ .LUVWHQ +ROVW ³$Q (ODERUDWH 'HDG (QG" $ )HPLQLVW 5HDGLQJ RI
Coetzee’s Foe´ A Shaping of Connections: Commonwealth Literature
Studies—Then and Now(G+HQD0DHV-HOLQHN.LUVWHQ+ROVW3HWHUVHQDQG
Anna Rutherford. Sydney: Dangaroo Press, 1989: 243–52.
Works Cited
195
Plomer, William. Turbott Wolfe. Intro. Laurens van der Post. London: Hogarth
Press, 1965.
Poyner, Jane. “Truth and Reconciliation in J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace´Scrutiny2
±
The Presidency, Republic of South Africa. “The Order of Mapungubwe in Gold:
$ZDUGHG WR -RKQ 0D[ZHOO &RHW]HH´ 2QOLQH SRVWLQJ $SULO KWWS
ZZZWKHSUHVLGHQF\JRY]DRUGHUVBOLVWDVS"VKRZ 5DMDQ7LORWWDPDDark Interpreter: The Discourse of Romanticism. Ithaca: Cornell
UP, 1980.
Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. 1966. Ed. Angela Smith. Penguin Modern
Classics. London: Penguin, 2000.
5REHUWV 6KHLOD ³µ3RVWFRORQLDOLVP RU WKH +RXVH RI )ULGD\¶²- 0 &RHW]HH¶V
Foe´World Literature Written in English±
Rody, Caroline. “The Mad Colonial Daughter’s Revolt: J. M. Coetzee’s In the
Heart of the Country´ The Writings of J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Michael Valdez
Moses. Spec. issue of South Atlantic Quarterly±
Rosner, Victoria. “Home Fires: Doris Lessing, Colonial Architecture, and the
5HSURGXFWLRQRI0RWKHULQJ´Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature
59–89.
Patricia Rozema. Dir. 0DQV¿HOG3DUN. Mirimax. 1999.
Rudicina, Alexandra F. “Crime and Myth: The Archetypal Pattern of Rebirth in
7KUHH1RYHOVRI'RVWRHYVN\´PMLA±
6DFKV$OELH³3UHSDULQJ2XUVHOYHVIRU)UHHGRP´Spring is Rebellious. Ed. Ingrid
GH.RNDQG.DUHQ3UHVV&DSH7RZQ%XFKX%RRNV±
SAHRC. Inquiry into Racism in the Media: Interim Report. Online posting. http://
www.gov.za/reports/2000/racism/pdf.
Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. 1993. London: Vintage, 1994.
—–––. Orientalism. 1978. Harmondsworth: Peregrine, 1985.
²±±± ³3HUPLVVLRQ WR 1DUUDWH´ Journal of Palestine Studies ±
48.
—–––. Representations of the Intellectual: The 1993 Reith Lectures. London:
Vintage, 1994.
²±±± ³7KH7H[WWKH:RUOGWKH&ULWLF´Textual Strategies: Perspectives in PostStructuralist Criticism (G -RVXp 9 +DUDUL ,WKDFD 1HZ<RUN &RUQHOO 83
1979. 161–88.
Samuelson, Meg. “The Rainbow Womb: Rape and Race in South African Fiction
RIWKH7UDQVLWLRQ´Kunapipi±
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological
Ontology. Trans. Hazel Barnes. 1957. London: Routledge, 1989.
Scarry, Elaine. The Body in Pain: The Making and the Unmaking of the World.
Oxford: Oxford UP, 1985.
Schreiner, Olive. The Story of an African Farm. 1883. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1979.
Serote, Mongane Wally. To Every Birth Its Blood. Johannesburg: Ravan, 1981.
196
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
6LQJHU3HWHU³8QVSHDNDEOH$FWVThe Body in Pain: The Making and the Unmaking
of the World,E\(ODLQH6FDUU\´5HYLHZNew York Review 27 February 1986:
27–30.
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. “You Ought to be Ashamed of Yourself (When You
9LRODWH DQ ,PSHUIHFW 0RUDO 2EOLJDWLRQ´ 1RUPDWLYLW\ Philosophical Issues
±
6OHPRQ 6WHSKHQ ³3RVW&RORQLDO$OOHJRU\ DQG WKH 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQ RI +LVWRU\´
Journal of Commonwealth Literature±
Smith, Pauline. The Beadle. London: Cape, 1926.
