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Chinese Science Bulletin 2006 Vol. 51 Supp. I 101—109
DOI: 10.1007/s11434-006-8213-0
Topographical changes of
ground surface affected by the
Tarim Desert Highway
LI Shengyu1,2,3, LEI Jiaqiang1, XU Xinwen1,
WANG Lixin2, ZHOU Zhibin1 & LI Hongzhong1,3
1. Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China;
2. Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China;
3. Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039,
China
Correspondence should be addressed to Li Shengyu (email:
[email protected])
Received July 20, 2005; accepted January 16, 2006
Abstract The Tarim Desert Highway is the longest
highway crossing the mobile desert in the world. The
highway and its sand protection system were established in 1995. This great project must have significant effect on the aeolian environment in its
neighborhoods. In 2004, we investigated the topographic changes of ground surface within the sand
protection system and its external adjacent area in
the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert. The results
showed that (i) the original topographic patterns of
ground surface were greatly changed, and erosion as
well as deposition was distributed clearly on the
ground surface, affected by the road and its sand
protection system; (ii) sediment deposited in the sand
protection system gradually heightened the ground
surface, but each part in the system changed differently: in the sand-blocking belt, a transverse sand
ridge was formed in the same direction as the upright
sand barrier; in the sand-binding belt, sediment was
aggraded on the original surface in a certain thickness; at the initial stages since the establishment of
the sand protection system, erosion had taken place
in the un-stabilized area named by the deposition belt
between the sand-blocking belt and the sand-binding
belt, the inner of sand-binding belt, the windward
slope of dunes in the sand-binding belt, and the
neighboring leeward area of the sand protection
system.
Keywords: topography of ground surface, deflation and deposition,
sand protection system, the Tarim Desert Highway, the Taklimakan
Desert.
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There exist mutual acceleration and dynamic equilibrium between blown sand movement and aeolian bed
―
surface [1 3]. Ground surface topography mainly depends on wind, but underlayering surface can also feed
back on the wind flow field and aeolian movement,
which further lead to topographical changes of ground
surface. Many field investigations about the deflation
anddeposition on the ground surface have been con―
ducted by scholars[4 7], but studies on topographic
changes of ground surface affected by large-scale de―
sert projects are very rare[8 10]. Highways are very
common large-scale projects in deserts. The researches
in the past mainly focused on the sand disaster control[11,12] and the sheltering effect of the sand protection
―
system[13 15].
The long-term topographic changes of ground
surface along the Tarim Desert Highway will lead to
the alteration of disaster-causing environments. So that,
studies on the topographic changes of ground surface
affected by the sand protection system are of
significance in the process of aeolian topographic development affected by artificial behavior in the modern
times, and are of practical application in the development and evolvement of sand disasters along the Tarim
Desert Highway and the highway’s sustainability.
1 Aeolian environmental backgrounds of the study
area
The Tarim Desert Highway crosses the Taklimakan
Desert in the Tarim Basin, northwest of China, from
Luntai in the north fringe of the Tarim Basin to Minfeng in the south fringe. With the whole length of 562
km and 446 km in the mobile desert, it is the longest
highway across desert in the world (Fig. 1). About 50%
length of the highway in the mobile desert lies in the
areas with the topography of high-complex sand-ridges,
thus the landform along the Tarim Desert Highway is
dominated by high complex sand-ridges, and the topographic pattern along the highway is high complex
sand-ridges and broad flat inter-dunes. The physical
sand protection system in combination with the windbreaks and reed checkerboards was applied in the Tarim
Desert Highway. Windbreaks, namely erected sand barriers, with a void fraction of 30% to 40%, being 1.1
meter high above the ground surface, are made of reeds
or nylon meshworks, and are settled in the outmost of
the sand protection system and run parallel with the
highway. The reed checkerboards are made of reeds
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Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the highway crossing the Taklimakan Desert.
embedded in the sand in a roughly 1 m×1 m grid, and
are settled on both sides of the highway[12]. The east
part of reed checkerboards in the sand protection system is about 50 to 70 m wide, and the west part is about
40 to 60 m wide. The deposition belt between windbreaks and reed checkerboards in the sand protection
system is about 10 to 20 m wide. The shelter forest
belt，constructed in the Tazhong Oilfield Base ever
since 1997, includes the sand-blocking forest belt and
the sand-binding forest belt.
