© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2003
Published under the auspices of the Chief of Defence Staff by the Canadian
Defence Academy – Canadian Forces Leadership Institute
ISBN Number: 0-662-67561-4
Catalogue Number: D2-150/2003
NDID Number: A-PA-005-000/AP-001
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Military Profession in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Section 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Section 2 Evolution of the Profession of Arms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Section 3 The Profession of Arms in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Section 4 The Attributes of the Profession of Arms in Canada . . . . 14
Section 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Statement of Canadian Military Ethos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Section 1 Military Ethos and its Function
in the Profession of Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Section 2 Fundamental Beliefs and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Section 3 Canadian Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Section 4 Canadian Military Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Section 5 Military Ethos and the Warrior’s Honour . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Section 6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
The Organization and Functioning of the Profession
of Arms in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Section 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Section 1 The Military Profession in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Section 2 Fundamental Imperatives and
the Professional Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Section 3 Sustaining the Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Section 4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Adapting to Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Section 1 The Enduring Nature of the Profession of Arms . . . . . . . 63
Section 2 Managing the Evolution of the Profession of Arms . . . . . 68
Section 3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
PREFACE
he profession of arms in Canada is an honourable one, and I am
pleased to describe its philosophy and practise to members of
the Canadian Forces and the Canadians they serve in this
manual-Duty with Honour.
T
In 1989, the end of the Cold War saw major changes in the international system, and we as military professionals were challenged to
adapt to new and highly complex security threats. To help ensure that
the military values and the ethos remain strong through the challenges
to come, the Canadian Forces embarked upon a wide-ranging program
of self-renewal that includes the publication of this manual. It has been
no small task, for the profession of arms demands a lot from its
members. We must cope with extreme demands, frequent hardships
and ever-present danger. At the same time, we are richly rewarded with
a unique sense of accomplishment that rises from meeting the
expectations of Canadians and our security partners.
As military professionals, we serve in different environments, wear different ranks and are developed in a wide variety of different
occupations. But, as this manual makes clear, a greater Canadian
Forces ethos binds us together and points to our higher loyalty to
Canada and the rule of law. Service to Canada is, and always shall be,
our primary duty. Duty with Honour will help us to perform this duty
to the highest standards of military professionalism.
Duty with Honour is a defining document for Canada’s profession of
arms and must be read and understood by all who wear the uniform. I
have therefore directed that it serve as a cornerstone document within
the Canadian Forces professional development system. In order to
communicate the central philosophy of service and the key ideas contained in this Manual to the widest possible audience, I have also
directed the publication of a Summary of Duty with Honour: The
Profession of Arms in Canada.
I am proud to lead Canada’s profession of arms. The Canadian Forces
will continue to exhibit the highest standards of military professionalism both at home and abroad. The Canadian people deserve and expect
no less.
General Raymond Henault
Chief of the Defence Staff
1
FOREWORD
his manual describes the profession of arms in Canada for the
benefit of members of the Canadian Forces and indeed all citizens. It presents the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings
of the profession, shows how in practice it serves Canada and Canadian
interests, and codifies, for the first time, what it means to be a Canadian
military professional.
T
Such a summary will help members of the CF fully understand their
essential contribution to the security and well-being of their fellow
citizens. Based on the profession’s unique role of providing for the
ordered application of lawful military force in accordance with government direction, this contribution must reflect the highest standards of
military professionalism.
Chapters One and Two address the profession of arms in theoretical
terms and articulate a full statement of the Canadian military ethos.
These sections describe the professional attributes of responsibility,
expertise, identity and military ethos, in particular the special role of
the military ethos as a unifying force or spirit. The remaining parts of
Duty With Honour explain how the profession of arms is practised on a
day-to-day basis and frame the attributes of the profession in a strictly
Canadian context. Here, all members of the Canadian Forces — commanders, leaders and followers — can see what their professional duty
consists of and how it is to be performed. The manual concludes with
principles to guide the stewardship of the profession and presents some
probable future challenges.
Duty with Honour provides an understanding and vision of the
Canadian military professional. Intended to be both inspirational and
educational, it therefore establishes the intellectual and doctrinal basis
for all personnel and professional development policies in the
Canadian Forces. The Canadian Forces Leadership Institute is responsible for the management and updating of this manual, under the
auspices of the Canadian Defence Academy.
2
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION................................... 4
SECTION 2 EVOLUTION OF THE
PROFESSION OF ARMS. ........................ 5
SECTION 3 THE PROFESSION OF
ARMS IN CANADA .............................. 10
SECTION 4 THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE
PROFESSION OF ARMS
IN CANADA......................................... 14
SECTION 5 CONCLUSION ..................................... 23
The fundamental
purpose of
the Canadian
profession of
arms is the
ordered, lawful
application of
military force
pursuant to
governmental
direction.
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
he history of the military profession in Canada is inextricably
linked to the history of the nation itself. With roots in the historical fighting traditions of the First Nations and the military
traditions of New France and the British colonial militias, the first
regular units of what constitutes today’s Canadian Forces were formed
shortly after Confederation. These units — schools of artillery in
Kingston and Quebec — provided the Canadian militia with the initial
professional competence needed to secure the new nation against
potential threats, including those posed by its far larger and more
powerful neighbour, the United States of America.
T
Although such threats have changed over time, the defence of Canada
and its interests remain the primary focus of the Canadian military
profession and the volunteer professionals who serve in uniform.
Indeed, the fundamental purpose of the Canadian profession of arms is
the ordered, lawful application of military force pursuant to governmental direction. This simple fact defines an extraordinary relationship
of trust among the people of Canada, the Canadian Forces as an
institution and those members of the Forces who have accepted the
“unlimited liability”1 inherent in the profession of arms. At the same
time, armed conflict continues to become more complex, characterized
by highly nuanced political situations, sophisticated weaponry,
revolutionary information technology and unprecedented public
scrutiny — all of which combine to increase the demands placed on
the military professional.
The requirement for trust between the Canadian Forces and the
Canadian people, together with the complex environment of modern
armed conflict, makes it imperative that all members of the country’s
military share a common understanding of the concept of military professionalism and how it applies to Canada and its citizens. Equally
important, the success of the Canadian Forces in armed conflicts
depends upon its members having a common understanding of the
military ethos and embracing both a collective and individual identity
as members of the Canadian profession of arms. This chapter addresses
that shared understanding by describing the theoretical framework of
military professionalism and defining its salient characteristics.
1
4
General Sir John Hackett described the concept of unlimited liability in his book The
Profession of Arms (London: Times Publishing, 1963) when he said,“The essential basis
of military life is the ordered application of force under an unlimited liability. It is the
unlimited liability which sets the man who embraces this life somewhat apart. He will be
(or should be) always a citizen. So long as he serves he will never be a civilian.” See section 2.3 of this manual for a definition of unlimited liability.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
SECTION 2 EVOLUTION OF
THE PROFESSION OF ARMS
hroughout history, military forces have been associated with the
evolution of the state. In the early modern period — usually
dated from the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 — central governments consolidated their monopoly of power and control over their
territories, and these forces were centralized and subordinated to
sovereign governments. With the emergence of Western liberal democracies, the principle of civil control of the military gained widespread
acceptance, meaning essentially that civil authorities set policies and
the military executed their missions solely in response to government
direction. These militaries, however, did not begin to take on the
attributes of a modern profession until the turn of the 19th century.
T
By the mid 19th
century, rapid
advances in
military technology
and concepts
of centralized
command and
control caused
Western militaries
to accelerate
the process of
professionalization.
By mid-century, rapid advances in military technology and concepts of
centralized command and control caused Western forces to accelerate
the process of professionalization. By the time of the U.S. Civil War
(1861–64) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870), extensive use of
railroads and the telegraph required the development of general staff
systems, including the schools — from cadet to senior officer — to
support them. This facilitated the management of the specialized
knowledge needed for effectiveness at the right place and time.
One important consequence of these developments was the end
of hereditary appointment, the purchase of commissions and other
time-honoured traditions of officership. With these anachronisms no
longer in place, the way was clear for further progress based on merit
and higher education. By the end of the 19th century, almost every
Western army and navy was embracing professionalization.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
5
This new trend of increasing military professionalization was part of a
larger movement in Western societies. Such then emerging professions
as medicine and law — two of the earliest disciplines to subject their
practitioners to regulation and codes of conduct — demonstrated a
growing tendency to regulate and control the practice of specific skills
that benefit the community as a whole. In addition, governments introduced the professional licence as a means of maintaining “good
standing” with recognized governing bodies.
In fact, professions have developed in the West in response to two
imperatives: a societal imperative to ensure their ability to successfully
fulfill their special responsibility to the community and a functional
imperative to guarantee the necessary high quality and relevance of
their systematically acquired body of knowledge. The implications of
these imperatives for the profession of arms will be discussed in detail
in Part Three.
This manual will adopt the following definition of a profession, which
has been synthesized from the scholarly literature:
A profession is an exclusive group of people who possess
and apply a systematically acquired body of knowledge
derived from extensive research, education, training and
experience. Members of a profession have a special
responsibility to fulfill their function competently and
objectively for the benefit of society. Professionals are
governed by a code of ethics that establishes standards of
conduct while defining and regulating their work. This
code of ethics is enforced by the members themselves and
contains values that are widely accepted as legitimate by
society at large.
6
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
Professions are characterized, therefore, by specific attributes:
Responsibility acknowledges a special duty to society; expertise
describes the body of abstract theoretical knowledge they possess;
identity reflects the members’ unique standing within society; and
vocational ethic makes explicit the particular values and obligations
that form the foundation of the profession, underpinning and binding
it together. In the profession of arms, this vocational ethic is subsumed
in the broader construct of the military ethos. Last, professions practise their expertise within specialized domains accepted as legitimate
by society and closely regulated by government.
The classic works of Samuel P. Huntington (The Soldier and the State)
and Morris Janowitz (The Professional Soldier) use this generic model
of a profession to describe military professionalism from the perspectives of political science and sociology. General Sir John Hackett’s
seminal work The Profession of Arms provides a philosophical and
ethical view. These works have informed most Western thinking on the
nature of the profession of arms and the concept of military
professionalism. They conclude that the essential function of the
military profession is the ordered application of military force in
defence of the state and its interests.
The collective nature of military action, and the necessity that nationstates exercise a monopoly over the use of force within their
boundaries, mean that military professionalism is exercised within the
institutional setting of navies, armies, air forces and, with increasing
frequency, organizations consisting of two or more of these services,
referred to as joint commands, such as the Joint Operations Group in
the CF or the Unified Commands of the U.S. forces.2 Given the
constitutional forms of governance adopted in the West, coupled with
the values that most Western societies share, the military profession is
expected to adhere to a military ethos reflecting these values and to
remain subordinate to the civil authority.3
2
As described in the Strategic Capability Plan, the word “joint” connotes activities,
operations, organizations, etc., in which elements of more than one service of the
same nation participate.
3
The scholarly literature upon which this discussion of professions and military
professionalism has been based, and which likewise informs the rest of this manual,
can be found in the selected bibliography.
Professions are
characterized by
specific attributes:
responsibility,
expertise, identity
and vocational ethic.
In the profession of
arms, this vocational
ethic is subsumed
under the broader
construct of the
military ethos.
The military profession is expected to
adhere to a military
ethos reflecting
society’s values
and to remain
subordinate to
the civil authority.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
7
Figure 1-1 highlights the critical role of the military ethos in unifying
the other professional attributes of the profession of arms. The military
ethos reflects how military professionals view themselves (identity),
how they fulfill their function (expertise) and how they relate to their
government and to society (responsibility). Figure 1-1 also illustrates
that the military profession can only operate within the boundaries
established for the military institution by the state.
Figure 1-1 Theoretical Construct of the Profession of Arms in Canada
8
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
Although the profession of arms reflects many of the characteristics of
other professions, it is distinguished from them in two respects.
First, it is a collective profession rather than an associational one. In an
associational profession, members typically function independently,
dealing directly with their clients, as is usually the case with the medical and legal professions. In collective professions, no individual or
even a subgroup of individuals can accomplish the ends sought; rather,
it is the collective as a whole that acts. A higher degree of organization
and specialization is therefore required for collective professions than
is normal for associational professions.
The profession
of arms is distinguished in two
respects. First,
it is a collective
profession.
Second, the
military serves
only the state.
In the profession of arms, for example, specialization results in a division of labour that is reflected both in its functional structure
(Environments, branches, etc.) and in its hierarchical rank structure,
which then allows for the assignment of specific responsibilities.
Expertise is distributed throughout the military profession as a result
of this specialization and must be mobilized, focused and coordinated
if it is to be effective. At the same time, all members of the profession
share a core identity and a common responsibility that is manifest in
the values described by the military ethos.
Photographer: Stephen Fenn
Reproduction authorized by the Library of Parliament
Second, the profession of arms serves the state. Armed forces in
Western democracies are subordinate to the elected civil authority and
prohibited from operating outside the boundaries that authority sets.
In essence, armed forces are the creation of the state and act as an arm
of the elected government. Therefore, the military professional does
not practise his or her profession outside the organizational structure
of the armed forces.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
9
SECTION 3 THE PROFESSION
OF ARMS IN CANADA
B
ased on this professional construct, the profession of arms in
Canada can be described as follows:
The profession of arms in Canada is composed of military members dedicated to the defence of Canada and its
interests, as directed by the Government of Canada. The
profession of arms is distinguished by the concept of
service before self, the lawful, ordered application of
military force and the acceptance of the concept of
unlimited liability. Its members possess a systematic and
specialized body of military knowledge and skills
acquired through education, training and experience,
and they apply this expertise competently and objectively
in the accomplishment of their missions. Members of the
Canadian profession of arms share a set of core values
and beliefs found in the military ethos that guides
them in the performance of their duty and allows a
special relationship of trust to be maintained with
Canadian society.