—–––. The Little Karoo. 1925. London: Cape, 1952.
³6RXWK$IULFD+RXVLQJ´(QF\FORSHGLDRIWKH1DWLRQV2QOLQHSRVWLQJ-DQXDU\
2009. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/South-Africa-HOUSING.
html.
South African Government Information. “Spotlight on Matriculants’ List of Set
%RRNV´ $SULO 2QOLQH SRVWLQJ -XO\ KWWSZZZLQIRJRY
za/speeches/2001/010420945a1006.htm.
6SHQFHU 5REHUW ³- 0 &RHW]HH DQG &RORQLDO 9LROHQFH´ Interventions 10.2
±
—±±± ³-0&RHW]HHDQGWKHµ:DURQ7HUURU¶´8QSXEOLVKHGSDSHU
6SLYDN *D\DWUL &KDNUDYRUW\ ³&DQ WKH 6XEDOWHUQ 6SHDN"´ Marxism and the
Interpretation of Culture. Ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg. Urbana
and Chicago: U of Illinois P, 1988: 271–313.
—–––. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1999.
—–––. “Theory in the Margin: Coetzee’s Foe Reading Defoe’s Crusoe/ Roxana´
Consequences of Theory: Selected Papers from the English Institute, 1987–88
14. Ed. Jonathan Arac and Barbara Johnson. Baltimore and London: Johns
+RSNLQV83±
²±±± ³7KUHH:RPHQ¶V7H[WVDQGD&ULWLTXHRI,PSHULDOLVP´“Race”, Writing
and Difference. Ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1985. 262–
80.
7D\OHU&KULVWRSKHU³-XVW/LNH/LIHDiary of a Bad YearE\-0&RHW]HH´The
Guardian6HSW2QOLQHSRVWLQJKWWSERRNVJXDUGLDQFRXNUHYLHZV
JHQHUDO¿FWLRQKWPO
7LI¿Q+HOHQ³3RVW&RORQLDOLVP3RVW0RGHUQLVPDQGWKH5HKDELOLWDWLRQRI3RVW
&RORQLDO +LVWRU\´ The Journal of Commonwealth Literature 167–81.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission. “Transforming Society Through
5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ0\WKRU5HDOLW\"´3XEOLF'LVFXVVLRQ&DSH7RZQ0DUFK
1998. Online posting. www.truth.org.za/papers/recon2.html.
—–––. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa Report. 6 vols.
London: Macmillan, 1999.
Turgenev, Ivan. Fathers and Sons. 1862. Trans. Rosemary Edmonds. Romanes
/HFWXUH³)DWKHUVDQG&KLOGUHQÉ\,VDLDK%HUOLQ/RQGRQ3HQJXLQ
Works Cited
197
:DWVRQ 6WHSKHQ ³&RORQLDOLVP DQG WKH 1RYHOV RI - 0 &RHW]HH´ Critical
Perspectives on J. M. Coetzee. Ed. Graham Huggan and Stephen Watson.
%DVLQJVWRNHDQG/RQGRQ0DFPLOODQ±
—±±± ³6SHDNLQJ-0&RHW]HH´Speak: Critical Arts Journal±
24.
—–––. “The Writer and the Devil: J. M. Coetzee’s The Master of Petersburg´
New Contrast±
Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding. 1957.
London: Hogarth Press, 1987.
Wenzel, Jennifer. “The Pastoral Promise and the Political Imperative: The
3ODDVURPDQ7UDGLWLRQLQDQ(UDRI/DQG5HIRUP´MFS±
West, Paul. The Very Rich Hours of Count von Stauffenberg1HZ<RUN+DUSHU
& Row, 1980.
:KLWIRUG0DUJDUHW³,QWURGXFWLRQ´The Irigaray Reader. Ed. and intro. Margaret
:KLWIRUG2[IRUG%ODFNZHOO
Wollstonecraft, Mary. Maria, or, the Wrongs of Woman. 1798. Intro. Anne K.
0HOORU1HZ<RUN/RQGRQ::1RUWRQ
Wood, Marcus. Blind Memory: Visual Representations of Slavery in England and
America 1780–1865. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2000.
Wright, Laura. “A Feminist-Vegetarian Defense of Elizabeth Costello: A Rant
from an Ethical Academic on J. M. Coetzee’s The Lives of Animals´ J. M.