The study area lies in the hinterland of the Taklimakan Desert, in the Tazhong Si area, northwest China
(39°00′N, 83°40′E). Site elevation is 1100―1150 m.
Sand-ridges, covered by sand chains of 5-15 m high,
and running with a mean strike of 50°―60° north by
east[16], are 30―70 m high , however, inter-dunes, covered by some sand chains, barchan dunes and small
sand ridges[17], are flat, and 1―3 km wide. The ground
surface is mainly composed of shifting sand dominated
by fine sand and very fine sand with a mean grain diameter of 0.1―0.05 mm, but sand on inter-dunes is
also composed of fine gravel with a diameter of 0.5 mm,
or even greater than 2 mm[16]. Wind in this area is very
strong and predominately frequent from March to September[18]. The annual average wind velocity is up to
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2.5 m·s−1, the annual maximal instantaneous speed is
20.0 m·s−1, and the annual frequency of sand-driving
wind is grater than 500. The annual main direction of
sand-driving wind is ENE, NE, NNE and E, and the
wind in direction of ENE is the most frequent and the
strongest.
2
Experiments and methods
Inter-dune areas along the Tarim Desert Highway are
the simplest and most universal (accounting for approximately 70%) under-layering surface. So if experiments are settled in inter-dune areas, not only the
interference of other environmental factors can be reduced to the least, and make the experiments approach
ideal conditions, but also this kind of under-layering
surface can represent the main topographical types
along the Tarim Desert Highway. A physical sand protection system and biological sand protection system
were constructed in the selected areas. Some dunes in
the shelter systems were selected. Many metal bars
were embedded in sand with uniform interval along
transects settled in the shelter systems. The over-ground
length of these metal bars was measured several times
in the windy seasons of 2003 and 2004. The topography
of ground surface was also surveyed with the instrument of total station.
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Vol. 51 Supp. I June 2006
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3
Results and analysis
In contrast with the original topography in and near
the shelter systems, some micro-relief was generally
developed due to the deflation and deposition, and the
mode and intensity of the topography changes had a
clear spatial distribution[13].
3.1
Aeolian depositional micro-relief
Aeolian deposition can result from wind velocity
weakening due to barriers and changes of constitution
or property of the ground surface. Because the highway
shelter systems increase the barriers of sand flow, sand
depositional micro-relief was developed. This sand
depositional micro-relief can be classified into ridgelike sand deposition and sheet-like sand deposition according to the scales of micro-relief changes.
(i) Ridge-like sand deposition. Aeolian deposition
began to develop on the ground surface in width of
15-fold height of the upright nylon net fence just after
the fence was settled (Fig. 1). The range of sand deposition in the leeward of fence was gradually widened as
time went on. It added up to 20 meters in the early period of the second windy season, and extended to the
reed checkerboards at the end of the second windy
season. The height of sand deposition also increased
with time. The highest point of sand deposition lay at
fence or slightly deviated downwind at the same height
or a little greater as the fence. The mass of sand deposition increased linearly with time in the two windy sea-
sons, but in the middle and later period of the second
windy season, the mass leveled off at 11 m3·m−1. So we
can see that the mass of sand deposition around the upright reed fence will not increase without limit, and
finally level off at a certain amount.
The sand deposition transect around the nylon net
fence continuously changed during the windy seasons
in 2003 and 2004. It had two peaks on the windward
and leeward sides of fence respectively at the early
stage, and the two base angles of transect were small.
At metaphase, it was triangle-like or trapezium-like
with a peak and a clear slip-face on the leeward side of
fence, and the base angles increased as well. At the
anaphase, it was triangle-like, and the windward side of
the transects tended to stabilization, but the leeward
side changed frequently (Fig. 2). The survey along the
Tarim Desert Highway also indicated that the stable
form of the sand deposition around fences was
ridge-like along fences; the transects were generally
triangle-like with gentle windward slope and steep
leeward slope, and the windward and leeward base angles were 10―20 degree and 20―30 degree respectively; the sand deposition depended on the fence and
was not able to migrate like dunes, but once the fences
were seriously damaged[13], the sand deposition should
be decomposed and disappear finally.