Since the military profession can only be practised collectively, and
within the bounds set by the state, it is a very inclusive profession.
All uniformed personnel fulfilling operational, support or specialist
functions are considered military professionals, as they meet the
criteria outlined below.
10
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
In Canada, an individual becomes a member of the profession of arms
by swearing the Oath of Allegiance and adopting the military uniform,
thus establishing an essential distinctiveness in Canadian society.
Thereafter, members demonstrate their professionalism by
●
●
●
●
embracing the military ethos;
reaching and maintaining the point at which a member has
achieved the requirements for first employment in an occupation
and maintaining this qualification;
pursuing the highest standards of the required expertise; and
understanding, accepting and fulfilling all the commitments and
responsibilities inherent in the profession of arms.
In the Canadian Forces, all non-commissioned members (NCMs), especially non-commissioned officers (NCOs), warrant officers (WOs), chief
petty officers and petty officers (CPOs and POs), share leadership
responsibilities and are required to master complex skills and gain
extensive knowledge of the theory of conflict. Therefore, and in
accordance with the criteria listed, all regular force members of the CF,
regardless of rank, are members of the profession of arms. Although not
necessarily on full-time service, primary reserve members are an essential component of the nation’s military capability and meet the criteria,
and thus are accorded professional status. On active duty, they assume
the status and identity of full-time military professionals.
All regular force
and primary
reserve members
of the Canadian
Forces, of all
ranks, are
members of
the profession
of arms.
Throughout
the profession,
responsibility
and expertise
are distributed
between officers
and NCMs in
such a manner as
to clearly define
each and make
the most effective contribution
to accomplishing
the mission.
The inclusive nature of the profession of arms in Canada means that the
professional relationship between officers and NCMs is one of the most
important. Indeed, the very existence of these two corps reflects the
extremely complex nature of the profession of arms and the need to
organize and structure the profession to accommodate the many
demands that it faces. Throughout the profession, responsibility and
expertise are distributed between officers and NCMs in such a manner
as to clearly define each and make the most effective contribution to
accomplishing the mission.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
11
The military profession in Canada also includes individuals, such as
doctors or lawyers, who are members of other professions. They wear
the uniform and accept the duties and responsibilities of membership
in the profession of arms, and their specialized expertise is a great asset
to the overall collective strength of the profession of arms. At the same
time, they must also adhere to the codes and ethics of their primary
profession. This duality creates the potential for a conflict of interest
between doctor/patient confidentiality and the operational readiness of
the unit, for example. Resolving these potential conflicts between competing professional requirements is one of the key functions of the
officers who lead these specialist branches. (See Part Three for a more
detailed treatment of dual professional status.)
Institutional Boundaries
In Canada, the profession of arms is embedded in the institution of the
Canadian Forces and strongly influenced by history, political arrangements, constitutional constraints and international agreements.
Military professionals operate within this institution in both the
regular force and the primary reserve. In principle, the CF operates as
an institutional entity separate from the Department of National
Defence, in a relationship described in the National Defence Act (NDA),
so they must work effectively with public servants as an integral part of
a single defence team.
12
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
The Constitution Act of 1867 provides for establishing armed forces at
the federal level. Their command, control and administration are set
out in the NDA, and the Government of Canada determines their mandate, mission and roles in the defence of Canada through legislation
and Cabinet direction.4 Within the boundaries set by this assignment,
the military professional must be able to conduct operations across the
whole spectrum of national security — a fact that clearly requires
military professionals to be constantly prepared to perform any lawful
duty, including the application of disciplined lethal force, in the service
of the nation.
The mandate, missions and roles of the Canadian Forces include
support to other government departments and the provinces and territories. The Government of Canada regularly directs the CF to
participate in a number of tasks in support of the wider government
mandate; for example, in fisheries patrols and internal security.
Conducting military operations remains the CF’s overriding purpose,
however, and this shapes the fighting identity of Canada’s military
professionals. It also delineates the profession’s responsibility to the
government and to society, and dictates the expertise necessary for the
success of operations. The values and beliefs of the profession of arms,
expressed and communicated by the Canadian military ethos, are also
clearly shaped by the CF’s unique and special role.
4
In much of the scholarly literature, the missions and roles assigned by government are often referred to as the “jurisdiction” in which the profession of arms is
practised. For example, sociologist James Burk describes it thus: “It is true that
professional standing requires control over a domain of social life — a jurisdiction — within which members of the profession try to solve problems by applying
the special knowledge at their command.” (James Burk,“Expertise, Jurisdiction and
Legitimacy of the Military Profession” [paper delivered at West Point, June 2001], 8)
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
13
The core responsibility of the
Canadian Forces
is the defence
of Canada and
Canadian interests,
and the country’s
military professionals are
collectively
accountable to
the Government
and the people
of Canada for
the successful
execution of this
primary duty.
SECTION 4 THE ATTRIBUTES
OF THE PROFESSION
OF ARMS IN CANADA
W
hat follows describes the four attributes of the profession of
arms — responsibility, expertise, identity and the military
ethos — and their interrelationships in the Canadian context.
Responsibility
The core responsibility of the Canadian Forces is the defence of Canada
and Canadian interests, and the country’s military professionals are
collectively accountable to the government and the people of Canada
for the successful execution of this primary duty. Central to this
responsibility is the need for each individual to be held accountable for
his or her performance, always acting in compliance with the law and
maintaining the highest standards with respect to all the professional
attributes. Since the community is compelled to ensure its security by
providing its military with increasingly powerful weapons and other
technologies, it is a professional responsibility to ensure that the highest standard of discipline, especially self-discipline, is maintained.
Members of the profession must ensure the care and well-being of
subordinates. All leaders must understand, both professionally and
personally, that this vital responsibility is the basis for fostering and
maintaining an effective and cohesive force with high morale.
This requires personal dedication to the ideals of the military ethos, the
professional development of subordinates, the careful stewardship of
resources, and administrative competency and accountability. All military professionals have the broader responsibility of maintaining the
integrity and reputation of the military profession, ensuring that the
Canadian values described in Section 3 of Chapter Two and
the Canadian military ethos shape the conduct of operations and
individual actions.
14
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
Beyond this responsibility for cohesion and high morale that every
member of the Canadian Forces shares, each has additional responsibilities that derive from his or her specific appointment within the
organization. These range from responsibility for the maintenance and
operation of an individual piece of equipment to providing advice to
the government on the commitment of forces. Therefore, every member has clear responsibility and accountability for the performance of
his or her duties within the Canadian Forces chain of command.
In this regard, a fundamental division of responsibility in the Canadian
profession of arms occurs between officers and NCMs. Today, the
differences between the officer and NCM corps can be described in
terms of competencies, authority and responsibility.5 Through their
commission, officers are given particular authority and responsibility
for decisions on the use of force. These decisions, from the tactical
through to the strategic level, set the context within which NCMs carry
out operations.
Through their
commission,
officers are
given particular
authority and
responsibility for
decisions on the
use of force.
These decisions
set the context
within which
NCMs carry
out operations.
The officer’s commission also signifies the right and privilege to command. Consequently, beyond the responsibility to effectively lead
troops into danger, officers are empowered to command subordinates
into harm’s way. In all situations, the officer in a command appointment is responsible for creating the conditions for a mission’s success,
including a clear statement of the commander’s intent, and thereafter
for leading all subordinates to achieve the objective.
The officer’s scope of responsibility is now broader than that of NCOs
and warrant officers and typically gets larger as he or she rises in rank.
Overseeing the regulatory functions that operate throughout the
profession is a major responsibility of the Officer Corps. To meet these
responsibilities, officers must acquire the skill of delegating tasks and
authorities so that NCOs and warrant officers can accomplish the
mission without being micromanaged. Only by drawing extensively on
the particular expertise of the NCM Corps can officers lead the force
effectively and efficiently.
5
Pigeau and McCann describe these dimensions in their discussion of their role in the balanced command envelope. See Dr. Ross Pigeau and Carol McCann,“Re-conceptualizing
Command and Control,” Canadian Military Journal 3, 1 (Spring 2002)
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
15
On the other hand, the Queen’s Regulations and Orders assign NCOs
and warrant officers specific responsibilities to “promote the welfare,
efficiency and good discipline of all who are subordinate to the
member” and the authority to execute these responsibilities. In effect,
they have been delegated the day-to-day responsibility for ensuring that
subordinates are individually and collectively trained, prepared and
capable of accomplishing all missions assigned to them. This includes
acting as a close advisor to superior officers and commanders on all
matters pertaining to these three broad responsibilities. In the case of
inexperienced junior officers, this role of advisor takes on more of the
role of a coach. Furthermore, chief warrant officers and chief petty
officers 1st class are assigned by Warrant special responsibilities in the
NCM Corps for the good order and discipline of all subordinates. In
addition, they are the “custodians of the Corps’ overall well-being under
the stewardship of the General/Flag Officer Corps.” 6
There is a strong interaction between responsibility and the other three
attributes of military professionalism. The military ethos, for example,
must clearly and emphatically express the duty of members to accept and
meet all professional responsibilities. These responsibilities in turn help
to define military identity by establishing professional roles and relationships. The attribute of responsibility directly affects military expertise
through the body of relevant knowledge necessary for effective collective
and individual action. Members then have a duty to acquire this
knowledge and keep it current.
In sum, the legitimacy of the profession of arms in Canada essentially
depends on members fulfilling their professional responsibilities in
accord with Canadian values, Canadian and international laws, and the
Canadian military ethos.
6
16
The Canadian Forces Non-Commissioned Member in the 21st Century (Ottawa: NCM Corps,
2020), 11
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
Expertise
The expertise required by the military professional is determined by
the direction, operation and control of a human organization whose
primary function is the application of military force. Such an organization is supported by a sophisticated body of theoretical and practical
knowledge and skills that differ from those in any other profession.
The foundation for this expertise resides in a deep and comprehensive
understanding of the theory and practice of armed conflict — a theory that incorporates the history of armed conflict and the concepts
and doctrine underpinning the levels inherent in the structure of
conflict, ranging from the tactical and operational to the military
strategic and political-military (policy) levels. Increasingly, the
military professional, especially when advancing in rank, must master
the domain of joint, combined and inter-agency operations and, in the
highest ranks, have an expert understanding of national security
issues. An understanding of how the law, both national and international, regulates armed conflict is also very important.
The ordered application of military force
requires not only
specific knowledge
and skills spanning
all the combat functions of a professional
military organization,
but more especially
a highly developed
capacity for judging
its use.
The ordered application of military force requires not only specific
knowledge and skills spanning all the combat functions of a professional military organization, but also and perhaps more especially a
highly developed capacity for judging its use. Such judgement guides
what force is used — and where and when, as directed by policy —
and how force is employed, always in agreement with legal principles
and other values of the military ethos. Providing professional advice to
civilian authorities, and ensuring that it integrates the military capability with the other components of the national security apparatus,
depends on this capacity for judgement as well. Clearly, members at all
levels must exercise professional judgement to ensure mission success
while providing for the well-being and safety of subordinates as much
as possible. Finally, critical judgement is essential in allocating the
means for the application of force according to the principles of
discrimination, proportionality and military necessity.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
17
The very nature
of highly dispersed modern
operations has
also broadened
and deepened
the expertise
required at
junior levels.
Developing judgement requires not only the acquisition of knowledge,
but also a great deal of practical experience in its application. In the
Canadian Forces, this is the main objective of the professional development system, which is built on four pillars: education, training,
self-development and experience. This system is the primary method
by which all members, regardless of rank, develop their expertise as
military professionals.
As military operations have become more complex in recent years, the
body of professional knowledge that must be imparted through
professional development has expanded beyond traditional areas of
study (e.g., history and international affairs) to include many other
disciplines not previously regarded as relevant to military operations.
Tactical competencies and individual and collective warfighting skills
remain the bedrock of military expertise but are not enough in themselves to define that expertise. Military professionals today require the
abilities not only of the soldier warrior, but also of the soldier diplomat
and the soldier scholar.
Traditionally, the degree of expertise was usually equated with rank and
command authority. Modern conflict has increasingly devolved the
authority and ability to apply escalating lethal force to more junior levels of leadership. The very nature of highly dispersed modern
operations has also broadened and deepened the expertise required at
junior levels. For example, the expertise, competencies and skills
demanded of an infantry section commander employed in a modern
peace support operation are far beyond the elemental skills needed in
the highly controlled battles of the past. Similarly, in Her Majesty’s
Canadian ships, petty officers 1st class now perform the duties of
weapons directors, a job formerly held only by officers. The demands of
modern conflict challenge military professionals of all ranks to acquire
increasing levels of expertise in order to meet the requirements of the
future battlespace.
18
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
Broadly speaking, the breadth and scope of the expertise possessed
by the Officer Corps extends from the tactical level through the
operational and strategic level to the political-military level, depending
on both appointment and rank. The NCM’s knowledge and skill have
been oriented primarily to the tactical level. But the levels of conflict
often overlap in today’s world, and NCMs, especially NCOs and warrant
officers, are increasingly required to be knowledgeable about every
level to one degree or another; again, usually depending on rank.
In addition, the distribution of technical knowledge tends to be more
heavily weighted in the NCM Corps, while officers possess knowledge
of a more general nature. Therefore, the officer’s expertise is used to
marshal forces and direct their employment, whereas NCMs accomplish the task or mission through the direct application of their
particular expertise.