Coetzee and the Idea of the Public Intellectual. Ed. Jane Poyner. Athens, Ohio:
Ohio UP, 2006.
—–––. Writing “Out of All the Camps”: J. M. Coetzee’s Narratives of
Displacement1HZ<RUN/RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH
<DUPROLQVN\ $YUDKP ³)RUHZRUG WR The Possessed E\ )\RGRU 'RVWRHYVN\´
7UDQV&RQVWDQFH*DUQHWW1HZ<RUN0RGHUQ/LEUDU\Y±L[
<H÷HQR÷OX 0H\GD Colonial Fantasies: Towards a Feminist Reading of
Orientalism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998.
=LQLN=LQRY\³7KH6SLULWRI6WDYURJLQ´TLS 19. 4 March 1994.
=ROD ePLOH ³-¶$FFXVH /HWWUH DX 3UpVLGHQW GH OD 5pSXEOLTXH´ L’Aurore. 13
-DQXDU\ 2QOLQH SRVWLQJ KWWSZZZIUDQFHDODFDUWHRUJXNHGXFDWLRQ
enseigner/resources/alevel.
²±±± ³-¶$FFXVH/HWWUHDX3UpVLGHQWGHOD5pSXEOLTXH´7UDQVDQGQRWHV6KHOOH\
Temchin and Jean-Max Guieu. 2001. Online posting. http://www.georgetown.
HGXIDFXOW\JXLHXM,DFFXVHKWP
This page has been left blank intentionally
Index
Abraham, Peter 34
Achebe, Chinua 45, 97–98
Achterberg, Gerrit 6, 46–47, 50
Adorno, Theodor 10, 78–79, 105, 144,
174–75, 182, 184
aestheticism 7–8, 42–43, 105, 156, 174–75
see alsoPRGHUQLVPUHDOLVP
$IULFDQ1DWLRQDO&RQJUHVV$1&1, 9, 11,
12, 133
$IULNDDQV36, 50, 122
$IULNDQHU5, 17, 21, 23, 35–36
$IULNDQHU1DWLRQDO3DUW\1311, 75,
79–80
see also&URQMp*HRIIUH\QDWLRQDOLVP
plaasroman
Age of Iron 1n1., 3, 12, 68, 111–27, 134,
146, 162, 169, 177
agency 43, 48–50, 99, 103–04, 108–09,
114–15
$KPDG$LMD]72, 89
Alexander, Neville 93, 151
alienation 11, 35, 46, 50, 69–70, 73, 111
see also.DIND)UDQ]Life & Times of
Michael K
allegory 21, 57–59, 71, 73–75, 82, 142,
182–83
see also-DPHVRQ)UHGULF
JanMohamed, Abdul R.
animals 66–67, 146, 162–64
see also Lives of Animals, The
apartheid 28–29, 59, 75, 79–80, 93, 111,
114, 133–34
legislation 4, 9, 11, 12, 58, 149
see alsoFHQVRUVKLSPLVFHJHQDWLRQ
³$SDUWKHLG7KLQNLQJ´10, 23–24, 29, 55,
180
Asmal, Kader 9
$WWULGJH'HUHN3, 6, 39, 103, 113, 117,
131, 132, 133, 136, 152, 154,
170n2., 173
and reading 9, 10, 42, 59, 122, 135,
175–76
Attwell, David 3n3., 4, 6, 8, 10, 17, 19, 21,
23, 30, 39, 50, 55, 58, 63, 70n1.,
75, 79, 87, 95, 97, 98, 104, 127
and the public intellectual 174, 181
and race in Disgrace 1n2., 160
Austen, Jane 94
authority of author 2, 13, 91, 97–98, 102,
105, 136–37, 139–40, 141, 155,
178-79, 183
see also Barthes, Roland
autobiography 6, 7, 25, 129, 167, 168, 180
%DNKWLQ0LNKDLO140, 142, 145, 177
Banville, John 161
Barnard, Rita 6, 35–36, 45–46
Barthes, Roland 16, 18–19, 139–40
see also myth
%HFNHWW6DPXHO5, 34–35, 117, 146
Beinart, William 11, 79n2., 113, 122
Bell, Michael 170n3., 177, 178
Bentham, Jeremy 63
Benveniste, Émile 5, 42
Bhabha, Homi 58
%LNR6WHYH11, 58, 79
³EODFNSHULO´40, 159–60
Blanchot, Maurice 77
body, the 18, 36, 61, 63, 105–07, 126–27
%RHKPHU(OOHNH10, 105–06, 160
Boer see$IULNDQHU
%RRNHU3UL]H1, 73, 149
Borges, Jorge Luis 76–77
Botha, P. W. 29n4.