The sand deposition on the verge of shelter forest
belt was also ridge-like, but it changed unlike the sand
deposition near fences. Its transect was just like the
Fig. 2. The dynamic changes of the deposit transect across the sand-blocking nylon net fence.
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Fig. 3. The dynamic changes of the deposit transect in the verge of sand-fixing forest.
vertical section of barchan dunes with a gentle windward slope and a clear slip-face on leeward slope. Due
to the high porosity of forest belt, the maximal height
of the sand deposition in it was lower than the forest.
The sand deposition was independent of the forest
verge; therefore, it should gradually progress in the
forest belt (Fig. 3).
(ii) Sheet-like sand deposition. The transect of
sand deposition in the windward verge of new-settled
reed checkerboards in a 1 m×1 m grid was triangle-like with a clear peak, a gentle windward slope and
a steep leeward slope. As the range of sand deposition
in checkerboards increased gradually in the early period
of the windy season, transect was trapezium-like with a
flat top and gentler slopes; the peak migrated gradually
into the inner part of checkerboards. In the latter stage
of windy season, the range of deposition enlarged further, and transect was also trapezium-like with flat top
and unclear peak. At the end of the first windy season,
the width of sand deposition reached 38 m, but in the
early period of the second windy season it added up to
45 m. When the checkerboards were entirely buried
only with reeds of approximately 5 cm high aboveground, the deflation and deposition on the ground surface should reach equilibrium (Fig. 4). The aggradations of sand deposition in checkerboards in inter-dune
areas heightened the ground surface by 20 to 30 cm.
Some information about ground surface on the verge
of checkerboards is also represented in Fig. 3. The mobile ground surface in width of 5 m outside the checkerboards on the windward side was also dominated by
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the deposition. The sand deposition transect was stable
with a thickness of 4 to 10 cm or so. With the influence
of the inverse wind, the sand deposition on the mobile
ground surface in width of 5 m outside the checkerboards on the leeward side was very stable in a triangle-like form, with a thickness of 15 cm or so. When
checkerboards were buried completely, the sand deposition outside the checkerboards was merged with that
in checkerboards.
After long-term interaction between sand flow and
ground surface, a stable concave surface came into being in each grid of reed checkerboards, and the ratio of
its maximal depth to its length of grid side was
1:10[19,20]. The investigation about checkerboards in the
shelter system in the Xiaotang area was made in 1991
and it indicated that concave surfaces were generally
developed in checkerboards in a grid of 1 m×1 m, and
also varied in space. The concave surface, which developed on the flat sandy ground surface in inter-dunes,
was smooth, and its maximal depth was 5 to 6 cm,
about 1/20 of the length of grid side. But the concave
surface, which developed on the windward slope of
dunes, was coarse with a depth of 6 to 8 cm or 13.8 cm
at the most, larger than 1/10 of the length side of reed
grid. The depth of the concave surfaces, which developed on the leeward slope and wings of barchan dunes,
was only 3 to 5 cm and 5 to 6 cm, respectively, on average. The depth of the concave surfaces on the windward slope of dunes increased from the foot? to middle
of the slope, but decreased from the middle of the slope
to the top. This spatial distribution shows the difference
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Fig. 4. Dynamic changes of deposit transect across the sand-fixing checkerboards in a roughly 1 m×1 m grid.
of the wind velocity and the saturation among sites of
dunes. However, surveys in the Tazhong area showed
that the stable concave surfaces in grid of reed checkerboards did not develop well[14]. This phenomenon
may relate to the high sand availability and the high
frequency of sand-driving wind. The mobile dunes in
inter-dunes and complex longitudinal sand ridge have a
relatively stable form, with a slip face in the angle of
sand repose, the middle and the lower parts of the
windward slope in 10°―15°, the middle and upper
parts of windward slope in 7°―11°. Due to the uneven
distribution of sand deposition at all sites of dunes in
reed checkerboards, the middle and lower parts of the
windward slope declined slightly in 10°―19°, but the
middle and upper parts of the windward slope increased
slightly in 8°―12°, and the slip face decreased little.