Given both the
impact of technology and the
complexity of
modern conflict,
the capacity for
creative thinking
and sound
judgement is
increasingly
required in both
the officer and
NCM corps.
Given the impact of technology and the complexity of modern conflict,
the capacity for creative thinking and sound judgement is increasingly
required in both corps. This means further delegation to lower levels in
the rank structure, though such delegation, together with the authority
to make it effective, does not relieve the officer of the responsibility for
directing successful operations.
Officers, NCOs and warrant officers are all expected to possess expertise in the area of leadership, both direct and indirect. Direct leadership
involves a great deal of personal contact and is generally task-oriented.
The indirect form involves organizational and strategic leadership and
is focused on long-term results in objectives or organizational culture.
Officers, NCOs and warrant officers practise both kinds of leadership,
but the distribution of time and effort on them varies with rank and
appointment.At the strategic level, more time is spent on indirect leadership, while at lower levels more time is spent on direct leadership.
For the most part, expertise is determined by the roles and tasks
that militaries are assigned by the government and is shaped by the
explicit and implicit responsibilities of military professionalism. Such
expertise in turn plays an important role in shaping the identity of its
members, units, branches and Environments, respectively.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
19
Identity
Canadian Forces personnel derive a collective unity and identity
from the unique function they perform. In the Canadian case, the core
of this function revolves around three concepts with which all members
identify: voluntary military service, unlimited liability and service
before self.
Canadian military personnel are aware as well that they are an integral
part of an important national institution. This entails an acceptance of
the basic bilingual nature of the country, which is enshrined in law, an
understanding of Canadian multiculturalism and an appreciation of
Canadian values.
Environmental identities are further formed within the context of a unified and integrated force that socializes new members in the forces’
training and education establishments, and uses a common set of
badges and symbols of rank to designate non-commissioned members
and officers.
A wide range of customs and traditions associated with membership in
the Canadian Forces, including branch and Environmental affiliations,
form the distinguishing characteristics that bond its members together.
These customs and traditions produce special social structures that
contribute to a sense of organic unity and military identity. This is further reinforced by the Canadian military ethos that provides members
with a common understanding of the values that guide individual and
collective action.
Military identity is shaped by two other attributes of the military
profession: responsibility and expertise. As members’ understanding of
their professional responsibilities changes and evolves, so too will their
identity. For example, during the Cold War, the focus was largely on conventional war in Europe, and other military activities were seen as
subsidiary. As the peace support operations of the 1990s became more
dangerous, complex and central to international security and stability,
members’ views began to change. With full acceptance of these new
roles, expertise expanded to meet the operational imperative.
Consequently, members inherited new sets of responsibilities in respect
20
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
to rules of engagement, international law and humanitarian activity,
which in turn expanded the concept of military identity far beyond the
simplistic understanding that had prevailed for decades.
Given the current distribution of responsibilities and expertise
between officers and NCMs, each corps has a distinct identity. These
respective identities are reflected in the insignias of rank that visibly
denote responsibility, authority and specialized expertise and in such
traditions as separate messing and marks of respect. Commissioned
officers identify themselves as potential commanders and leaders,
both direct and strategic. NCMs identify themselves as those responsible for the effective and efficient accomplishment of all tasks, always
with an eye on the immediate welfare of individual subordinates. They
know that their direct leadership and discipline of subordinates are
absolutely essential to the professional effectiveness of the force as a
whole, as well as the accomplishment of missions.
Military Ethos
Canadian Forces
personnel share
a sense of
collective unity
and identity
derived from the
unique function
they perform.
The military ethos
acts as a unifying
force by insisting
that the officer–
NCM relationship
represents a
strong, integrated
team.
The military ethos embodies the spirit that binds the profession
together. It clarifies how members view their responsibilities, apply
their expertise and express their unique military identity. It identifies
and explains military values and defines the subordination of the
armed forces to civilian control and the rule of law.
The military ethos also accommodates the separate identities of the
officer and NCM corps but acts as a unifying force by insisting that the
officer/NCM relationship represents a strong, integrated team based on
a common understanding of the primacy of operations and the shared
beliefs, expectations and core values of military service. Both corps are
dedicated to the national values of the country they are sworn
to defend.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
21
The military
professional
must meet the
highest standards
of professionalism
and have a full
understanding of
the obligations
inherent in
military service.
22
Ultimately, it is the ethos, which incorporates fundamental Canadian
values, that distinguishes a member of the Canadian profession of arms
from ill-disciplined irregulars, mercenaries or members of another
armed force that lacks defining values.
Legitimacy in the eyes of the government and Canadian society is
largely contingent on the application of the military ethos and the structure it gives the other attributes of the military profession, but this
affords the profession considerable scope for self-regulation to ensure
professional effectiveness. Beyond directly supporting the profession’s
ability to meet its core responsibilities, the military ethos serves to
shape and guide conduct, especially in the face of ethical dilemmas. A
full and detailed articulation of the military ethos is the subject of
Chapter Two.
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
SECTION 5 CONCLUSION
he complete definition of the profession of arms in Canada provides all members of the Canadian Forces with a common
understanding of what it means to be a military professional.
Understanding the nature of military professionalism, its relation to
the military ethos and the vital institutional role of the CF is crucial to
combat effectiveness and to meeting Canadians’ expectations that their
military professionals will defend the nation with honour. This entails
meeting the highest standards of professionalism and having a full
understanding of the obligations inherent in military service.
T
CHAPTER 1 • THE MILITARY PROFESSION IN CANADA
23
SECTION 1 MILITARY ETHOS AND ITS
FUNCTION IN THE PROFESSION
OF ARMS..............................................
SECTION 2 FUNDAMENTAL BELIEFS AND
EXPECTATIONS...................................
SECTION 3 CANADIAN VALUES............................
SECTION 4 CANADIAN MILITARY VALUES ..........
SECTION 5 MILITARY ETHOS AND
THE WARRIOR’S HONOUR.................
SECTION 6 CONCLUSION .....................................
25
26
28
30
32
33
SECTION 1 THE MILITARY
ETHOS AND ITS FUNCTION
IN THE PROFESSION OF ARMS
Ethos is the heart of the military profession and
operational effectiveness.
—MINISTER’S MONITORING COMMITTEE
ON
CHANGE
IN THE
The military ethos
is the foundation
upon which
the legitimacy,
effectiveness
and honour of
the Canadian
Forces depend.
DEPARTMENT
OF NATIONAL DEFENCE AND THE CANADIAN FORCES, FINAL REPORT
he military ethos comprises values, beliefs and expectations that
reflect core Canadian values, the imperatives of military professionalism and the requirements of operations. It acts as the
centre of gravity for the military profession and establishes an ethical
framework for the professional conduct of military operations. In
establishing desired norms of behaviour, the military ethos acts as an
active and unifying spirit that brings all members of the Canadian
Forces together from their different Environments and branches.At the
same time, the ethos permits Environmental distinctiveness and
allows for cultural adaptation. In fact, all three Environments often
manifest certain elements of the ethos in different ways; for example,
the influence of history, heritage and tradition or how team spirit is
promoted and manifested. These unique-to-Environment expressions
of ethos derive from and reflect the distinct military functions associated with sea, land and air operations.
T
More specifically, the ethos is intended to
●
●
establish the trust that must exist between the Canadian Forces
and Canadian society;
guide the development of military leaders who must exemplify the
military ethos in their everyday actions;
●
create and shape the desired military culture of the Canadian Forces;
●
establish the basis for personnel policy and doctrine;
●
enable professional self-regulation within the Canadian Forces; and
●
assist in identifying and resolving ethical challenges.
The military ethos, therefore, is the foundation upon which the
legitimacy, effectiveness and honour of the Canadian Forces depend.
The uniquely Canadian military ethos is made up of three fundamental components: beliefs and expectations about military service;
Canadian values; and Canadian military values.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
25
Members accept
and understand
that they are
subject to being
lawfully ordered
into harm’s way
under conditions
that could lead
to the loss of
their lives.
SECTION 2 FUNDAMENTAL
BELIEFS AND EXPECTATIONS
he military ethos speaks to and affirms certain beliefs and
expectations about military service that serve to develop the
military members’ professional self-portrait. Principal among
these are the concepts of unlimited liability, fighting spirit, discipline
and teamwork.
T
Accepting Unlimited Liability
Unlimited liability is a concept derived strictly from a professional
understanding of the military function. As such, all members accept
and understand that they are subject to being lawfully ordered into
harm’s way under conditions that could lead to the loss of their lives. It
is this concept that underpins the professional precept of mission, own
troops and self, in that order, and without which the military professional’s commitment to mission accomplishment would be fatally
undermined. It also modifies the notion of service before self,
extending its meaning beyond merely enduring inconvenience or great
hardship. It is an attitude associated with the military professional’s
philosophy of service. The concept of unlimited liability is integral to
the military ethos and lies at the heart of the military professional’s
understanding of duty.
Fighting Spirit
Fighting spirit requires that members of the Canadian Forces be
focused on and committed to the primacy of operations. They therefore
strive for high levels of operational effectiveness and readiness, and are
willing to engage in or support combat operations. It imparts to individuals the moral, physical and intellectual qualities necessary to
operate in conditions of extreme danger, to endure hardship and to
approach their assigned missions with confidence, tenacity and the will
to succeed. Fighting spirit is especially important to act decisively —
including the use of lawful, lethal force against an adversary — during
combat operations.
26
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
This spirit is not restricted to those directly engaged in operations.
Indeed, as a state of mind, fighting spirit applies to all occupations in
the Canadian Forces. Out of fighting spirit is born a strong bond as
comrades-in-arms that instils cohesion and esprit de corps in ships’
companies, army units and air force squadrons, as well as in
headquarters and staffs. Inculcating this spirit in all military members
is a key responsibility of Canadian Forces leaders at every level.
Discipline
Discipline plays a major role in maintaining a high standard of military
professionalism. Discipline helps build the cohesion that enables
individuals and units to achieve objectives that could not be attained by
military skills alone and allows compliance with the interests and goals
of the military institution while instilling shared values and common
standards. Discipline among professionals is fundamentally selfdiscipline that facilitates immediate and willing obedience to lawful
orders and directives while strengthening individuals to cope with the
demands and stresses of operations. It instils self-assurance and
resiliency in the face of adversity and builds self-control. A high
standard of military discipline is generated from an understanding of
the demands of combat, a knowledge of comrades and trust in leaders.
Teamwork
The military ethos places a high value on teamwork. Teamwork builds
cohesion, while individual talent and the skills of team members
enhance versatility and flexibility in the execution of tasks. In the
conflict environment of the 21st century, the Canadian Forces’ ability to
operate in a joint, combined and inter-agency context will depend on
the efficient integration and synthesis of the skill sets of all of its members. Teamwork must also involve non-military organizations and
individuals, not only within the Department of National Defence, but
also and increasingly among non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), private industry and academia. This kind of teamwork is
needed to leverage knowledge while permitting military members and
organizations to prevail in the most complex and dangerous situations.
Fighting spirit
imparts to
individuals the
moral, physical
and intellectual
qualities necessary to operate
in conditions of
extreme danger,
to endure hardship and to
approach their
assigned missions
with confidence,
tenacity and the
will to succeed.
Discipline among
professionals is
fundamentally
self-discipline.
Teamwork is
needed to leverage knowledge
while permitting
military members
and organizations
to prevail in the
most complex
and dangerous
situations.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
27
SECTION 3 CANADIAN VALUES
he values held by Canadians play a fundamental role in determining the ways and means by which the military function is
exercised. Indeed, the legitimacy of the profession of arms
requires that it embody the same values and beliefs as the society it
defends. Because the profession is not an entity unto itself and military
members come from and return to civilian life, the values of the profession must be in harmony with the values of its parent community,
limited only by the functional requirements of the military.
T
As a people, Canadians recognize a number of fundamental values that
the nation aspires to reflect. We believe that such values can be woven
into the fabric of our society and expect our leaders to preserve them
throughout the governance system. Canadian values are expressed first
and foremost in founding legislation such as the Constitution Act of
1982 and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (the Charter)
contained therein, and key values that affect all Canadians are anchored
in a number of pieces of foundational legislation and articulated in
their preambles.
28
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
Understanding this legal-political framework permits Canadians to
express such values as the democratic ideal, the concept of peace, order
and good government, and the rule of law. These overarching ideals
have resulted in the enumeration of a number of other basic rights and
freedoms in the Charter. These ideas have in turn powerfully
influenced the Department of National Defence’s ethics program,
resulting in the three principles of the Statement of Defence Ethics,
which requires members of the Department to respect the dignity of
all people; to serve Canada before self and to obey and support
lawful authority.
Canadian values have also shaped Canada’s role on the international
stage. For example, Canada’s lead role in peacekeeping is founded on
the principles of diplomacy articulated by Prime Minister Pearson, and
current policy and missions are informed by the concepts of human
security, international stability and viable international relations.
The legitimacy
of the profession
of arms requires
that it embodies
the same values
and beliefs as the
society it defends,
limited only by
the functional
requirements
of the military.
Incorporated in the military ethos, Canadian values mandate members
of the Canadian profession of arms to perform their tasks with
humanity. Members of the Canadian Forces understand the inherent
violence of armed conflict, characterized at an extreme by death and
destruction. While they must act resolutely, and sometimes with lethal
force, the concept of humanity forbids any notion of a carte blanche or
unbounded behaviour. Further, it demands consideration for
non-combatants and items of cultural worth. Performing with
humanity contributes to the honour earned by Canadian Forces members and helps make Canadians at home proud and supportive of
their armed forces.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
29
Canadian military values are
essential for
conducting the
full range of
military operations, up to
and including
warfighting.