%RXUNH5LFKDUG154, 156
Boyhood 6, 11, 169
Breytenbach, Breyten 5, 143–44
“Breyten Breytenbach and the Reader in
WKH0LUURU´10, 140-41
%ULQN$QGUp8, 40, 70n1.
200
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
%URQWs&KDUORWWH49, 94
Brown, Wendy 61
Burgess, Anthony 58
Butler, Judith 178
Byron, Lord George Gordon 154–55
canonization 45, 92, 98, 155
Cartwright, Justin 9
Cavafy, C. P. 45, 53
censorship 4, 9–10, 28, 58, 130, 132,
142–44
see also DSDUWKHLGOHJLVODWLRQ Giving
Offense³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´
Chapman, Michael 4–5
Christianity 82, 84, 131, 134, 149n2., 151
Claridge, Laura 154, 161
Clingman, Stephen 33–34, 35, 36
&RHW]HH-0ZRUNVRIsee under titles of
individual works
Cohn, Dorrit 80
colonialism 15, 25, 26, 39–40
representation of 6, 18, 22, 23, 30–31,
33, 35–36, 45, 49, 55, 58, 67, 83,
92–94, 96–97, 101, 103, 105–06
commitment, literary 4–5, 71–73, 135
see also$GRUQR7KHRGRU*RUGLPHU
Nadine
complicity 15, 79, 114–15, 143, 144
confession 10, 24, 69, 134, 143–44, 145,
151
³&RQIHVVLRQDQG'RXEOH7KRXJKWV´7, 25,
97, 100, 116–17, 121n4., 131–32,
152–54, 180
Conrad, Joseph 45, 66, 67
³&ULWLFDQG&LWL]HQ$5HVSRQVH´174
&URQMp*HRIIUH\10, 23–24, 29
see also apartheid
Dangor, Achmat 40, 149–50
Defoe, Daniel 5
Robinson Crusoe 70, 82–83, 91,
92–97, 103, 107
Roxana 91, 95
'HUULGD-DFTXHV5, 64, 76, 151
Diary of a Bad Year 1n1., 2–3, 13, 120,
137, 167–84
Directorate of Publications 4, 58
see also censorship
'LUOLN$ULI54
Discourse of the Cape, the 83, 85
Disgrace 6, 8, 9, 12, 36–37, 119, 149–65
and racism 1, 160
and rape 40–41, 105, 158–61, 173
'RVWRHYVN\)\RGRU5, 7, 116, 121n4., 129,
136, 140–41, 142, 152
The Possessed 76, 130, 131–34,
138–39
double, the 6, 10, 64–65, 141–42
see also otherness
Doubling the Point 6, 119, 177
on alienation 11, 73
on apartheid 79–80
on autobiography 7, 25, 129, 168
on the body in pain 105, 127
on censorship 9, 136
on criticism 147
on ethics/politics 3–4, 113, 117
on language 120
on modernism 202
on politics 170
on positionality 73, 102, 129, 176
on realism 139
on reciprocity 6, 50
on violence 112
Dovey, Teresa 5, 57
'XLNHU.6HOOR34
Dusklands 6, 11, 15–31, 105, 169, 173
Easton, Kai 155
(FNVWHLQ%DUEDUD91n1., 104
Elizabeth Costello 2, 13, 105, 167, 169–70,
175, 182–83, 184
Emants, Marcellus 117
Encyclopedia of the Nations 162n8.