Because sand deposition firstly formed in the verge
of the shelter forest, then slowly migrated into the inner
pars of the forest belt, and only the fine particles in
suspension were able to deposit firstly in the inner pars
of the forest belt, the deposition in the verge parts was
thicker than that in the inner parts. After four windy
seasons, the thickness of sand deposition in the inner
parts of the forest belt only reached 7.5―14 cm; but
sand deposition on a dune in the transition area between
sand ridges and inter-dunes was greatly affected by
topography. Sediment was mainly deposited on the
leeward slope and dune top other than on the verge of
the forest belt, and the maximal thickness of sediment
on the leeward slope, dune top and windward slope was
70 cm, 28 cm and 24 cm respectively (Fig. 5).
3.2
Deflation micro-relief
Wind erosion results from the transformation of sand
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flow from under-saturation to saturation. When the
sand flow was over-saturated in some parts of the shelter system, some sand grains were unloaded on the
ground surface. Due to the speedup of wind and limited
sand availability in areas like deposition areas around
fence or forest, the inner parts of checkerboards and the
leeward neighborhood of the shelter system, sand flow
tended to be under-saturated, and the ground surface
was dominated by the deflation.
(i) Deposition areas. The leeward neighborhoods
of fences and forest belts are called deposition area.
Wind speed generally falls to be the lowest in the middle of deposition areas and the majority of sand particles in sand-flow deposit here. Wind speeds up gradually on the downwind side of this area and sand flow
tends to be unsaturated, so wind erosion on the ground
surface occurs. The deflation intensity of deposition
areas on the windward side of road was not very high,
being about 1―3 cm near fences and about 7―30 cm
near forest belts. Owing to burial by sand deposition
migration forward and ground surface stabilization by
checkerboards, deflation micro-relief could not develop
extensively and disappeared finally. But as a result of
alternation of prevailing wind and reverse wind, deflation could develop extensively in the deposition area of
leeward side of road. Survey in the K110 of the Tarim
Desert Highway where transverse sand ridges are
developed showed that the depth of wind erosion in
inter-dune areas was more than 0.5 m, and that on top
of sand ridges was even larger than 0.5 m so that the
buried petroleum-transferring pipe was exposed to the
ground surface[15]. Wind erosion was developed in the
maximal width of 10―16 m in the verge of checkerboards (Fig. 6).
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Fig. 5. Dynamic variations of thickness of deposit in the shelter forests in inter-dunes (a) and transitional area between ridges and inter-dunes (b).
Fig. 6. Deflation developed in the deposition areas near fences on the leeward side of the road in inter-dunes (a) and on the top of the ridge areas (b).
(ii) The inner parts of checkerboards. Sand flow is
over-saturated in the windward verge of checkerboards,
and the majority of sand particles in sand flow deposit
there. Sand flow tends to be under-saturated due to limited sand supply in the inner parts of checkerboards,
thus wind erosion occurs. The experiments also indicated that erosion was commonly developed in the five
types of checkerboards before checkerboards were buried, but their intensities and ranges were not very large
only with a depth of 1 cm and a width of 4―12 m except the row-like checkerboards at intervals of 1 m,
whose intensity and range added up to 1.9 cm and 31 m
respectively resulting from strong northerlies, and there
were not significant differences between these types
(Table 1). Prof. Xunmin Wang also found erosion
occurrence in the inner pars of checkerboards after its
settlement [15]. With the increasing range of sand deposition, deflation areas were gradually buried by sediments, and disappeared completely at the end of the
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first windy season.