Overall, duty
motivates
personnel both
individually and
collectively to
strive for the
highest standards of
performance.
SECTION 4 CANADIAN
MILITARY VALUES
anadian military values — which are essential for conducting
the full range of military operations, up to and including
warfighting — come from what history and experience teach
about the importance of moral factors in operations, especially the personal qualities that military professionals must possess to prevail. But
military values must always be in harmony and never in conflict with
Canadian values.
C
These military values are understood and expressed within the
Canadian military ethos as follows.
●
Duty: First and foremost, duty entails service to Canada and compliance with the law. It obliges members to adhere to the law of
armed conflict while displaying dedication, initiative and discipline
in the execution of tasks. Duty further demands that Canadian
Forces members accept the principle of the primacy of operations
and that military leaders act in accordance with the professional
precept of “Mission, own troops, self,” as mentioned previously.
Performing one’s duty embraces the full scope of military professional excellence. It calls for individuals to train hard, pursue
professional self-development, and carry out their tasks in a
manner that reflects pride in themselves, their unit and their
profession. Overall, this concept of duty motivates personnel both
individually and collectively to strive for the highest standards of
performance while providing them with purpose and direction
throughout the course of their service.
●
30
Loyalty: Loyalty is closely related to duty and entails personal allegiance to Canada and faithfulness to comrades across the chain
of command. For loyalty to endure, it must be reciprocal and based
on mutual trust. It requires that all Canadian Forces members
support the intentions of superiors and readily obey lawful orders
and directions. However, it also imposes special obligations on all
leaders and commanders.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
Leaders must ensure their subordinates are treated fairly, and
prepare and train them spiritually, mentally and physically for
whatever tasks they’re assigned. Subordinates must be given opportunities for professional development and career advancement.
Downward loyalty further demands that Canadian Forces members
be properly cared for, that their desires and concerns be heard and
that their personal needs be tended to, both during the time of their
service and after it. This is especially so if they have been wounded
or injured in the course of their duties. And this concept of loyalty
extends to the immediate families of Canadian Forces members,
who are entitled to official recognition and consideration for the
important contribution they make to the morale and dedication of
loved ones in uniform.
●
Integrity: To have integrity is to have unconditional and steadfast
commitment to a principled approach to meeting your obligations
while being responsible and accountable for your actions.
Accordingly, being a person of integrity calls for honesty, the
avoidance of deception and adherence to high ethical standards.
Integrity insists that your actions be consistent with established
codes of conduct and institutional values. It specifically requires
transparency in actions, speaking and acting with honesty and
candour, the pursuit of truth regardless of personal consequences,
and a dedication to fairness and justice. Integrity must especially
be manifested in leaders and commanders because of the powerful
effect of their personal example on peers and subordinates.
●
7
Loyalty must
be reciprocal
and based on
mutual trust.
To have integrity
is to have
unconditional
and steadfast
commitment
to a principled
approach to
meeting your
obligations while
being responsible
and accountable
for your actions.
Courage requires
constant nurturing and is
not suddenly
developed during
operations.
Courage: Courage is a distinctly personal quality that allows a person to disregard the cost of an action in terms of physical difficulty,
risk, advancement or popularity. Courage entails willpower and the
resolve not to quit. It enables making the right choice among
difficult alternatives. Frequently, it is a renunciation of fear that
must be made not once but many times. Hence, courage is both
physical and moral. Both types of courage are required because of
their essential complementarity and to meet the serious demands
the profession of arms makes on individuals. Courage requires
constant nurturing and is not suddenly developed during
operations. Ultimately, “Courageous actions are dictated by
conscience, of which war is the final test”. 7
Lord Moran, The Anatomy of Courage, 1st ed. (Gateshead, UK: Northumberland Press,
1945), 159.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
31
Honour is earned
when CF members uphold the
values and beliefs
of the Canadian
military ethos.
SECTION 5 THE MILITARY
ETHOS AND THE
WARRIOR’S HONOUR
A warrior’s honour is a slender hope, but it may be all there is to
separate war from savagery. And a corollary hope is that men can
be trained to fight with honour. Armies train people to kill, but they
also teach restraint and discipline.
—MICHAEL IGNATIEFF, THE WARRIOR’S HONOUR
Honour and the Military Ethos
he values, beliefs and expectations reflected in the Canadian military ethos are essential to military effectiveness, but they also
serve a more profound purpose. They constitute a style and
manner of conducting military operations that earn for soldiers, sailors
and air force members that highly regarded military quality — honour.
T
Honour itself flows from practising the military ethos. It comes from
being loyal to your unit and faithful to comrades in fulfilling your
duties. It comes with adhering fully to the law of armed conflict, especially in the humane treatment of prisoners of war. Honour insists that
all non-combatants be protected and accorded the dignity and other
considerations their situation may entitle them to.8 In total, honour is
earned by the men and women of the Canadian Forces when they
uphold the values and beliefs of the Canadian military ethos.
8
32
The special status and considerations to be given non-combatants are set out in all four
of the Geneva Conventions, as well as in B-GG-005-027/AF-022, Code of Conduct for
Canadian Forces Personnel (Office of the Judge Advocate General, 20 October 1999), 2-6,
2-9.
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
SECTION 6 CONCLUSION
he Canadian military ethos is neither static nor fixed but maintained and sustained by the accumulated actions of individuals
and groups, shaping it over time and ensuring that it remains
relevant. The commitment of leaders, professional development,
focused policies, supportive Environmental subcultures and honouring the past all strengthen and sustain the profession of arms in
Canada. Each must speak to the military ethos.
T
Figure 2-1 depicts the components of the ethos and illustrates how it
shapes military professionalism to achieve the desired end of performing Duty with Honour.
Figure 2-1 The Military Ethos
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
33
The Canadian
military ethos is
a living spirit —
one that finds
full expression
through the conduct of members
of the profession
of arms.
The Heart of Canadian Military Professionalism
The Canadian military ethos is not just a statement of values or a
checklist of idealized beliefs to be written and hung on a wall. It is a
living spirit — one that finds full expression through the conduct of
members of the profession of arms.
This ethos holds that armed forces are not inanimate things to be continually reconstructed and remodelled. Rather, professional armed
forces pre-eminently rely on the human dimension for success.
Functioning on this basis, the ethos defines and establishes the desired
institutional culture of the Canadian Forces. Reflecting national values
and beliefs leads to a unique Canadian style of military operations —
one in which CF members perform their mission and tasks to the
highest professional standards, meeting the expectations of Canadians
at large. The result is a Canadian Forces that performs its duty with a
warrior’s honour.
Victoria
Cross
34
Cross of
Valour
Star of
Star of
Military Valour Courage
CHAPTER 2 • STATEMENT OF THE CANADIAN MILITARY ETHOS
Medal of
Medal of
Military Valour Bravery
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION.................................
SECTION 2 THE MILITARY PROFESSION
IN CANADA.........................................
SECTION 3 FUNDAMENTAL IMPERATIVES
AND THE PROFESSIONAL
CONSTRUCT .......................................
SECTION 4 SUSTAINING THE PROFESSION .........
SECTION 5 CONCLUSION .....................................
36
37
43
55
61
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
hapter One explained military professionalism as a theoretical
construct made up of four attributes — responsibility, expertise,
identity and military ethos — operating within the boundaries
assigned by the government. The special role of the military ethos was
described as an idealized binding force or spirit. Chapter Two described
that ethos in light of its three components: beliefs and expectations
about military service; Canadian values; and core Canadian military
values. This chapter will flesh out how military professionalism is
understood and practised in Canada.
C
Section 1 describes the nature of the country’s civil-military relations,
which are conditioned by the functional imperative to achieve the highest level of professional effectiveness and the societal imperative to
remain responsive to the community the profession is sworn to protect.
Section 2 then discusses each of the four major attributes in terms of
how these imperatives affect them. Section 3 concludes with some
thoughts on sustaining the profession in Canada.
36
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
SECTION 2 THE MILITARY
PROFESSION IN CANADA
Civil-Military Relations
he Constitution Act of 1867 assigned Canada’s defence to the
federal government. Thereafter, Militia and National Defence
acts have specified how this would be executed in terms of
organization, size, command and civil control.
T
The profession of
arms in Canada
operates within
the institutional
context established by the
government
through its
constitutional
instruments.
A small regular force was created between 1871 and 1887 with the
establishment of three artillery batteries, the Royal Military
College of Canada, a troop of cavalry, three companies of
infantry and a school of mounted infantry. In the early days,
this force was primarily viewed as a training cadre for the
militia. Nonetheless, the nucleus of the full-time profession
of arms in Canada had been created. In due course, these
forces expanded with the addition of the Royal
Canadian Navy in 1910 and the Royal Canadian Air
Force in 1924. In 1968 the government unified the three
services and established the Canadian Forces.
The profession of arms in Canada has always operated
within the institutional context established by the government through its constitutional instruments. This
structure makes the representative of the Crown — the
Governor General — the Commander-in-Chief. In formal terms, though not in practice, there is
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
37
The CDS heads
up a military chain
of command that
is responsible for
the conduct of
military operations. The CDS is
the sole military
advisor to the
government.
a direct line of command from the head of state through the Chief of
the Defence Staff (CDS) to all the officers who hold the Queen’s commission, and through them to all members of the Canadian Forces.
The profession also operates within the context of a government
department headed by a Minister of the Crown responsible to
Parliament and the Canadian people, through the Prime Minister and
his Cabinet, for all the activities of his department, as stipulated by the
doctrine of responsible government. Below the Minister is the Deputy
Minister (DM) and the senior military officer (since 1966, the CDS).
The Governor in Council appoints both the Deputy Minister and the
Chief of the Defence Staff, and the CDS has direct access to the Prime
Minister should circumstances warrant such action. The Minister of
National Defence approves the promotions of all other General/Flag
officers, with the exception of the Judge Advocate General, on the
recommendation of the Chief of the Defence Staff.
Essentially, the roles and responsibilities of the Deputy Minister and
the CDS are divided along the lines of administering the Department
and directing the Canadian Forces, respectively.
In the Department of National Defence, a line of authority and accountability extends from the DM to every member of the Department
and the Forces who exercises modern comptrollership or financial
management, manages civilian human resources or contracts, or has
other authorities delegated by the DM.
To direct the Canadian Forces, the CDS heads up a military chain of
command that is responsible for the conduct of military operations
through the appropriate military echelons. The CDS is the sole military
advisor to the government and has equally important responsibilities
for the stewardship of the profession of arms embedded in the
Canadian Forces. It is these responsibilities that form the main subject
of this manual.9 In particular, the relationship between the dual aspects
of institutional command and control and professional responsibility,
particularly as they affect the CDS’s principal professional advisors, will
be explained under the heading “Professional Responsibilities.”
9
38
A specific and detailed description of the responsibilities for administering the
Department and directing the Canadian Forces is contained in the Organization and
Accountability Document of 13 September 1999. The Vice Chief of the Defence Staff has a
key role to play in this regard and is equally responsible, as the Chief of Staff, to both the
CDS and DM. He is also the senior resource manager at National Defence Headquarters
(NDHQ).
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
The Department of National Defence and the Canadian Forces are two
distinct entities and constitute two important components of the
overall national security structure of the country. This structure
includes all the other diplomatic, economic and information elements
essential to developing security policy. At the apex are the Prime
Minister and the Cabinet.Within this framework, the development and
articulation of Canada’s defence policy is among the most important
responsibilities of the Minister of National Defence.
Such policy is set within the larger context of national objectives and
policy priorities that are decided by the government as a whole.
Defence policy, as a subset of Canada’s overall security framework,
profoundly influences the nature of the profession of arms in Canada
by assigning the mission, roles and tasks to be undertaken by the
Canadian Forces and thereby establishes the general type of expertise
that members of the profession must master. Given the government’s
authority to adjust the boundaries within which the CF operates, these
borders are never absolutely rigid and this expertise will vary
over time and according to task. The responsibilities inherent in the
profession of arms, the identity and the ethos of all military
professionals further shape the profession and its relations with
civil authority.
The Department
of National
Defence and
the Canadian
Forces are two
distinct entities
and constitute
two important
components
of the overall
national security
structure.
Figure 3-1 The Civil-Military Relationship
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
39
The societal
imperative
demands that
the military
remains subordinate to civil
authority and
reflects, to an
appropriate
degree, societal
values and
norms.
Societal and Functional Imperatives
The functional
imperative
demands that the
military maintain
its professional
effectiveness.
The two imperatives and their associated responsibilities establish the
overall framework for civil-military relations in Canada and give rise to
two sets of responsibilities for the military, organizational and professional, as indicated in Figure 3-1.
40
The functional imperative requires that the military be granted a high
degree of what is referred to as rightful and actual authority over
technical military matters, including those dealing with doctrine, the
professional development of its members, discipline, military
personnel policy, and the internal organization of units and other
entities of the armed forces. Self-regulation in these areas contributes
significantly to professional effectiveness. In operations, the military
Reproduction authorized by the Library of Parliament
Photographer: Stephen Fenn
The very existence of armed forces creates two fundamental imperatives. The left side of Figure 3-1 indicates a societal imperative that the
military remain subordinate to civil authority and that it reflect, to an
appropriate degree, societal values and norms. The functional imperative depicted on the right side of the figure demands that the military
maintain its professional effectiveness for applying military force in the
defence of the nation. To achieve the first, the military must be well
integrated into its parent society. To achieve the second, the military is
distinguished from this society by its unique function. For example, the
expertise required to accomplish its mission and the values and norms
necessary to sustain a military force in combat are quite different from
anything in civil society.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
similarly has a high degree of autonomy at the tactical and operational
levels. The strategic level, however, requires further collaboration and
integration at the civil-military interface, and this dynamic relationship defies strict differentiation between the civil and military
components of the national security structure.