Enlightenment, the 10, 22, 30, 63, 82, 83,
92, 150, 160
³(UDVPXV0DGQHVVDQG5LYDOU\´10, 6364, 65
ethico-politics 173
see alsoHWKLFVSROLWLFV
ethics 3, 9, 10, 26, 30–31, 42, 58, 98, 113,
117–18, 150–51, 173–74, 181
Fanon, Frantz 5
Black Skin, White Masks 11–12, 37,
38–39, 40, 54–55
Index
The Wretched of the Earth 25, 104,
130, 147
see also neo-colonialism
Farred, Grant 160
Felman, Shoshana 34, 38n1., 42, 46, 51–52
feminism 36–38, 48–49, 95, 161, 172,
177–78
see also,ULJDUD\/XFH*LOEHUW6DQGUD
Ferguson, James 158
Flaubert, Gustave 30, 136
Foe 1n1., 6, 8, 12, 37, 91–109, 133, 169,
173
forced removals, policy of 11
see also apartheid legislation
Foucault, Michel 5, 16, 173
Discipline and Punish 63
Madness and Civilization 10, 33, 53,
54, 59–60, 62, 63–64, 67
Freud, Sigmund 5, 19, 28, 34, 36, 37–38,
68, 163
see also Oedipus myth
Gallagher, Susan Van Zanten 8, 23n3., 35,
44, 58
Garnett, Constance 131
genre 2–3, 5–6, 16–17, 45–46, 76, 96–97,
107, 167–68, 169, 170–71, 175,
177–78
see alsoDXWRELRJUDSK\SDUDEOH
SDVWRUDOplaasromanRobinson
Crusoe
Gilbert, Sandra
and Gubar, Susan 49
*LOPDQ&KDUORWWH3HUNLQV49
Girard, René 10
Giving Offense 10, 11, 28, 59–60, 136–37,
140
see also censorship
Glenn, Ian 36, 42
Gordimer, Nadine 5, 67
Burger’s Daughter 9, 115
The Conservationist 6
The Essential Gesture 4, 53, 71, 85,
111, 129, 139
The House Gun 149
³7KH,GHDRI*DUGHQLQJ´70–71, 114
July’s People 9
Graham, James 157–58
201
Graham, Lucy 40, 41, 160, 170, 177–78
Gramsci, Antonio 53, 71, 134–35, 168–69
see also intellectualism
Gray, Stephen 157
Grossvogel, David I. 74–76, 77, 78
Gubar, Susan
see Gilbert, Sandra
JXLOWFRORQLDO25–26
see also shame
+DFNLQJ,DQ170
Head, Bessie 34
Head, Dominic 10, 15, 26, 31, 39, 44, 58,
73, 89, 107, 111, 114–15, 141,
145–46, 176, 183
Hegelian dialectic 21, 64, 68
history, discourse of 8, 16–17, 18, 58
Holiday, Anthony 151
Hughes, Ted 177, 180–81
Hulme, Peter 12, 92, 96–97, 103
³,GOHQHVVLQ6RXWK$IULFD´22–23, 83
see also White Writing
imperialism 19, 26, 45, 49, 58, 94
In the Heart of the Country 1n1., 2, 4, 6,
11, 33–52, 103–04, 122, 169
intellectualism 174
see also*UDPVFL$QWRQLR2UZHOO
*HRUJH6DLG(GZDUG:
interregnum 53, 113, 134–35
see also Gramsci, Antonio
intertextuality 92–93, 96–97, 101, 131
³,QWRWKH'DUN&KDPEHU´7, 64
Irigaray, Luce 5, 38, 51
see also feminism
-DNREVRQ5RPDQ42, 46
Jolly, Rosemary Jane 17, 21
Jameson, Fredric 82, 130–31
on postmodernism 27–28
RQ³QDWLRQDODOOHJRU\´71–72, 89
JanMohamed, Abdul R. 58, 67
.DIND)UDQ]5, 7, 70n1., 73, 78
³%HIRUHWKH/DZ´76, 182–83
³7KH%XUURZ´76
The Castle 75
³$+XQJHU$UWLVW´84n3., 87
202
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
³7KH+XQJHU6WULNH´86
³,QWKH3HQDO&RORQ\´66, 67n2., 76
³0\'HVWLQDWLRQ´86
Parables and Paradoxes 12, 74–76
The Trial 74, 75, 76–77, 78, 182
see also “Time, Tense and Aspect in
.DIND¶Vµ7KH%XUURZ¶´
Kandiyoti, Deniz 18
Kant, Immanuel 118
Karodia, Farida 40
.OHUN):GH12
Knox-Shaw, Peter 30
Kossew, Sue 8, 108
Krige, Uys 84
.URJ$QWMLH149n2., 151
La Guma, Alex 59n1., 73
/DFDQ-DFTXHV5, 27
ODQGTXHVWLRQWKH35, 114–15, 158
see also plaasroman
Lawrence, D. H. 5, 7, 132, 172, 177
Lazarus, Neil 10, 72
Leatherbarrow, W. J. 131, 139
Lévi-Strauss, Claude 5
Levinas, Emmanuel 5, 162
Li, Victor 93n2.