On account of the differentiation of wind force near
dune surfaces affected by itself relief, the speedup in
some parts of dunes leads to erosion of checkerboards
on the ground surface and changes of dunes’ micro-relief. The investigation along the Tarim Desert
Highway showed that deflations were developed extensively on the windward slope besides on the top and
prozone of the dunes in shelter systems, especially on
the leeward slope and top of dunes on the leeward side
of road[16]. For example in the K6 of Qiemo Highway,
the width of erosion in the middle lower part of dune
windward slope was 12.6 m, the grade in the blowout
was 25―32° in an increase of 15―21° compared with
the original grade (Fig. 7(a))[17]; because of the alteration of prevailing wind and reverse wind, the dune in
the checkerboards on the leeward side of road tended to
be symmetrical in an isosceles triangle-like transect, the
windward slope was buried in a grade of 13―25°, and
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Vol. 51 Supp. I June 2006
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Table 1 Dynamic changes of deflation in checkerboards (2003)
Date
Scales
1m×1m
1m Row
1.5m×1.5m
2m×1m
2m×2m
Apr. 9
Apr. 20
May 6
May 30
Jun. 12
Jun. 24
Jul. 31
3
4
1
1
−
−
−
−0.4
31
−0.3
30
−0.4
28
−0.2
19
−
16
−
17
−
4
−1.9
4
−1.9
5
−1.7
4
−1
4
−0.9
−1.1
−0.6
−
−
−
−0.3
2
−0.4
5
−0.2
4
−0.1
3
−
2
−
1
−
−0.4
12
−0.5
11
−0.2
10
−
7
−
−
Range/m
−0.5
12
−
Intensity/cm
−0.5
−0.5
−0.6
−0.4
−0.8
−
−0.3
Range/m
Intensity/cm
Range/m
Intensity/cm
Range/m
Intensity/cm
Range/m
Intensity/cm
−
−
Fig. 7. Longitudinal profile changes of dunes in sand-fixing reed checkerboards. (a) Dune in the windward part of road shelter system; (b) Dune in the
leeward part of road shelter system.
the checkerboards on the leeward slope erode entirely
in a gentle grade of about 11―26° (Fig. 7(b))[18].
(iii) Leeward neighborhoods of the shelter system.
The sand materials are transported continuously
downwards due to the remarkable prevailing winds
along the Tarim Desert Highway. But the majority of
sand particles in the sand flow across the highway are
intercepted by the shelter systems. Coarse sand grains
cover the ground surface in the leeward neighborhoods
of the shelter system in inter-dune areas. So the sand
supply for sand flow was very rare. With the speedup of
wind in this area, the sand flow near the ground surface
tends to be extremely unsaturated and remains high
energy to erosion. Therefore, the ground surface in inter-dunes erodes greatly and neighborhoods in the leeward side of the shelter system are dominated by deflation. The experiment showed that deposition and erosion occurred on the ground surface on the leeward side
of the shelter systems in inter-dunes. In the whole
windy season of 2004, about 83% of the ground surface
in the range of 2.5 m to 19.5 m on the leeward side of
checkerboards was eroded; the rest was deposited or
kept balance between erosion and deposition. The erosion sections were distributed in a uniform interval
about 5 m. The intensity of erosion was not very large
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only with a maximal depth of 2 cm. The farther from
the checkerboards erosion sections lay, the less the erosion depth was. The intensity of erosion also changed
with time, for example, the average erosion depth on
October 7 was larger than that on May 25, but the erosion depth in the sections of I and III changed very
slightly (Fig. 8(a)). In a near windy season, the total
volume of erosion from 2.5 m to 19.5 m outside checkerboards added up to 0.103 m3·m−1, being equivalent to
155.74 ton.km-1 (sand bulk density in 1.512 g·cm−3); the
volume of erosion in the end of the windy season was
larger than that in the beginning of windy season. We
also found that the ground surfaces on the leeward side
of the checkerboards, whose types was grid in 1 m×1
m, rows in 1 m interval, grid in 2 m×1 m, grid in 1.5
m×1.5 m, grid in 2 m×2 m respectively, were also
dominated by deflation (Fig. 8(b)); the range of deflation was about 20 m. The downwind ground surface
beyond this range was in a balance between erosion and
deposition.
The monitored shelter forest in inter-dunes includes
two parts. The windward part of the road is composed
of a column of nylon net fence settled prior to the forest,
two columns of sand-obstructing forest belts in width
of 6―7 m, and sand-stabilizing forest in width of 20 m.
