101
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Dive-Related Fatalities Among Tourist and Local Divers in the
Northern Croatian Littoral (1980–2010)
Valter Stemberga, MD, PhD,∗ Anja Petaros, MD,∗ Veronika Rasic, MD,† Josip Azman, MD,
PhD, EDRA,‡ Ivan Sosa, MD,∗ Miran Coklo, MD, PhD,∗ Ivone Uhac, DMD, PhD,§ and
Alan Bosnar, MD, PhD∗
∗ Department
of Forensic Medicine and Criminalistics, Rijeka University School of Medicine, Rijeka, Croatia; † Rijeka University
School of Medicine, Rijeka, Croatia; ‡ Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, University Hospital Rijeka, Rijeka,
Croatia; § Department of Prosthodontics, Rijeka University School of Medicine, Rijeka, Croatia
DOI: 10.1111/jtm.12011
Background. The aim of the study was to retrospectively analyze diving fatalities occurring in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County
(northern Croatian littoral), Croatia between 1980 and 2010 in order to identify differences between fatally injured tourist and
resident divers, as well as temporal changes in the frequency of diver deaths.
Methods. Medico-legal and police reports of 47 consecutive fatal diving cases were reviewed to determine the frequency of death
among divers in relation to year and month of death, age, sex, nationality, organization of diving, diving type, and health condition.
Results. The majority of victims were foreign citizens (59.6%) most of whom fell victim to scuba diving (70.4%). It was found
that 79% of resident divers succumbed during free-diving. The number of diving fatalities increased significantly in the last three
decades, especially among free-divers. Of the victims, 93% were males, usually belonging to younger age groups with tourist divers
being significantly older than local divers. And 31.9% of divers, mostly tourists, showed signs of acute, chronic, or congenital
pathological conditions.
Conclusion. Fatally injured foreign divers differ from resident diver fatalities in diving method and age. Tourists are the group
most at risk while scuba diving according to the Croatian sample. Occupational scuba divers and free-divers are the group most at
risk among resident divers. This study is an important tool in uncovering the most common victims of diving and the related risk
factors. It also highlights the problems present in the legal and medical monitoring of recreational divers and discusses possible
pre-event, event, and post-event preventive actions that could lead to reduced mortality rates in divers.
U
nderwater diving has become one of the most
popular and widespread water sports. The search
for new and attractive diving areas, the development
of commercial means of travel, and the availability of
diving locations and centers has turned diving into a
widespread tourist activity.1
Currently, two types of diving are cited: diving
with secured physiological breathing conditions
(scuba diving and surface supplied diving) and diving
without secured physiological breathing conditions
(breath-holding/free-diving/skin-diving). A second
classification distinguishes recreational (snorkeling,
Corresponding Author: Anja Petaros, MD, Department
of Forensic Medicine and Criminalistics, Rijeka University
School of Medicine, Brace Branchetta 20, 51 000 Rijeka,
Croatia. E-mail: [email protected]
spearfishing, scuba diving for sport, and leisure), from
occupational/professional diving (eg, military diving,
scientific diving, police diving). Another important
category of divers are technical scuba divers who dive
both for pleasure and professional reasons, but descend
to greater depths, or use different mixture of gases.
There are certain risks involved in practicing the sport,
because when the body is immersed in water it is
exposed to non-physiological conditions with a limited
oxygen supply and elevated ambient pressure.2,3 Even
though diving is a relatively safe sport, the growing
number of divers [over 500,000 newly PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors) certified
divers worldwide each year2 ] is causing an increase in
the number of accidents at sea, with 16 diver deaths
per 100,000 persons reported annually.4 Although
drowning is the most common direct cause of death
in divers,5,6 it is triggered by different events, such as
© 2013 International Society of Travel Medicine, 1195-1982
Journal of Travel Medicine 2013; Volume 20 (Issue 2): 101–106
102
problems with equipment, insufficient gas supply, loss of
consciousness, nitrogen narcosis, unfavorable sea conditions, trauma, preexisting diseases, and stress/anxiety.7
Along with drowning, death in divers can result
from decompression sickness/embolism, pulmonary
barotrauma, natural causes, or mechanical injuries.1,5
Although tourists make up the largest portion of the
diving community,8,9 studies on the involvement and
differences in fatal diving incidents between tourist and
resident divers are lacking in literature. Collecting such
data and following the trend in diving fatalities in a
region can be important for both tourist management
and the development of specific risk control strategies.