In essence, there are three sets of civil-military relationships operating
in the Canadian context. There is an important relationship between
the profession of arms and the society that depends on it for its security. There is also the political and structural relationship with the
government, established by law and by custom. The Prime Minister
and the Cabinet, through the Minister of National Defence, exercise
civil control at this level. Finally, there is an effective relationship with
public servants who provide continuity within the overall government
structure and manage the bureaucratic administration of government
on a day-to-day basis.
The CDS engages
in a continuous
dialogue with
civilian officials
and civil authorities to help
shape Canada’s
security policy.
In light of this overall structure, it is perhaps not surprising that civilmilitary relations characteristically exhibit a healthy tension between
control and oversight, and legitimate autonomy and self-regulation.
The CDS is charged in the National Defence Act with the “control and
administration” of the Canadian Forces. Thus, all direction from the
Minister of National Defence to the CF is executed through the office of
the CDS, and the senior leadership of the profession of arms, led by the
CDS, engages in a continuous dialogue with civilian officials and civil
authorities to help shape Canada’s security policy. This dialogue begins
in the National Defence Headquarters and thereafter extends to other
government departments and agencies, Cabinet, Parliament, society in
general, allies and a number of relevant international organizations.
The CDS and the DM, who together manage the integrated militarycivilian headquarters, draw on the complementary skills of military
and civilian personnel to carry out the business of the two organizations. Mutual respect and common understanding of the defence
mission ensure that all elements of defence — policy, military strategy,
economic/financial, military/civilian professional development and
technology — are coordinated as effectively and efficiently as possible.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
41
Only extensive
knowledge and
acceptance of
the democratic
political processes
that sustain the
Canadian state
and its relationship
to the international
system will allow
military professionals to collaborate
effectively in
this civil-military
equation.
Figure 3-2 depicts the relationship between the civilian and military
orientations. Politicians and civil servants balance competing demands
from a pluralist population and integrate political, social, economic and
financial programs to promote the country’s overall well-being.
Military professionals advise on what military capabilities are
necessary to support these national programs and help formulate
security policies that provide the stability and international influence
necessary to facilitate long-term success. The area of overlap is a
graphic demonstration that the distinction between policy and strategy
diminishes as the point of view is raised. Civil authorities must
integrate consideration of the means to achieve political objectives, and
military professionals must be cognizant of how political factors will
influence strategic plans.
Figure 3-2 The Interface between Civilian Policy and Military Strategy
Vigorous, non-partisan debate makes a major contribution to policy
decisions. In the final analysis, however, the civil authority decides how
the military will be used by setting political objectives and allocating
the appropriate resources, while military professionals develop the
force to achieve these objectives. Only extensive knowledge and acceptance of the democratic political processes that sustain the Canadian
state and its relationship to the international system will allow military
professionals to collaborate effectively in this civil-military equation.
42
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
SECTION 3 FUNDAMENTAL
IMPERATIVES AND THE
PROFESSIONAL CONSTRUCT
he societal and functional imperatives create a dynamic tension
between the fact that its unique function distinguishes the profession of arms from Canadian society and the need to
simultaneously keep it securely integrated in that same society.
Furthermore, the organizational structure of the profession must
respond to the complex demands of modern conflict and is therefore
differentiated internally in a number of ways. It is structured by
Environment, rank, occupation, specialty and various forms of
accountability, all of which contribute to the skills necessary in today’s
battlespace. These diverse structures must then be integrated to
provide the synergy to realize the full effectiveness of the profession. A
wide range of professional relationships — both externally with
key constituencies and internally among members — arise out of
this situation.
T
Organizational
responsibilities
are the “what”
and professional
responsibilities
are the “how” in
the profession
of arms.
These forces of differentiation and integration between society and the
military and within the profession itself profoundly affect the professional attributes of responsibility, expertise, identity and military
ethos, and thus help explain how the profession of arms functions
in Canada.
Responsibility
As noted, societal and functional imperatives give rise to two sets of
responsibilities. The first set consists of those organizational responsibilities that remain external to the military profession and include
obligations to Canadian society, to the Minister of National Defence
and the Government of Canada, within the Department of National
Defence and, internationally, to allies. The second set consists of
professional responsibilities to maintain the highest standards of
professional effectiveness on behalf of the Canadian people.
Essentially, organizational responsibilities are the “what” and professional responsibilities are the “how” in the profession of arms.
Together, these two sets of responsibilities maintain the effectiveness
of the forces as a whole by ensuring their responsiveness to civil
authority while defining the nature of professional effectiveness.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
43
The conditions of
military service
give rise to a
set of reciprocal
expectations
between the
profession
and society.
Organizational Responsibilities
The conditions of military service give rise to a set of reciprocal expectations between the profession and society. CF members serve
voluntarily and, as such, willingly accept the statutory authority of the
chain of command to compel members to perform any lawful duty at
any time. This includes accepting the risks to health and life of
performing hazardous duties or being placed in harm’s way. Members
are also subject to a much stricter degree of discipline than in civilian
organizations and must accept limitations on their rights and freedoms
to make public statements and engage in political activities as citizens.
The government and the people of Canada reciprocate by acknowledging certain formal obligations to service members. In lieu of the
unwritten social contract that has traditionally existed between the
military and the government, and, by extension, with the public at
large, the Standing Committee on National Defence and Veterans
Affairs concluded that the “national commitment — in essence a moral
commitment — ” to the Canadian Forces must be based on the
following concrete principles:
●
44
“That the members of the Canadian Forces are fairly and equitably
compensated for the services they perform and the skills they
exercise in performance of their many duties. And that such
compensation properly take into account the unique nature of
military service.”
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
●
●
●
●
“That all members and their families are provided with ready
access to suitable and affordable accommodation. Accommodation
provided must conform to modern standards and the reasonable
expectations of those living in today’s society.”
“That military personnel and their families be provided with
access to a full and adequate range of support services, offered in
both official languages, that will ensure their financial, physical
and spiritual well-being.”
“That suitable recognition, care and compensation be provided
to veterans and those injured in the service of Canada. Here the
guiding principle must always be compassion.”
“That members be assured reasonable career progression and
that in their service they be treated with dignity and respect. In
addition, they must be provided with the appropriate equipment
and kit commensurate with their tasking.”
The government’s response to the report took note of the committee’s
recommendations and reaffirmed its “commitment to the Canadian
Forces as a national institution.” It went on to say, “The men and
women of the Canadian Forces have made a tremendous contribution
to their country. They deserve the respect and appreciation of their
government and their fellow citizens.” 11
The profession meets its responsibility to communicate with the
Canadian people in a number of important ways that help explain the
requirements of military professionalism to Canadians and establish a
high degree of transparency in what the profession is doing and how.
For example, different types of public conferences permit dialogue
between military professionals and interested Canadians. Some of
these forums are directly defence-related, such as the Conference of
Defence Associations and the Security and Defence Forum. Others are
more general and involve interaction with the business community,
academia and various professional organizations. Ceremonial
10
Standing Committee on National Defence and Veterans Affairs, Moving Forward:
A Strategic Plan for Quality of Life Improvements in the Canadian Forces, October 1998,
<www.parl.gc.ca/InfoComDoc/36/1/NDVA/Studies/Reports/ndvarp03-e.htm#toc>
on August 3, 2003.
11
Government Response to the Report of the Standing Committee on National Defence
and Veterans Affairs (SCONDVA) on Quality of Life in the Canadian Forces, 25 March 1999,
<www.dnd.ca/hr/scondva/engraph/response1_e.asp?cat=1> on August 3, 2003.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
45
Military professionals recognize
that defining
clear political
objectives in a
timely manner
is never easy;
a complex mix
of foreign and
domestic considerations always
play a part in
the process.
Professional
advice must
take this into
consideration.
occasions remind everyone of the proud history, heritage and
traditions of the Canadian military and bring military professionals
and interested Canadians into close contact. The media also often act as
a critical intermediary, informing Canadians of what the profession
does, how it does it and why. And the presence of the primary reserve
in communities across the country presents an important and
powerful interactive relationship that enhances understanding of and
support for the profession of arms in Canada.
Organizational responsibilities within the Department of National
Defence and to the Government of Canada begin with the need to
accept the imperative of civil control of the military in the Canadian
democratic political system. Elected members of Parliament exercise
this control on behalf of the Canadian people. Furthermore, this
responsibility establishes standards of public accountability and transparency, as well as important relationships with a variety
of government entities. These include Parliament and those of its
committees responsible for defence matters, the Department of
Veterans Affairs, the Department of Foreign Affairs, the SolicitorGeneral, the Privy Council Office, the Treasury Board and the Office of
the Auditor-General. Additional organizational responsibilities are
imposed by such legislation as the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms, the Human Rights Act, the Official Languages Act, the
Employment Equity Act, the Privacy Act, the Access to Information Act,
the Financial Administration Act, the Department of Justice Act and the
Canadian Environmental Protection Act, among others.
Providing professional military advice to the government on a wide
range of issues that have military implications remains a further
organizational responsibility. As noted, the CDS, who is responsible for
military strategy including plans and requirements, plays a key role in
the policy process by providing advice on military requirements,
capabilities and options. This advice includes when to commit military
forces to help resolve a geopolitical problem, how these forces should be
used and above all the possible consequences, positive and negative, of
the use of such force. This advice must also include the consequences
for professional effectiveness if the military is not provided with
adequate resources.
46
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
At this political-strategic level, uncertainty and ambiguity are constant
factors in decision-making. Military professionals recognize that
defining clear political objectives in a timely manner is never easy; a
complex mix of foreign and domestic considerations always plays a
part in the process. Professional advice must take this into consideration, and the indispensable requirement for sound military advice in
this context involves the highly developed capacity for risk assessment.
The responsibility for providing such advice applies primarily to the
more senior ranks of the profession.
Professional Responsibilities
Professional responsibilities coexist with organizational responsibilities. The pre-eminent professional responsibilities are those associated
with maintaining operational effectiveness and the appropriate,
successful generation and use of military force. Therefore, professionals must be extremely competent in the generation and application of
armed force at sea, on land and in the air. Leaders at all levels need to
ensure that everyone properly understands the need for the fighting
spirit so central to the military ethos and success on operations. And
they are accountable to both government and society for how they
meet these serious obligations.
In discharging professional responsibilities, the CDS heads the profession of arms in Canada and is fully responsible to the government and
Canadian people for its well-being. He is primarily assisted in this task
by six principal professional advisors: the Vice Chief of the Defence
Staff (VCDS), the Chief of the Maritime Staff (CMS), the Chief of the
Land Staff (CLS), the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), the Deputy Chief of
the Defence Staff (DCDS) and the Assistant Deputy Minister (Human
Resources–Military), or ADM(HR–Mil).
The pre-eminent
professional
responsibilities
are those associated with
maintaining
operational
effectiveness
and the appropriate, successful
generation and
use of military
force.
The CDS heads
the profession of
arms in Canada
and is fully
responsible
to the government and
Canadian
people for its
well-being.
The people in each of these positions have specific roles and responsibilities within the institutional and command structure of the
Canadian Forces that account for the areas where their professional
advice to the CDS is predominantly focused.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
47
Under the direction
of the CDS, the
senior leadership
of the Canadian
Forces is responsible for the
overall health and
stewardship of
the profession.
The VCDS is the CDS’s deputy, as stipulated in the National Defence Act,
and provides advice across the full range of the Chief ’s responsibilities.
The three Environmental Chiefs of Staff (ECS) head the maritime, land
and air commands and are responsible for generating and maintaining
operationally ready forces and conducting routine operations. This
responsibility includes working with the DCDS to develop appropriate
joint doctrine within each Environment and providing the necessary
training in joint operations. Thus, the three Environmental Chiefs of
Staff provide the CDS with professional strategic advice on all aspects
of their command including related Environmental, technical, operational and personnel matters.
On behalf of the CDS, the DCDS provides operational direction to and
exercises command and control of forces employed on non-routine and
contingency operations. This institutional role makes the DCDS the
CDS’s principal professional advisor for joint operational doctrine.
The ADM(HR-Mil) is the principal professional advisor for strategic
guidance on military personnel matters and Canadian Forces compliance with related Government of Canada legislation.
Under the direction of the CDS, the senior leadership of the Canadian
Forces, starting with members of the Armed Forces Council (AFC), is
responsible for the overall health and stewardship of the profession,
including the maintenance of a healthy military ethos. The ethos
reconciles the functional and societal imperatives in ways that create
trust and confidence in the minds of Canadians, and together with the
mutual respect between military professionals and political authorities, this allows for a substantial degree of self-regulation. The CF Chief
Warrant Officer and the Command Chief Warrant Officer/Chief Petty
Officer 1st Class for each of the Environments share responsibility for
the proper functioning of the profession, especially in respect to good
order, discipline, and service customs and traditions.
The professional responsibilities of new members involve personal
development and adherence to all the tenets of the profession; in other
words, acting professionally on an individual basis. As members rise in
experience and rank, so does their responsibility for the leadership,
well-being and professional development of other members of the
profession. They constantly strive to align the culture of the Canadian
Forces with the profession’s ethos.
48
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
Leadership in this area also involves managing the evolution of the
profession to meet future requirements. Therefore, beyond providing
the resources for today’s needs, professional judgement is necessary to
address the issues surrounding resources for emerging requirements.