liberalism 55, 61
South African 29, 67, 79, 157
in Tsarist Russia 133–34, 139
Life & Times of Michael K 1, 2, 4, 6, 12,
69–90, 114, 136
The Lives of Animals 36–37, 163–64, 170,
175–76, 177–78, 180–81, 184
see also animals
Lowry, Elizabeth 40–41
/XNiFV*HRUJ4, 71, 72
McDonald, Peter D. 1 n2., 58
madness 11–12, 27–28, 34, 134
see also³$SDUWKHLG7KLQNLQJ´
&OLQJPDQ6WHSKHQ³(UDVPXV
0DGQHVVDQG5LYDOU\´)HOPDQ
6KRVKDQD)RXFDXOW0LFKHO
Gilbert, Sandra
Mamdani, Mahmood 150–51, 163
Man, Paul de 154, 161
Mannoni, O. 37, 40, 54–55
Mantel, Hilary 179
Marais, Michael 136, 138, 155, 156
Marx, John 92
Master of Petersburg, The 1n1., 12, 76,
121, 129–47, 162
0EHNL7KDER40
see also African National Congress
$1&
Memmi, Albert 102
Merivale, Patricia 70n1., 87
PHWD¿FWLRQ7, 8, 144
Michael, John 3n3.
Millin, Sarah Gertrude 34
miscegenation 29, 33, 36
see also apartheid legislation
modernism 4–5, 10, 42, 72, 75, 174–75
Moses, Michael Valdez 83–84, 85
Mulisch, Harry 125
myth 16–17, 19, 22, 23n3., 35–36, 58, 84,
96–97
see also$IULNDQHU%DUWKHV5RODQG
Oedipus myth
nationalism
$IULNDQHU23, 35, 79
and women 18
1GHEHOH1MDEXOR64, 5, 150, 151–52
neo-colonialism 135
under Fanon, Frantz see also The
Wretched of the Earth
Nicholas II 133
Nietzsche, Friedrich 61, 69
Nihilism 131, 132, 133, 138–39
Nixon, Rob 135
1NRVL/HZLV4, 40, 94
Nobel Prize 1, 167
Noble Savage, the 85
³1RYHO7RGD\7KH´7, 8, 9, 16–17, 72, 74,
130, 175
Oedipus myth 27, 77
see also Freud, Sigmund
Offord, D. C. 133, 139
Orwell, George 120
see also intellectualism
otherness 12, 21–22, 26, 33, 38, 42, 46–47,
49, 51, 58, 61, 67–68, 75, 102–03,
105–06, 113, 145–46, 154, 161–62,
164
Index
see alsoVXEDOWHUQLW\GRXEOHWKH
parable 74–75, 130, 138
see alsoJHQUH.DIND)UDQ]
paradox 60, 61, 73–74, 80, 105, 106, 183
Parry, Benita 45, 92, 151
³6SHHFKDQG6LOHQFH´5, 78, 101–02
pastoral 50, 83
see also plaasromanWhite Writing
Pechey, Graham 5, 97, 135, 141, 144, 155,
165
3HQQHU'LFN39
performativity 47, 177–78
Pinter, Harold 167
plaasroman 35–36, 157–58
see alsoSDVWRUDOWhite Writing
Plomer, William 34
politics 3–5, 58, 70–72, 79, 120, 121, 134,
139, 150–51, 158, 173
and J. M. Coetzee 7, 9, 102, 113, 136,
170
and identity 61
see alsoHWKLFRSROLWLFVFRPPLWPHQW
literary
postcolonialism 9, 26, 72, 92, 97–98
postmodernism 10, 97–98
see also Jameson, Fredric
race 79, 93, 158
see also³EODFNSHULO´Disgrace
Fanon, Frantz
5DMDQ7LORWWDPD156n5.