Therefore, the aim of this article is to offer a
retrospective analysis of fatal diving incidents in the
Primorje-Gorski Kotar County (northern Croatian
littoral) of Croatia between 1980 and 2010 in order
to determine the demographic characteristics of diving
casualties and their secular trend with special emphasis
to differences between local divers and tourists.
Methods
Medico-legal aspects of death in divers were investigated
through a retrospective analysis of autopsies carried
out at the Department of Forensic Medicine and
Criminalistics, Rijeka University School of Medicine,
Croatia between 1980 and 2010. The Department
has universal coverage over the territory of two
counties, the Primorje-Gorski Kotar and Lika-Senj.
The Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, with a population
of 300,000 people, encompasses part of the northern
Croatian littoral with its islands, and is home to
many interesting diving points, which makes diving
accidents and fatalities more susceptible in this area.
The analysis covered a period of 31 years (1980–2010)
and included a total of 47 consecutive cases of diver
deaths. The necessary pathological and biological data
were retrieved from medico-legal reports and death
certificates, while data regarding the circumstances and
conditions which resulted in the fatal outcome were
retrieved from police reports of the Ministry of Internal
Affairs, Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. The variables
analyzed in this study included the biological profile
of the victims (age and sex), the year and month of
death, type of diving (scuba diving/ free-diving), diving
organization (diving in a group or alone), nationality
of the diver (resident or tourist), and presence of
any preexisting pathological condition in the victim.
The deaths were analyzed by calculating the frequency
of their occurrence with regard to specific variables.
While investigating temporal changes in the frequency
of diving fatalities, the studied period was divided
into three decades and two major periods: before and
after the year 1996, that is considered to be the year
that diving tourism in Croatia took off. Variations
between the groups and the frequencies were analyzed
with a difference test between the two proportions
J Travel Med 2013; 20: 101–106
Stemberga et al.
and a Mann–Whitney test. Results of p < 0.05 were
considered statistically significant.
Results
In the period between 1980 and 2010, a total of 47
deaths in divers were registered. Most of the victims
in the study were male (44/47, 93.6%). The victims
fall into the young and middle-aged age group, with
the majority of them between 20 and 29 years (28.3%),
and 30 to 39 years (28.3%) (Table 1). The mean age
of victims was 38.1 (range 10–72). Most of the victims
were diving at sea, while one diver died in fresh water
during a speleological expedition (2.1%).
The information on the type of diving was missing
for one victim. The number of victims in scuba diving
and free-diving does not differ [23 (50%) vs 23 (50%)].
Out of 22 scuba diving fatalities, 3 (6.7% of the total
diving accidents) occurred while performing a technical
dive (at depths greater than 60 m or during occupational
and/or speleological diving). In the group of free-divers,
two cases (4.3%) involved snorkelers and included the
youngest (a 10-year-old girl) and the oldest (a 72-yearold man) victim. The age groups of victims in the two
categories differ in that the majority of scuba divers
belong to the age group of 30 to 49 years (34.8%), while
most free-divers are young adults [20–29 years (19.6%)]
(Table 1). However, there is no significant difference
between the mean ages of the victims belonging to the
two groups.
Data about the organization of the diving were
available in 40 cases. Most free-divers were diving alone
at the time of death (16/20, 80%), while scuba divers
were always diving in pairs or in a group (20/20, 100%).
Out of 47 victims, 28 were tourists (59.6%), mostly
coming from Germany (7 victims), Austria (4 victims),
Czech Republic (3 victims), France (3 victims), and Italy
(3 victims). A significant difference (p = 0.002) in diving
styles was discovered between foreign and local divers:
while foreign divers were most commonly victims of
scuba diving (19/27, 70.4%), residents died during freediving (15/19, 78.9%) (Table 1). Only four deaths of
Croatian scuba divers were recorded and of these, three
(15.8%) were casualties of technical and occupational
dives. A significant difference (p < 0.001) in age was
observed between tourists and local victims, tourists
being older than Croatian victims (mean age of tourists
was 44 years, while for residents it was 29.3 years). Most
of the fatal diving incidents occurred in the summer
months (38.9% locals vs 60.7% tourists). All female
victims in the sample were tourist divers.
