The United States Asserts Its Political
Independence from Europe
II.
DIPLOMACY DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY
ERA
The French Alliance
The Treaty of Paris
Era of Articles of Confederation (1776–1788)
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January 10, 1776
Thomas Paine’s ‘‘Common Sense’’ is published
in Philadelphia.
Urging a demand for American independence,
‘‘Common Sense’’ argued that King George had no
legitimate right to rule the American colonies.
Moreover, Paine asserted, the colonial economy
would prosper by severing its political connections
with Great Britain.
Paine’s pamphlet found a receptive audience in
America because independence or complete submission to the British government appeared to be the only
alternatives in early 1776. Following the Stamp Act
crisis of 1765, political disagreements between the
British government and the 13 American colonies
grew, finally bursting into intermittent warfare beginning at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Before
1775 ended, colonial forces undertook an expedition
to invade Quebec, and British troops under General
Henry Clinton prepared to invade the southern colonies.
Thus, appearing after nearly nine months of hostility, ‘‘Common Sense’’ gave the colonists, now classified as rebels by the king, justification for declaring
their independence, a definitive act of revolution
against King George’s government. Calling the king
a ‘‘Royal Brute,’’ Paine’s essay declared there were
neither natural nor religious reasons to justify his
right to rule. The English king’s hereditary rights
derived only from the historic fact that William the
Conqueror (1066), a ‘‘French bastard landing with an
armed banditti,’’ had made himself king against ‘‘the
consent of the natives.’’
Paine’s essay also described America’s relationship to England and Europe in terms that later writers
would call ‘‘isolationism.’’ He claimed America would
flourish economically when it gained independence
from Britain. ‘‘The agricultural products of the colonies,’’ he wrote, will ‘‘always have a market while eating is the custom of Europe. . . . Our corn will fetch its
price in any market in Europe.’’ Moreover, Paine
stated, American commerce would prosper best if
there were no political alliances with any European
country. ‘‘As Europe is our market for trade, we
ought to form no partial connection with any part
of it.’’ America’s true interest is to ‘‘steer clear of
European contentions. . . . Europe is too thickly
planted with kingdoms to be long at peace, and whenever a war breaks out between England and any foreign power, the trade of America goes to ruin, because
of her connection with Britain.’’ Paine’s proposal that
America should pursue peaceful commerce with all
nations while making political alliances with none
became the essence of American political isolationism
for over a century after independence was attained.
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March 3, 1776
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, first published on January 10,
1776, urged colonists to seek independence. Library of
Congress
March 3, 1776
The Continental Congress sends Silas Deane to
France to seek friendship and aid for the
American cause.
A defeated member of congress, Deane had no diplomatic experience. Although he was not fluent in
French, he helped create methods for securing military aid and funds from France.
See July 27, 1777.
April 6, 1776
Congress opens American ports to all nations
except Britain.
By opening all of its seaports to foreign trade,
Congress rejected Britain’s Navigation Acts and
approved a de facto act of commercial independence.
The decree permitted French, Spanish, Dutch, and
other nations’ ships to trade with the American colonies.
Correspondence instructed Lee to go to Paris because
an agent of Vergennes in America, Achard (or
Archard) de Bonvouloir, assured the committee of
French interest. Lee was also assisted by Caron de
Beaumarchais, the author of The Barber of Seville,
who had some influence at the French court.
Vergennes was eager to aid any enemy of Great
Britain because France had fought the British and lost
most of its empire as a result of the Treaty of Paris of
1763, and he was desirous of restoring the balance of
power in Europe. In offering aid to the American,
Vergennes wanted to restore the balance of power in
Europe. To fulfill this plan, he persuaded Charles III
of Spain to give 1 million livres to the American independence movement in June 1776.
Beaumarchais became the middleman in purchasing the military supplies for America. Under the name
of the Rodrique Hortalez Company, Beaumarchais
profited from his connections to the French government by providing 40 vessels carrying a substantial
amount of French goods to the American insurgents.
June 7, 1776
Independence is proposed.
Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a resolution
to the Continental Congress, that the United Colonies
‘‘are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent
states.’’ Lee’s resolution included two other important
clauses: one stated ‘‘it is expedient forthwith to take
the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances’’; the second asked that ‘‘a plan of confederation
be prepared.’’
Lee’s resolution resulted in the appointment of
three committees: one, to prepare a declaration of
independence; the second, to propose a treaty for
use by a diplomatic commission to Europe; and the
third, to prepare a constitution for governing the new
United States.
See July 2–4, 1776; September 24, 1776; and
November 15, 1777.
May 2, 1776
King Louis XVI of France orders 1 million livres
to be used secretly to supply munitions for the
American army.
This assistance resulted from discussions between
Arthur Lee and the French foreign minister, the
Count de Vergennes. Soon after its founding on
November 29, 1775, the Committee on Secret
July 2–4, 1776
On July 2, Congress votes for an
independence declaration by 12-0, New York
abstaining.