This includes reassessing the expertise required to execute changing
roles and new tasks. Equally, such stewardship must anticipate,
recognize and respond to changing social and cultural conditions
while ensuring that fundamental values, both military and Canadian,
are preserved.
Military members
are at all times
representatives of
the Government
of Canada in the
broadest sense.
Professional responsibilities to allies arise from membership in a number of international organizations and adherence to specific
international treaties and agreements. These responsibilities, though
of a lower order than those to Canada, are nonetheless important and
involve responsiveness to commitments, interoperability and the
evolution of combined operations. The respect accorded Canadian
military professionals by colleagues serving in allied militaries in
which they serve, through an extensive system of exchanges and
liaison missions, is an important element of identity. These exchanges
and liaison missions involve both officers, WOs and NCOs detached to
other national militaries, as well as a number of important international organizations such as NATO and the UN. Participation in a wide
range of international exercises, practically on a continuous basis,
directly improves professional competence and the ability to operate
with allies.
Taken together, these professional responsibilities impose a particular
and critical obligation on members of the profession of arms in
Canada. Military members are at all times representatives of the
Government of Canada in the broadest sense. Even in the absence of
any other agent or source of Canadian authority, they must act to
promote the country’s interest and well-being under all circumstances.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
49
Only through the
collective, professional application
of all of the
expertise at the
organization’s
disposal can
operational
effectiveness and
mission success
be achieved.
Expertise
Much of the expertise claimed by the profession of arms uniquely
separates the military professional from civilians. At the same time, the
societal imperative requires that members of the profession understand the political structure, the rule of law and civil-military relations
in their parent society. These subjects form part of the professional’s
necessary expertise and assume increasing importance with higher
rank so the senior leadership provides effective stewardship, as well as
sound advice to civil authorities.
Internally, expertise is clearly differentiated and distributed throughout
the profession. Because primacy is granted to operations, expertise is
organized around a core of skills directly related to the application of
military force and other types of knowledge. Specialized and
support knowledge then permit the core body of knowledge to be most
effectively applied.
Core Knowledge: Core knowledge includes such subjects as the
structure of conflict, tactics, tactical doctrine, operational art, strategy,
combat leadership, and the application of technology to operations and
doctrine. This expertise adheres primarily to the three Environments
and constitutes the essential competencies of what have traditionally
been called the combat or fighting elements in the navy, army
and air force.
50
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
At the individual tactical level, these may be as different as the fighting
skills of an infantry section commander compared to those of a navy
destroyer’s captain or a CF-18’s pilot. Orchestrating the battle at higher
tactical levels and leading these forces in combat, however, are skills
that have a great deal in common. The core body of knowledge at the
operational and strategic levels is essentially the same.
Increasingly, expertise related to joint, combined and inter-agency
operations is also required. Whereas most core expertise in the past
related directly to distinct maritime, land and air environments, and
thus contributed in particular ways to differentiated identities,
expertise in joint ventures will have a more integrative influence and
will consequently affect the application of the military ethos in such
areas as concepts of teamwork and leadership and the evolution of
Environmental cultures. The DCDS and the three ECSs share responsibility for identifying precisely what this expertise is and how to
incorporate it into CF and Environment doctrine.
Supporting Knowledge: Supporting knowledge includes everything
necessary to support a large organization whose primary function is to
operate effectively across the spectrum of conflict, up to and including
combat. This expertise is normally organized through highly differentiated systems of support, such as a communications, logistic, human
resources or legal system.
The division of
expertise between
core and supporting knowledge
characterizes
the collective
nature of the
profession of
arms.
Dual professionals, operating
within the limits
of their civilian
professional
expertise, have
an ethical duty to
balance the needs
of the individual
against the needs
of the CF.
The division of expertise between the core and support fields of knowledge characterizes the collective nature of the profession of arms. Only
through the collective, professional application of all of the expertise at
the organization’s disposal can operational effectiveness and mission
success be achieved. Regardless of rank, role or technical speciality,
each member makes an indispensable contribution to the collective
whole. Each is a member of the profession of arms first and foremost.
Specialized Knowledge: The profession of arms in Canada is also
characterized by the presence of groups whose expertise is not specific
to the military but organized in its own right by civilian professions.
Doctors, lawyers, clergy, engineers and psychologists, to name but a
few, belong to external professional associations and hold themselves
responsible to a second professional ethic, as well as the military ethos.
In effect, groups external to the military profession can legally
discipline these professionals under certain circumstances.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
51
There is a common
body of knowledge
that plays an
integrating role
through the development of a basic
understanding
of the use of
armed force.
As dual professionals, such people provide specialized advice and services to the chain of command on issues that relate to the well-being of
individuals and on collective matters in support of the organization.
Furthermore, leaders in turn require specialized assistance to deal
effectively with the unique demands and burdens that military service
imposes. Medical, legal, spiritual and a wide range of other personnel
services are essential to the well-being of the individuals who collectively make up the organization and hence to the health of the
organization itself.
Dual professionals are bound by the military ethos and their responsibility to the Canadian Forces to resolve circumstances where there is a
conflict between operational imperatives and other professional considerations. They must understand and accept the commander’s
overriding responsibility for mission accomplishment. Operating
within the limits of their civilian professional expertise, they have an
ethical duty to balance the needs of the individual against the needs of
the group. They must, however, understand and conform to operational
objectives and direction unless these are clearly unlawful. In turn,
leaders throughout the chain of command must understand the importance of the services provided by dual professionals and carefully weigh
the consequences to the individual and the organization when defining
the operational imperative and seeking to accomplish the mission.
Common Body of Knowledge: Although military professionals are
differentiated in part by the kinds of expertise they possess, the profession must act as a coherent whole. There is, therefore, a common body
of knowledge that achieves this coherence, plays an integrating role
through the development of a basic understanding of the generation
and use of armed force, and allows each member to relate his
or her function to the overall objective of the ordered application of
military force.
Imparting such basic knowledge is an important part of the early
socialization process and becomes increasingly more substantive as the
member progresses. The common body of knowledge is upgraded
throughout a member’s career.
Beyond such subjects as Canadian military history, this knowledge
includes fundamental leadership theory; management theory and
practice, especially resource management; the importance and role of
military forces; the theory and practice of military professionalism;
communications; and ethics.
52
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
Military Identity
Members of the profession of arms are differentiated first by operational
environment — traditionally, sea, land and air — and then by the support and/or specialist function they perform in operations. They are
further differentiated in operations by specific roles within each of these
functions. Finally, members of the profession are clearly differentiated
according to rank. One fundamental distinction divides the commissioned officers and non-commissioned members. Officers are designated
as junior, senior or General/Flag, while the non-commissioned are
further differentiated as members, non-commissioned officers (NCOs)
and warrant officers (Warrant Officer, Master Warrant Officer and
Chief Warrant Officer) and the naval equivalents. Each of these many
distinctions accounts for part of the military professional’s identity.
Military professionals in Canada
are unified by a
concept of loyalty
to the Canadian
Forces that transcends particular
differentiation
by Environment
or role.
These distinct identities coalesce, however, around the concept of
loyalty to the rule of law and the government. In fact, this overriding
loyalty is at the apex of a hierarchy of loyalties that operates, in
descending order, from the law and government to the Canadian Forces
and thereafter through individual Environments to unit and branch.
Consequently, military professionals in Canada are unified by a concept of loyalty to the Canadian Forces that transcends particular
differentiation by Environment or role.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
53
Members of the
profession of arms
in Canada also
share a common
loyalty to the
Canadian Forces
and support and
promote policies
that enhance the
organizational
effectiveness of
this unified force.
Ethos
The difference between members of the profession of arms and
Canadian society is most clearly expressed in the military ethos; that is,
through identifying the fundamental military values and the unique
beliefs and expectations about military service. However, the inclusion
of basic Canadian values, and the paramount importance of service to
Canada before self, helps ensure that military professionals remain
firmly linked to their parent society.
As indicated above, the military ethos also codifies certain beliefs and
expectations about military service that bind all members. All accept
that no one is exempt from being ordered into harm’s way.All accept the
obligation to bear arms as required except where a legal basis might
make an exception, e.g., for chaplains. Finally, all understand that the
core military values — duty, loyalty, integrity and courage — are at the
heart of the profession of arms.
Duty is the first core military value and best exemplifies what it means
to be a military professional. To do one’s duty means understanding
and meeting all responsibilities with integrity and courage.
Members of the profession of arms in Canada also share a common
loyalty to the Canadian Forces and support and promote policies that
enhance the organizational effectiveness of this unified force.
54
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
SECTION 4 SUSTAINING
THE PROFESSION
aintaining the highest standards of professionalism is an
ongoing challenge that requires a high level of commitment
and effort on the part of all military professionals. Key factors
essential to achieving this objective are outstanding leadership;
supportive policies and programs; focused professional development;
respect for history, heritage and tradition; and effective, credible
self-regulation.
M
Leadership
Strong and effective leaders are at the heart of military professionalism. Such leaders ensure that the profession is constantly evolving to
higher planes of effectiveness and performance. They set and maintain
the necessary standards, and they set an example that inspires and
encourages all members to reflect these standards in their day-to-day
conduct. Leaders at every level contribute to professionalism through
their influence on education, training and self-development, always
seeking to make every aspect of military experience professionally
instructive and rewarding. They demand excellence in performance
and generally shape the environment to encourage all to contribute.
The profession
is sustained
through leadership; policies
and programs;
professional
development;
history, heritage
and tradition; and
self-regulation
Strong and
effective leaders
ensure that the
profession is
constantly
evolving to
higher planes
of effectiveness
Above all, effective leaders exemplify the military ethos, and especially
the core military values that are the essence of military professionalism. They make sure that all understand that their duty to country and
colleagues is central to the profession of arms. They demonstrate that
loyalty can and must be applied both upwards to superiors and civil
authority and downwards to subordinates.
Such loyalty can only be sustained, particularly when the tension
between achieving the mission and ensuring the well-being of
subordinates is high, through exhibiting unassailable integrity. All
must know that a leader’s decisions reflect an honest and truthful
assessment of the situation. Professionals account for these decisions
and stand by them.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
55
Institutional
policies and
programs on
personnel, ethics,
education, training, doctrines,
careers or a
healthy workplace must
support and
reinforce the
military ethos
and the attributes
of military
professionalism.
Finally, leaders act courageously, both physically but more
especially morally.
In sum, doing what is right on the basis of available information
encapsulates all of these values.
Policies and Programs
Institutional policies and programs on personnel, ethics, education,
training, doctrines, careers or a healthy workplace must support and
reinforce the military ethos and the attributes of military professionalism. All such policies must promote the core military values, discipline
and fighting spirit. Human resources policies and quality-of-life programs should be grounded in the relevant attributes of responsibility
and expertise, and reflect the member’s role, rank and responsibilities
within the profession. Only through the promulgation of policies
aligned with these principles will the identity of military professionals
remain distinct from their civilian colleagues and fully reflect their
primary purpose.
The senior leadership of the profession guide the policies, while the
ADM(HR-Mil) has a special role in this area as the person responsible
for ensuring that military personnel policies fully support the highest
standards of professionalism across the Canadian Forces.
Professional Development
Professional development is central to a healthy profession of arms. In
the first instance, it is the mechanism whereby new entrants are socialized into the profession as they are made aware of the military ethos
and begin the process of internalizing its philosophy of service. As
members increasingly take on the full identity of military professionals
and accept the responsibilities inherent in this concept, the process of
developing the necessary expertise is accelerated.
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CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
Early development is basically rules-based. Members acquire initial
skills in which the need for keen judgement is not as pronounced. The
fundamental basis for development must quickly evolve into a
principles-based approach, however, so development for military
professionals thereafter consists of encouraging them to think critically, to be innovative and to carefully weigh courses of action.
Dilemmas, both intellectual and moral, are the norm in the complex
operational and socio-cultural environments in which the military
professional functions today and into the future. The highest standards
of professionalism can only be sustained if the professional development system prepares members for this reality over their whole career.
Professional
development
is a cumulative
process, with
members acquiring the necessary
professional
qualifications,
identity and
understanding
over time.
Professional development is a cumulative process, with members
acquiring the necessary professional qualifications, identity and
understanding over time. The common body of knowledge that unifies
all members of the profession must be mastered over a member’s
career. New members are first exposed to this body of knowledge, and
as they progress, the common body of knowledge is expanded in
breadth and in depth.At the same time, the core knowledge required to
apply military force directly is imparted to those responsible for this
function at ever-higher levels of capability and understanding. The
development of all support and specialist members occurs in a similar
fashion. At the pinnacle of the professional’s career, he or she is truly
expert and has developed the capacity for sound judgement on the
application of military force.
The complex governance challenge inherent in this process is met
through centralized planning and concept development and decentralized execution. The ADM(HR-Mil) is responsible for the development
of the common body of knowledge and for most of its delivery. Each
Environment participates in the delivery of some of the common body
of knowledge but focuses primarily on the educational, training and
experiential pillars of developing core and support expertise.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
57
History, Heritage and Traditions
Knowing Canada’s military history, heritage and traditions reinforces the
profession by demonstrating and valuing the importance of intangibles.
These intangibles include the pride that comes with celebrating battles
won and conflicts prevented, as well as an appreciation of the motivating capacity of military traditions and ceremony. It calls for honouring
past accomplishments and celebrating the unique customs of the three
Environments. Commemorating the proud history of Canada’s armed
forces, while preserving customs and traditions that enhance cohesion
and esprit de corps, are vital requirements for maintaining and sustaining Canadian military professionalism.
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CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
Self-Regulation
Controlling what it does is an essential characteristic of any profession,
including the profession of arms.