UDSHIDQWDV\RI39–41, 53–54
see also ³EODFNSHULO´DisgraceIn the
Heart of the Country
reading 24, 30–31, 75–77, 78, 94, 126,
139–40, 171
see also$WWULGJH'HUHN%DUWKHV
Roland
realism 4, 72, 96–97, 157, 174–75
Retief, Piet 35
Rhys, Jean 49
Richards, Jo-Anne 40
5LONH5DLQHU0DULD180
Roberts, Sheila 102
Rody, Caroline 34, 35, 39, 42, 50
Romanticism 154–56, 161
see also sympathetic imagination
203
Rosner, Victoria 36
5RXVVHDX-HDQ-DFTXHV5, 7, 69, 83–84,
152, 154, 167
Rozema, Patricia 94n3.
Rudicina, Alexandra F. 134
Sachs, Albie 4, 9
Said, Edward W. 13, 168–69, 181
Culture and Imperialism 45, 49, 94
Orientalism 55
Representations of the Intellectual 3,
13, 64, 111–12, 119, 126, 173, 174
³7KH7H[WWKH:RUOGWKH&ULWLF´91
see also intellectualism
Samuelson, Meg 40
Sartre, Jean-Paul 5, 25, 26, 46, 174–75
Scarry, Elaine 106–07, 126
Schreiner, Olive 5–6, 34, 157
Serote, Mongane Wally 34, 59n1., 73
6KDNHVSHDUH:LOOLDP48n2., 100
shame 26
see also guilt
Sharpeville Massacre 11
Singer, Peter 164, 175–76, 178
Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter 26
Slow Man 1n1., 126–27, 169, 183
Smith, Pauline 5–6, 86
South African Human Rights Commission
6$+5&1
Soweto uprisings 11, 58, 113
Spencer, Robert 55, 173, 177, 179
6SLYDN*D\DWUL&KDNUDYRUW\
³&DQWKH6XEDOWHUQ6SHDN"´101–02
³7KHRU\LQWKH0DUJLQ´101, 103, 104,
108
³7KUHH:RPHQ¶V7H[WV´49
States of Emergency, South African 12,
75, 114
Strauss, Leo 139
subalternity 71–72
see alsoRWKHUQHVVWKH6SLYDN*D\DWUL
sympathetic imagination 181
see also Romanticism
³7DLQWRIWKH3RUQRJUDSKLF7KH´7, 172
see also Lawrence, D. H.
³7DNLQJ2IIHQVH´26, 30–31, 142
Tayler, Christopher 179
204
J. M. Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial Authorship
7LI¿Q+HOHQ97–98
³7LPH7HQVHDQG$VSHFWLQ.DIND¶Vµ7KH
%XUURZ¶´79–80
see also.DIND)UDQ]
Todorov, Tzvetan 101
Tolstoy, Leo 7, 116, 152, 153
torture 7, 63
see also³,QWRWKH'DUN&KDPEHU´
³ZDURQWHUURU´
³WRWDORQVODXJKW´28–29
³7UXWKLQ$XWRELRJUDSK\´69, 167–68, 171
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
75&13, 134, 149–52, 153–54,
160, 163
see also Tutu, Reverend Desmond
Turgenev, Ivan 129, 133, 139
Tutu, Reverend Desmond 13, 150, 151,
153–54
see also Truth and Reconciliation
&RPPLVVLRQ75&
Waiting for the Barbarians 1n1., 4, 11, 45,
53–68, 76, 104, 136, 153
³ZDURQWHUURU´WKH16, 55, 167
Watson, Stephen 5, 36, 129, 134
Wenzel, Jennifer 158
West, Paul 172–73
³:KDWLVD&ODVVLF"´126, 171n4.
White Writing 2, 5–6, 19, 22n2., 23, 84,
136, 156–57
see alsoSDVWRUDOplaasroman
:KRUI%HQMDPLQ120
:LWGRHNH113, 114n1.
Wollstonecraft, Mary 95
Wood, Marcus 104–05, 108
Wordsworth, William 84, 154–56
see also5RPDQWLFLVPV\PSDWKHWLF
imagination
Wright, Laura 36–37, 61, 88, 177–78, 184
:\N&KULVWRSKHUYDQ59
<DUPROLQVN\$YUDKP131
Youth 129, 169
Zeno’s Paradox 23
=LQLN=LQRY\132
Zola, Émile 118–19

Download Report

JM Coetzee and the Paradox of Postcolonial

Paperzz.com

Your Paperzz