The number of diving-related deaths has grown
with every decade. From 1981 to 1990 there were 8
causalities, from 1991 to 2000 17 casualties, and from
2001 to 2010 22 diving casualties (Figure 1). While
the number of casualties due to scuba diving shows
stagnation during the last decade, the number of freediving casualties has continued to rise (Figure 1).
103
Diving Fatalities Among Tourist and Resident Divers
Table 1
Frequency of diving fatalities according to the type of diving and age group
Scuba divers
N (%)
Free-divers
N (%)
Total
N (%)
Age group
(years)
Tourist
Resident
All
Tourist
Resident
All
10–19
20–29
30–39
40–49
50–59
60–69
70–79
Total N (%)
0
2
6
8
2
0
1
19 (41.3)
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
4 (8.7)
0 (0)
4 (8.7)
8 (17.4)
8 (17.4)
2 (4.3)
0 (0)
1 (2.2)
23 (50.0)
1
1
0
1
2
2
1
8 (17.4)
1
8
5
0
1
0
0
15 (32.6)
2∗ (4.3)
9 (19.6)
5 (10.9)
1 (2.2)
3 (6.5)
2 (4.3)
1∗ (2.2)
23 (50.0)
∗
†
2 (4.3)
13 (28.3)
13 (28.3)
9 (19.6)
5 (10.9)
2 (4.3)
2 (4.3)
46† (100)
In the group of free-divers, one victim belonging to the 10–19 years group and one to the 70–79 years group were snorkeling at time of death.
The data refer to those divers where the type of diving is known (for one person this information is missing).
Figure 1 Number of diving-related deaths during three
decades.
The most common cause of death was drowning
(42/47, 89.4%), followed by decompression sickness
(2/47, 4.3%) and barotrauma (1/47, 2.1%). Two divers
died of natural causes (heart failure and heart attack)
(2/47, 4.3%). All the divers who died from natural
causes and decompression sickness were tourists. Some
of the drowning victims died because of unfavorable
sea conditions [high waves (2/42, 4.8%)], while others
owing to underwater obstacles disabling the diver from
ascending to the surface (concrete blocks, shipwreck)
(4/42, 9.5%), and one diver died of drowning after being
hit by a speedboat (1/42, 2.4%). Even though it was not
the direct cause of death, another drowning victim
showed signs of decompression sickness and embolism
that probably triggered drowning (1/42, 2.4%).
A section of the divers suffered from a preexisting
health problem while engaged in diving. Fifteen victims
(31.9%) showed signs of acute, chronic, or congenital
diseases. In six divers more than one pathologic
condition was found (6/15, 40%). The pathology
ranged from heart and blood vessel diseases (12/15,
80.0%; myocarditis, pericarditis, severe atherosclerosis,
congenital narrowness of the aorta, hypertrophy, etc.)
to lung diseases (3/15, 20.0%), renal diseases (4/15,
26.7%), and hepatic diseases (2/15, 13.3%). Preexisting
health-disrupting conditions were found in 10.5%
of resident divers and 46.4% tourist divers. Alcohol
intoxication was absent from all recorded victims, except
for the oldest victim who drowned during snorkeling.
Figure 2 Number of tourist and Croatian casualties during
three decades.
Discussion
During the last three decades, the number of tourist
casualties has risen faster than the number of Croatian
diver casualties (Figure 2). The difference is most
notable when examining the number of diving-related
deaths before and after 1996. After 1996, the rise of
tourist casualties (5 tourists before 1996 and 23 tourists
after 1996) is greater than that of local divers (6 Croatian
divers before 1996 and 13 after 1996).
The study evidenced a continuous increase of divingrelated deaths in the studied regions, especially among
free-divers. The majority of victims were foreign
citizens (59.6%) most of whom fell victim to scuba
diving (70.4%). Seventy-nine percent of resident divers
succumbed during free-diving. The victims usually
belonged to younger age groups with tourist divers
being significantly older than local divers; 31.9% of
J Travel Med 2013; 20: 101–106
104
divers, mostly tourists, showed signs of acute, chronic,
or congenital pathological conditions.