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The leeward part of the road is composed of
sand-stabilizing forest in width of 18 m and checkerboards in width of 36 m settled prior to the forest. Accordingly, the width of shelter systems’ coverage, including forest interval, road surface and shoulders of
road, amounts to 142 m. Metal bars were implanted in
the middle of grids of reed checkerboards and mobile
ground surface on the leeward side of the road in a line
vertical to the shelter systems (Fig. 9), the variation
about the overground length of metal bars can show
changes of ground surface. In checkerboards, the volume of sand deposition in windy season changed a little,
but the volume of deflation varied greatly in a maximal
erosion depth of 6.5 cm. Moreover, on May 25 and Oct.
7, ground surface was in a state of net deflation[11]. The
depth of sand deposition in the mobile ground surface
covered by coarse sand particles was very small in
windy season and tended to decline with time, but the
intensity and range of deflation increased with time.
For example, on Oct. 7, the whole ground surface was
in a state of erosion or balance between erosion and
deposition. The maximal erosion depth added up to 4.2
cm, and the total erosion volume in the mobile sand
section with a length of 28 m amounted to 0.544
m3·m−1, equivalent to 822.5 ton·km−1; but the total erosion volume in the checkerboards section with a length
of 36 m only amounted to 0.318 m3·m−1, equivalent to
480.8 ton·km−1. So the survey indicates that in the middle and latter of windy season, the ground surface in a
range of 64 m on the leeward side of shelter forest systems is in a state of deflation. Based on the theory of
blown sand movement, we can infer that with departure
from the shelter systems, the volume of erosion increases, so sand flow gradually tends to saturation and
the ground surface also turns into a state of balance
between erosion and deposition from erosion. Therefore the range of deflation on the leeward side of shelter forest is larger than 64 m. The range and intensity of
deflation on the leeward side of shelter forest are larger
than those on the leeward side of physical shelter systems.
4
Conclusions
On account of the effect of the shelter systems of the
Tarim Desert Highway on blown sand movement near
the ground surface, the micro-relief in shelter systems
and its neighborhoods changed regularly. (a) Sand
deposition formed a new micro-relief in the shelter
systems, which heightened the ground surface. The
form of sand deposition varied among different shelter
measures, for example, ridge-like sand deposition
formed around the sand-obstructing measures in large
scales, but sheet-like sand deposition formed in the
checkerboards and the inner parts of the shelter forests.
Fig. 8. Deflation on the ground surface in the leeward side of physical shelter system. (a) Type of blocking and binding; (b) type of binding (2004).
Fig. 9. Deflation on the ground surface on the leeward side of shelter forest in inter-dune area (2004).
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Vol. 51 Supp. I June 2006
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The concave surface can be developed in the checkerboards with limited sand supply, but can’t in abundant
sand supply. (b) Deflation was developed in the partial
area of the shelter systems during the early and middle
stage of its settlement. Ground surface was depressed
by the deflation. For example, the deflation in the sand
deposition area around fence and forest intervals was
developed in low intensity and persisted for a short
time; but the deflation in the sand deposition area and
the neighborhood of the shelter systems on the leeward
side of road were developed extensively and lasted for
a long time. (c) The leeward slopes of dunes in the
checkerboards were in a state of deposition, but the
windward slopes of dunes were eroded extensively and
mobile sand was exposed. We also found that the locations of dunes in the shelter systems also had effects on
the changes of dunes’ form.
With artificial persistent maintenance and renewals
of the shelter systems along the Tarim Desert Highway,
the transverse sections of highway should be modified
as a result of long-term deflation and deposition in the
shelter systems. So this also leads to changes of sand
damage formation along the highway. Thus we can
predict the development of sand damages through topographic changes in and out of the shelter systems.
The deflation on the leeward side of shelter systems
should have effects on the stability of the roadbed.
Therefore, when the road intersects with the local prevailing wind direction in large angles, sand stabilization
belt in a certain width must be settled in this area for
road safety.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank their
colleagues and workers who made great efforts in experiments settlement and surveys. This work was supported by
the Major Orientation Foundation of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences (Grant No. KCCX3-SW-342), Science and Technology Foundation of Western Development (Grant No.
2005BA901A2), and West Light Foundation of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences (Grant No. 20052118).
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