This control is accorded the profession by society at large because its
function is essential to the well-being of that society and the ability to
execute it cannot be found anywhere else. Members of the profession of
arms must therefore self-regulate in a manner that sustains the trust
and confidence of the government and society it serves.
Admission, progression and exit from the profession are regulated with
due regard for the equality provisions of federal statutes and the principles of merit adopted by Canada’s democratic society. This ensures that
suitable candidates become members and those who fall short of the
standards are removed lawfully, pursuant to the organizational
responsibility to respect constitutional norms and legislated obligations.
Members of the
profession of
arms must
self-regulate
in a manner
that sustains
the trust and
confidence of
the government
and society
it serves.
The profession must also regulate the systematic, theory-based knowledge that forms its foundation. Many educational and training
institutions throughout the Canadian Forces are continuously
developing professional expertise. These institutions include the
schools that teach leadership and operations courses to officers and
NCMs, and the Canadian Defence Academy and its subordinate
elements: the Canadian Forces College, the Royal Military College of
Canada, the Canadian Forces Leadership Institute and the NCM
Professional Development Centre. The three Environments also have
distinct and unique bodies of knowledge that enable them to dominate
their particular spectrum of the modern battlespace, and they are
responsible to ensure that this knowledge remains current.
The overall body of professional knowledge is usually codified into
various forms of doctrine. While it borrows freely from a wide range of
external disciplines, these are all incorporated into the central
expertise necessary to apply military force. The profession encourages
and promotes discussion and debate on these issues to inform decision-making, maintain an ongoing dialogue among the full
membership and improve the overall health of the profession itself.
Such debate occurs in professional journals, doctrine boards, committees and institutions of higher learning throughout the profession.
The profession is managed on an ongoing basis largely according to
such internal instruments as the Queen’s Regulations and Orders and a
wide variety of policies and doctrines. Progression, status, awards and
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
59
While the
profession is
granted a certain
latitude for
self-regulation,
it is nonetheless
accountable to
civil authority.
rank are normally internal matters subject to review by the senior
leadership of the profession. The profession’s own Code of Service
Discipline sets the standards of good order and discipline. This Code
provides the legal basis for the profession to address breaches of
discipline through the use of service tribunals (Summary Trials and
Courts Martial.) Beyond these formal mechanisms, military professionals act with a high degree of self-discipline, minimizing resort to
these instruments to ensure good order.
In addition to the Code, a variety of other investigative instruments
internal to the profession, such as Summary Investigations and Boards
of Inquiry, support administrative decision-making and managing
personnel and material. The CDS also provides for the regulation of the
profession by issuing orders and instructions such as his Guidance to
Commanding Officers, as well as establishing and controlling rules of
engagement for operations. The CDS may also from time to time call for
special boards and committees to report on matters subject to professional regulation. The Chief of Review Services carries out program
evaluations and conducts independent internal audits. This office
provides a focus for professional ethics and conflict of interest.
While the profession is granted a certain latitude for self-regulation, it
is nonetheless accountable to civil authority. Parliament has an important oversight duty, and in fact the CDS reports to it annually on the
state of the institution and the profession. Senior military professionals
frequently appear before Parliamentary committees to tell them about
a wide range of institutional and professional issues.
The Canadian Forces and the profession are also subject to oversight
and review by certain central agencies whose arm’s-length review of all
departments is essential to running the government effectively. These
agencies have the formal statutory status to intervene when necessary
and include the Privy Council Office, the Treasury Board and the Office
of the Auditor-General. The latter reports annually to Parliament on its
assessment of the Department of National Defence, including the
Canadian Forces, and these reports invariably have some impact on the
profession of arms.
60
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
SECTION 5 CONCLUSION
healthy profession of arms achieves the appropriate balance
between the functional imperative of professional effectiveness
and the societal imperative to ensure subordination to civil
authority and reflection of national values. One important measure of
how successfully this balance has been achieved is the legitimacy
bestowed on the profession by civil authority, and especially by
Canadian society. The public is certainly influenced by its perception of
the military as competent in the execution of its roles. And as long as
the Canadian Forces is employed in complex and dangerous operations
across the spectrum of conflict, this competency is assumed by the
public to include a high degree of combat capability.
A
From the perspective of Canadians, however, it is not only what the
profession does, but how it does it. In other words, the profession
must meet public expectations of consistent and exemplary
behaviour and conduct — a requirement that can best be met
by insisting and ensuring that Canadian military professionals
are always seen to be performing their duty with honour.
CHAPTER 3 • THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS IN CANADA
61
SECTION 1 THE ENDURING NATURE OF THE
PROFESSION OF ARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
SECTION 2 MANAGING THE EVOLUTION
OF THE PROFESSION OF ARMS . . . . . . . 68
SECTION 3 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
SECTION 1 THE ENDURING
NATURE OF THE PROFESSION
OF ARMS
Introduction
he Canadian profession of arms reflects the historical development of the country and its role on the international stage,
which have been profoundly affected by both total war and more
limited armed conflict over the past 100 years.
T
After the Second World War, and for the first time in Canadian history,
large standing forces were maintained at a high level of operational
readiness to prosecute the Cold War. During this period, the Canadian
Forces undertook a wide range of missions, including a major role in
international peacekeeping, each contributing to the distinctiveness of
Canadian military professionalism. With the end of the Cold War,
traditional peacekeeping evolved in response to changing conceptions
of international security and stability and an emphasis on human
rights and humanitarian concerns. This brought new, dangerous,
morally complex and uniquely challenging missions that tested the
profession to its core. Today, a smaller, multi-purpose force, determined to be inter-operable with allies, continues to execute a daunting
array of tasks.
With the end of
the Cold War,
traditional peacekeeping evolved
in response
to changing
conceptions of
international
security and
stability, and an
emphasis on
human rights
and humanitarian
concerns.
As always, the CF continues to operate according to the principles of
collective security through an array of international organizations and
allied coalitions. To remain successful, the profession of arms in
Canada must continue to adapt to maintain the highest standards of
professionalism as it performs its duty for Canadians.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
63
Decisions and
actions taken by
NCOs, warrant
officers and their
subordinates
can, and often
do, have consequences up to
and including
the strategic and
political level.
A Coherent Strategy for the Future
How successfully the Canadian Forces meets the challenges of tomorrow will in part be determined by how the attributes of the profession
evolve to respond to the changing environment and are shaped by the
strategic guidance provided by senior leadership. Managing this change
is a critical issue. The profession would be rendered irrelevant by
responding too slowly. But acting precipitously, without careful thought
and judgement, might take the profession down the wrong path and
render it ineffective.
The CF can now operate effectively across a spectrum of conflict in concert with our allies, particularly the United States. Canadian defence
policy and several strategic-level CF and DND documents enunciate a
strategy to ensure this capability in the future. Based on this guidance,
a long-term program of professional development designed to enhance
the professionalism of both officers and NCMs has begun.
To respond effectively to the external environment, the profession will
need to continually develop a higher order of understanding and
knowledge of new forms of conflict. This in turn will have direct consequences on the attributes of responsibility and expertise. The nature of
the environment will require that the highest standards of professionalism be exhibited by all ranks.
This requirement is operative today and can be captured and explained
by the concept of the “strategic corporal.” In effect, decisions and
actions taken by NCOs, warrant officers and their subordinates can, and
often do, have consequences up to and including the strategic and political level as the changing nature of operations expands the roles and
responsibilities of NCMs. These realities will raise issues surrounding
responsibility, expertise, identity and ethos.
64
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
Analyses of long-term strategic defence have forecast potentially
far-reaching changes in the environment of the future that may pose
significant challenges for the profession of arms. These changes are
concentrated in four categories: technology, geopolitics, government
policy, and socio-cultural dynamics and demography in Canada. The
challenges posed by such changes will impose special burdens on
leadership at all levels, but particularly on those senior leaders
responsible for the stewardship of the profession.
Forecasting the future operating environment is at best an uncertain
venture, but these leaders must recognize the professional implications
of these challenges and respond to them in a proactive and timely
manner. As illustrated in the scenario-based planning approach
adopted for departmental strategic planning, the key to future success
is to rely less on the attempt to accurately predict the likely
requirement and instead to prepare for a range of requirements in
dynamic professional concepts, professional development and flexible
force structures.
The key to
future success
is to rely less
on the attempt
to accurately
predict the likely
requirement, and
instead prepare
for a range of
requirements.
Relevance
ensures that
the profession
continues to
meet Canadians’
expectations.
Principles to Guide the Evolution
of the Profession of Arms
Carefully managing the evolution of the profession in light of
the following principles is the only way to achieve the desired
outcome — a professional, operationally effective miltary that enjoys
the trust and confidence of Canadians.
Relevance
Professions exist to provide an essential service to society. In the
case of the military, the service entails defending the country and
contributing to its security interests. The principle of relevance
speaks to the need to ensure that the profession continues to meet
Canadians’ expectations.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
65
Openness ensures
that professional
knowledge and
practices are current and germane.
Consistency
ensures that
responsibilities,
expertise and
identity, as well as
the manifestation
of the military
ethos across the
profession, must
be integrated,
coordinated
and aligned.
To do this, it must be demonstrably capable of succeeding across the
full range of missions that could be assigned by the government.
Furthermore, this operational capability must be maintained in the
context of a military ethos that ensures that the profession as a whole
conducts itself honourably. To be relevant, the profession must be
accorded full legitimacy by Canadians because of its operational effectiveness, combat capability, reflection of Canadian values, and
adherence to the core military values of duty, loyalty, integrity and
courage. This legitimization is shown by the public support, trust and
confidence bestowed on the profession of arms in Canada.
Openness
Professions are responsible for performing unique functions based on
a systematic body of theory-based knowledge and practices. The principle of openness speaks to the profession’s need to ensure that
professional knowledge and practices are current and germane.
Consequently, the profession must incorporate a philosophy of
openness to novel ideas and anticipate changes to meet future
challenges. New responsibilities and different ways of doing things
must be welcomed if they strengthen professionalism.
In effect, the profession must adopt the fundamental features of a
learning organization, one that values looking outside its own
boundaries for information and knowledge and that dedicates effort to
the generation, consideration and dissemination of new concepts
within. Moving the profession as a whole to higher planes of effectiveness depends on this principle.
Consistency
The profession of arms exists within a complex formal structure that
requires that the attributes of responsibility, expertise and identity be
differentiated and distributed within the profession, yet coordinated
and synchronized to ensure effectiveness. The principle of consistency
speaks to the need to ensure that assigned responsibilities, expertise
and identity, as well as the manifestation of the military ethos across
the profession, are integrated, coordinated and aligned so the Canadian
Forces maintains its ability to achieve missions rapidly and decisively.
66
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
New responsibilities may be acquired, but the fundamental ones to
country, government and professional colleagues will continue.
Expertise will remain differentiated by rank and function but
integrated by mission requirements. Responsibilities and expertise
will continue to differentiate identity among members of the
profession, but these will continue to be integrated through the
strength of the Canadian military ethos held in common and by
retaining essential traditions.
Leadership and stewardship of the military profession must, therefore,
be a primary concern of senior and warrant officers to ensure that this
complex combination of adaptation and integration guarantees
operational success in the future.
Reciprocity
Reciprocity
ensures an
appropriate,
principle-based
balance of the
expectations and
obligations both
between the
profession and
Canadian society,
and between the
profession as a
whole and its
members.
The profession of arms serves society by exercising control over
its assigned unique functions and over those members of society who
volunteer to serve in the profession. The principle of reciprocity speaks
to the need to ensure an appropriate, principle-based balance of
the expectations and obligations both between the profession
and Canadian society, and between the profession as a whole and
its members.
Externally, the respect, legitimacy and self-regulation accorded the
profession by Canadians indicates that the people trust and expect the
CF will achieve assigned missions in a professional manner.
Internally, this principle addresses the responsibility for the care of all
members, based on the recognition that membership will necessarily
infringe on the full range of rights and freedoms enjoyed by other
citizens and therefore incurs an added moral obligation to address
members’ requirements. This obligation applies to all preparations
before operations, the conduct of such operations, and the continued
care of members and their families on return from operations. It also
means that senior leaders have the implicit responsibility to advocate
within professional boundaries for the resources to provide the necessary care and to allocate them effectively, in line with the mutual
understanding between society, government and the profession of the
moral commitment that binds the profession of arms and the country.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
67
The principles of
relevance, openness, consistency
and reciprocity
will guide the
evolution of each
of the attributes
of military
professionalism.
The broader
approach to the
practice of the
profession of arms
will not diminish
the importance
of maintaining
a world-class
combat capability,
but it will involve
a certain evolution
to a more inclusive
conception
of military
professionalism.
SECTION 2 MANAGING
THE EVOLUTION OF THE
PROFESSION OF ARMS
Adapting the Attributes of the Profession
ow these four principles can be applied to adapting the profession can be illustrated by examining the influence of
technological, geopolitical, political and socio-cultural trends
on the attributes of the professional construct. Although not exhaustive, these examples provide a broad view of the pressures that will
affect the professional attributes and how the Canadian Forces must
evolve both its organization and the practice of the profession. The
principles of relevance, openness, consistency and reciprocity will
guide the development of each of the attributes of military professionalism, but the relative weight will vary according to what change is
being addressed and how it affects a particular attribute.
H
Mission and Roles: Operational Boundaries in the
Profession of Arms
Taken together, the trends identified will result in changes to the types
of missions assigned by political authority. The need to protect human
rights on a global scale, to establish humanitarian regimes that bring
peace and security to violent and insecure regions and states, and to
prosecute the war on terrorism on a broad front to root out its fundamental causes is increasingly recognized by governments and societies
around the world. This may have profound implications for the
progress of international law and international governance.