Two days later, Congress approved the committee
report prepared by Thomas Jefferson, with the assistance of John Adams and Benjamin Franklin. This
April 17, 1777
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trals to trade in noncontraband items; (3) a restricted
contraband list not including foodstuffs and naval
stores.
Particularly regarding possible treaties with
France and Spain, the committee report hoped to
make these only commercial treaties, involving no
political or military alliances. It asked France to
treat American imports on the same basis as those
of French citizens and agreed to give France the
most-favored-nation status in American trade.
September 26, 1776
Congress appoints a diplomatic commission
to negotiate treaties with European nations.
The three appointees were Benjamin Franklin, Silas
Deane, and Thomas Jefferson. After Jefferson
declined, Arthur Lee replaced him.
December 26, 1776
American troops defeat the British in a battle
at Trenton.
Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Livingston, and Sherman drafting
the Declaration of Independence. National Archives
report provided the text for the Declaration of
Independence. The vote on July 4 was, again, 12-0.
July 19, 1776
Congress votes to have the Declaration of
Independence engrossed for formal signature
by the 55 delegates.
By this time, the Provincial Congress of New York had
voted (July 9) to endorse independence, making the
declaration unanimous, without abstention.
Crossing the icy Delaware River at night and attacking
from the north and northeast, Washington’s soldiers
surprised the British troops camped near Trenton,
New Jersey.
Washington’s victory came after a series of defeats
and retreats by the American armies. In June, the
Northern Army retreated from Canada. Later, it lost
engagements to the British at Lake Champlain
(October 11) and Split Rock (October 13).
Washington’s army lost New York City (September
12) and retreated across New Jersey to Pennsylvania
by December 11. Thus, Washington’s attack on
Trenton gave the Continental Army one happy note
after six months of defeat.
September 24, 1776
Model treaty for negotiating with European
countries is approved by Congress.
This ‘‘Plan of 1776’’ contained basic concepts of maritime law and neutral rights that the new nation pursued throughout its history. Following international
ideas frequently used in 18th-century Europe, the
Model Treaty’s main points were (1) the contention
that free ships make free goods; (2) freedom of neu-
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April 17, 1777
Congress reconstitutes the Committee of
Secret Correspondence as the Committee for
Foreign Affairs.
The committee had no secretary or clerk, however,
and its scope of activity was strictly limited.
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July 27, 1777
July 27, 1777
Two famous foreign military officers, the
Marquis de Lafayette and Baron Johann de
Kalb, arrive in Philadelphia.
These and other European military experts had been
recruited by Silas Deane. Together with two other
foreign officers, Tadeusz Kościuszko (commissioned
October 18, 1776) and Baron von Steuben (commissioned May 5, 1778), these generals aided the colonial
war effort. Deane’s recruitments, occasionally overzealous, were assisted by the charm, popularity, and
renown as a scientist of Benjamin Franklin, who
reached Paris on December 21, 1776, and quickly
endeared himself to French public opinion.
tually, the French Alliance of 1778 was made less difficult by the events of October 17, 1777.
November 15, 1777
Articles of Confederation are adopted by
Congress.
These articles came from the committee originated
in June 1776 as part of Lee’s resolution. The committee reported to Congress in July 1776, but the
delegates intermittently debated the 13 clauses of the
articles for more than a year. After approval by
Congress on November 15, they were sent to each
state for ratification, a process not completed until
March 1, 1781.
October 17, 1777
The Northern American Army wins the Battle of
Saratoga.
British forces under General John Burgoyne invaded
northern New York in an attempt to gain control of
the region from the Hudson River to Canada. The
American victory prevented this region from falling
to British rule. In addition, it caused Lord North to
form the Carlisle Commission to attempt to obtain a
reconciliation with the colonists in 1778 and to prevent the formation of a French-American alliance.
Most writers consider the Battle of Saratoga a turning
point in the war. American agents in France noted
that Frenchmen reacted as if their troops had defeated
the British. Obtaining French assistance and, even-
The surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Copy of
painting by John Trumbull, 1820–1821. National Archives
December 17, 1777
France recognizes American independence.
Louis XVI’s council of state agreed to recognize the
independence of the United States.
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February 6, 1778
The Franco–American Treaty of Alliance is
approved.
The treaty was signed by French Foreign Minister
Vergennes and American Commissioners Deane and
Franklin. The agreement culminated in nearly two
years of French aid to the American cause.
On February 6, two treaties were signed: one, of
alliance; the second, of amity and commerce. France
recognized American independence, granting it the
rights to Bermuda as well as all British colonies on
the mainland of North America. The French were free
to acquire all British territory in the West Indies. Both
parties agreed not to make a truce with Britain without the other’s consent.
The commercial treaty gave each ally the mostfavored-nation status. The alliance would be ‘‘forever,’’ a unique clause; no one knows how it got
inserted in the treaty. For the U.S. ratification of the
treaty, see May 4, 1778.