The effects of these developments will go well beyond the United
Nations (UN) and alter in significant ways how international organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the
European Union (EU) and the Organization for Security and
Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) operate. In addition to providing
security in the traditional sense for their members, these organizations, in partnership with other international and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), may increasingly be involved in securing
stability beyond their borders through conflict resolution, preventive
action, and humanitarian and human rights interventions even before
conflict breaks out.
68
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
This broader approach to the practice of the profession of arms will
not diminish the importance of maintaining a world-class combat
capability, but it will involve a certain evolution to a more inclusive
conception of military professionalism. It will be more internationalist, receptive to a wider range of missions, roles and tasks, and
cognizant of the underlying causes of large-scale violence that often
precipitate military action in many parts of the world.
Changes to
responsibility
will result from
adjustments to
new roles and
missions.
The principle of openness will call for the profession to proactively
seek an understanding of these changes, while the principle of consistency will require addressing an evolving response to changing
missions and roles in a comprehensive and integrated way.
Responsibility
Geopolitical change and government policy are the most likely factors
to have an impact on responsibility. Changes in missions and roles
must be guided especially by the principles of relevance and openness
to be sure the profession responds appropriately to government direction. It will also be important, however, to consider consistency in
maintaining the core of professional effectiveness.
The profession of arms will remain anchored on two fundamental
responsibilities. First, in accord with its raison d’être, it will be responsible for serving Canadians through their elected officials. Second, it
must manage the profession’s evolution so that the Forces will continue
to defend Canada and its interests. This will involve the ongoing
alignment of the other attributes to meet possible future adjustments
to new roles and missions. Such alignment may entail certain
additional responsibilities as the government responds to changes in
the international system.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
69
The expertise
resident in the
profession of
arms will remain
focused on the
primary function
of providing for
the ordered
application of
military force.
However, defining,
acquiring and
maintaining the
appropriate body
of new expertise
in the face of
future challenges
will be a demanding and ongoing
task.
70
This broader approach to security brings with it a set of responsibilities
that expand those primary responsibilities to the nation-state. Military
professionals will be responsible in part for the success of any multilateral and multinational operations the Government of Canada
participates in. They will be responsible as well for maintaining
effective relationships with a wider range of actors involved in conflict
resolution, with all its implications for peace, security, prosperity and
respect for human rights.
Expertise
Both technology and geopolitical change are pre-eminent sources of
change for expertise. Relevance and openness will be significant in
making adequate responses, while consistency will ensure that the
expertise resident in the profession of arms will remain focused on the
primary function of providing for the ordered application of
military force.
In the short term, the expertise resident in the profession of arms will
remain distributed by Environment and function. Some redistribution
of expertise by rank is already occurring, however, and is likely to accelerate. In the longer term, redistribution by Environment and the
merging of functions may have a significant effect on the overall
distribution of expertise within the profession.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
This expertise will continue to include the skills directly related to
operations and the necessary support, but all the factors of change will
affect expertise to some extent. The impact of technology will likely be
profound and require military professionals to become more
knowledgeable about more topics. In addition, the greater complexity
of joint and combined operations will demand different skill sets
and competencies.
Geopolitical factors will always be significant and will often produce
new and different types of operational demands, as well as new threats
to counter. Deciding how to conduct these operations will certainly call
for new conceptual models to help the profession redefine the new
nature of conflict and security, broadly understood, as well as different
kinds of knowledge and skill sets.
Asymmetrical, non-traditional threats and threats from non-state
actors will also lead to increased collaboration with a range of
different agencies, with the likelihood of overlapping responsibilities
and function.
Defining, acquiring and maintaining the appropriate body of professional expertise in the face of these challenges will be a demanding
and ongoing task. Areas that will require attention include joint
concepts and doctrine; broader cultural awareness; understanding
international law and governance; working with non-NATO militaries
as UN partners; understanding multinational operations, including
complex chains of command; and recognizing the role of the media as
both a filter of information and an instrument to influence local and
global opinion.
Military Identity
As the factors of change alter responsibility and expertise, they will
inevitably shape identity. This process must be guided by the principle
of consistency, above all to ensure that military professionals continue
to see themselves as distinct from civil society, performing an essential
and unique service to Canada while operating according to the principle of reciprocity.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
71
In the final analysis, leadership
and stewardship
of the profession
will always
involve ensuring
that all members
have a clear
understanding of
who they are as
Canadian military
professionals.
The military
ethos must
respond to the
evolution of
all the other
attributes.
Military identity must remain essentially defined by the primary function of applying force in the resolution of political problems. Thus, the CF
will continue to see itself as the primary force in the defence of Canada,
continuously prepared to act decisively and overwhelmingly to help create the conditions that allow for viable international relations.
As technology changes the battlespace, questions concerning who are
the real operators and decision-makers will arise. Will military professionals be leading in the traditional sense, or will managing this
battlespace become the most significant function? Geopolitical developments may also combine with these factors for more issues
concerning identity. Long-range precision weapons, uninhabited
weapons systems at sea, on land and in the air, the ubiquitous nature of
information operations, and the presence in the conflict zone of a variety of actors, such as NGOs, paramilitaries and special operations
personnel, may give rise to unusual ethical dilemmas and blur the distinction between the military professional and other combatants. In
some circumstances, the question of whose expertise is the most relevant could affect the issue of professional military identity.
These pressures will exert themselves slowly and with a different
impact on the three Environments. Nonetheless, both the collective
profession and individual members must adapt appropriately. In the
final analysis, leadership and stewardship of the profession will always
involve ensuring that all members have a clear understanding of who
they are as Canadian military professionals.
Military Ethos
The military ethos must respond to the evolution of all the other
attributes. To do so effectively, all the principles will come to bear: reciprocity, to ensure the well-being of members; relevance, to maintain
the link with Canadian society; consistency, to retain the core military
values crucial to a fighting force; and openness, to allow for necessary
adaptation.
The military ethos must always perform its role as the unifying spirit,
guiding the profession of arms and the military professional in an
uncertain world — effectiveness and legitimacy demand it. Although
the Canadian military ethos will remain the cornerstone of military
professionalism, and resist change that could undermine professional
72
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
effectiveness, it will need to adjust appropriately. Socio-cultural
changes, for example, are ongoing in Canadian society, and the ethos
must remain aligned with fundamental Canadian values while
ensuring the profession’s ability to perform its function.
Geopolitical and technological changes that will affect responsibility
and expertise must be reflected in the ethos in ways that strengthen
professional identity instead of eroding it. For example, the growing
ability to inflict massive damage to combatants and non-combatants
alike, safely and from great distances, can pose peculiar ethical
problems with regard to the basic concept of performing its tasks with
humanity that underpins the Canadian military ethos.
The core military values will remain at the centre of the ethos, as will
the concepts of unlimited liability, service before self and fighting
spirit. Discipline and teamwork remain vital, and how these are
achieved in the three Environments may develop with evolving leadership theory and professional concepts. These latter developments will
likely alter the way that this culture is aligned with the military ethos.
Managing the Internal Dynamics
of the Profession of Arms
There are three main dynamics at play within the profession that must
be carefully managed: maintaining effective civil-military relations;
ensuring the right balance between the concept of the Canadian Forces
and the three Environments; and the evolution of the officer/NCM
team. The principles for adapting the profession as a whole will also be
useful in guiding how military professionals deal with issues that stem
from those evolving relationships.
Civil-Military Relations: It is important to recognize that there are
legitimate differences in emphasis and priorities when the political,
bureaucratic and military domains overlap, and that a certain amount
of professional tension is always inherent and healthy in the relationships of these groups. The overall objective, however, is a high degree
of transparency and communication that lead to maximum collaboration. The synergy achieved by mutual recognition that all are critical
members of the same Canadian national security team is immense.
The defence of Canada demands no less.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
73
There will be
a greater need
for members to
adopt a Canadian
Forces perspective at earlier
stages in their
career.
In the near term,
the evolution of
the officer/ NCM
roles and relationships will likely
be characterized
by shifts in the
division of
responsibility and,
a greater overlap
between generalist and specialist
competencies.
In the future,
the changes could
be profound and
compel a more
fundamental
reorganization
of the two corps.
The Canadian Forces and the Three Environments: The unifying
power inherent in the concept of the Canadian Forces must be balanced
against the differentiation of the three Environments, which is essential
for readiness, generating force and sustaining a multi-purpose,
combat-capable force. Sound and efficient civil control of the military,
as well as effective command and control of the armed forces of
Canada, are enhanced by the unified structure of the Canadian Forces,
led by the CDS. Both the development of a coherent military strategy in
support of political objectives and the prosecution of joint operations
profit from a force that is unified at the top and operates from an integrated National Defence Headquarters. Important economies of scale
and cost-effective internal resource allocation are also obtained with
this structure.
For the foreseeable future, however, and notwithstanding the impact of
technology, the operating environments within which military forces
will work, unilaterally as well as combined, will require maritime, land
and air forces for the successful accomplishment of missions. This in
turn means that all CF members must master the art of warfare in their
own medium if they are to become true professionals in the joint,
combined and inter-agency context that characterizes modern conflict.
Expertise must be distributed according to the harsh demands of this
environment, and the military ethos must accommodate the separate
identities forged by combat at sea, on land and in the air.
Striking the right balance between these two organizing concepts will
remain a major task for both military professionals and civil authorities.
Evolving the Officer and NCM Roles and Relationships: An outline
of how the profession of arms may be described and practised in the
future must also consider how it affects the men and women of the officer and NCM team. To one extent or another, the trends that influence
the attributes of the profession also affect the officer and NCM roles
and relationship.
The trends can be seen in influences that argue for both change and
continuity in these roles and relationships. However, the dynamic
between the forces of continuity and change may well be different in the
three Environments. These factors must also be viewed in terms of
their impact in the near term and then in the more distant future.
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CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
The fact that the existing structure has been robust enough to face the
many challenges of the recent past provides perhaps the most powerful argument for continuity in the differentiated roles and relationships
of officers and NCMs. Although rigid adherence to the status quo won’t
successfully meet all future demands, this area’s history primarily
teaches that the rationale for major change must be compelling.
Historically, the Canadian profession of arms stands out in terms of the
roles NCMs have played. Generally, they have been assigned a greater
scope of responsibility than their colleagues in many other militaries,
and this characteristic of how the officer and NCM team has evolved in
recent history will prevail into the future. Building effective, cohesive
fighting teams instilled with the discipline and skill to prevail in all
tasks will remain a primary role of NCOs and warrant officers. Leading
such teams from the front and being responsible for the well-being of
individual team members on a continuous basis must continue to
shape the self-image of NCOs of all ranks.
The transition to a
modified paradigm
for the officer/NCM
relationship will
inevitably lead to
changes in the
attribute of identity.
Examples of factors that argue for change include technology’s effect
on the battlespace; changes in social demographics; increasing levels
of education and expectations within the NCM Corps; a greater need
for a common and broad general knowledge base; adoption of a
learning organization culture; and networked structures. By themselves, these factors suggest a significant change in the distribution
and practice of responsibility and expertise between corps.
Since uncertainty, ambiguity and complexity will increasingly characterize most operations in all environments, the old paradigm that
emphasized the decision-making role of the officer and the applied,
technical role of the NCM will likely shift. The profession will therefore
not only continue to rely on NCMs to take on difficult challenges, but will
in fact expect much more of them. Authority will be increasingly
delegated and an even greater degree of responsibility assigned to NCOs
and warrant officers to permit the officer/NCM team to dominate the
operational theatre across great distances of time and space. In some
cases, officers, NCOs and warrant officers may share these authorities
and responsibilities; i.e., some roles will increasingly overlap.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
75
Such developments will lead to some redistribution in expertise and
the need to develop ever-increasing levels of professional judgement at
all ranks in leadership roles. Teamwork and collegiality will be emphasized over hierarchy. NCOs and warrant officers will exercise more
responsibility and must increasingly engender the trust needed for
superiors to allow them to make an indispensable contribution to
mission accomplishment.
Professional development must anticipate and prepare members for
change based on principles that map and anticipate the changing
environment. At a macro level, these principles must take into account
the changing division of responsibility and authority in operations, the
growing requirement for the development of common intellectual
competencies, and the increasing breadth and depth of specialist and
generalist experience required within both corps. These changes will
affect all members, at all ranks and in all operations. The division of
responsibility and authority in operations will be driven by advanced
concepts of command and control in both the human and technical
domain. Well-developed critical reasoning, creative thinking and the
application of sound judgement will be required. There will also be a
greater need for the application of generalist knowledge, as well as a
greater demand for technical competence, both theoretical and applied.
These trends strongly suggest the need for a growing convergence in
the professional development of officers and NCMs.
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CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
SECTION 3 CONCLUSION
Professional service in today’s Canadian Forces can be summed up in
three words: Duty with Honour.
In volunteering for military service, members of the Canadian Forces
accept as part of their Duty a unique and distinct identity within
Canadian society. They are members of Canadian society, yet in subtle
ways they are apart from it. By embracing the military ethos, they
accept obligations and responsibilities that no other Canadian citizen
has. As members of the profession of arms, they are acutely aware of
the special trust placed in them by the people of Canada. They accept
this trust and, in accord with their ethos, strive for excellence within
their areas of expertise. In brief, they reach for the highest standards of
professionalism.
Their reward is Honour — but honour can only be bestowed if they
acquit themselves in a manner that reflects the values, beliefs and
expectations of their fellow Canadians.
This, then, is the present and future challenge for members of the
profession of arms in Canada.
CHAPTER 4 • ADAPTING TO FUTURE CHALLENGES
77
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