Even though diving has a small overall mortality and
accident rate, the growing number of divers and the
development of diving tourism have caused a volumerelated increase in the number of diving injuries and
deaths.10 Such trends have also been recorded in the
Primorje-Gorski Kotar County where the numbers
of diving-related deaths, especially of tourists, show
a continuous increase during the 31-year period, with
46.8% of the deaths occurring during the last decade
(2001–2010).
Although in Croatia there is no law that fully
regulates diving activities, up to now activities related
to scuba diving have been normatively controlled
directly or indirectly by a number of regulations and
articles scattered in different laws.11,12 These do not
include regulations on free-diving activities, in turn
making scuba diving a better monitored and controlled
underwater activity. In accordance with this, even
though the number of diver-related deaths in PrimorjeGorski Kotar County is increasing, scuba diving-related
deaths have remained stable, while free-diving deaths
continue to increase (Figure 1). Although free-diving is
a sport independent from diving operators, a regulative
reform that would encompass and monitor free-diving
activities should be mandatory.
Licensing/relicensing of divers as well as the
standardization of diving education is the second
important point that needs to be addressed when
discussing pre-event preventive measures. Although
scuba divers must be certified in order to practice
the sport, the necessary prerequisites and the training
offered to future divers differ significantly between
clubs.9,13 Before undertaking diving certification, a
future diver should obtain proper medical clearance.
Unfortunately, not all diving schools request a formal
medical examination,1,14 while non-professional freedivers are completely outside of medical supervision.
Studies have proven the presence of preexisting
pathologic conditions in a significant portion of
fatally injured scuba divers which may have triggered
the fatal outcome or were the direct cause of the
diver’s death.9,15,16 In our sample, 31.9% of victims
(10.5% of resident divers and 46.4% tourist divers)
had preexisting pathologic conditions that affected
mostly the cardiovascular system. Although not directly
associated to the cause of death, the presence of such
conditions marks the need for regular health check-ups
that are often omitted once the diver has a regular diving
qualification.9,13 They should be provided especially to
risk-group tourists who occasionally practice diving and
to older divers, as psychophysical abilities gradually
decrease with age.1,9 We propose that divers undergo
a medical examination before travelling to a diving
destination. Given that most of the pathological
conditions in our sample were found in divers older
than 40 years (data not shown), regular annual health
check-ups or even a relicensing should be planned for
J Travel Med 2013; 20: 101–106
Stemberga et al.
this age category, as well for occasional divers in order
to ascertain their level of health, fitness, and skills.
Attention should also be given to the medical screening
of possible asymptomatic preexistent diseases and to
young divers with acute health conditions which they
often underestimate.17
Diver education in different countries should meet
a homogenized set of international guidelines so as
to ensure a uniform level of knowledge for all parties
participating in diving. A large number of divers from
continental states learn to dive in swimming pools and
lakes in their respective countries, and are therefore not
adequately prepared for diving at sea. Our data show that
tourists make up 59.6% of the total number of divingrelated deaths and that the majority of them came from
continental cities. Apart from this, tourists are often
offered ‘‘quick’’ diving courses in the countries they are
visiting that do not prepare divers appropriately for a
timely response to unanticipated underwater events.9
Our study showed that the two cases of decompression
sickness, a condition that can be a result of inadequate
preparation for a dive, were recorded in tourists. Yet,
the education of scuba divers is more regulated than
that of free-divers, who often do not have any formal
education and are thus more prone to fatal accidents.
Dive planning, organization, and preparation
(including site selection) are other important factors
that should primarily depend on the diving industry and
which, if done correctly, can lower the overall mortality
rate among divers. Evaluating a diver’s preparedness and
health status before a dive should not be left to the divers’
self-assessment; rather it should be objectively assessed
by the dive operator.13,18 Substances, like alcohol
and medications, which can limit proper reasoning
underwater should be avoided.19 In our sample, no
substance abuse was present in fatally injured scuba
divers, but alcohol intoxication was present in one
free-diver (snorkeler). Although snorkeling is not being
perceived as a harmful activity, people practicing it
must be aware of the possible fatal consequences that
can result from an unconscionable conduct prior and
during the activity.20 Another important factor that
has to be taken into consideration, especially when
organizing a dive on one’s own, is the possibility of
unfavorable weather conditions (they resulted in two
fatal accidents in our sample). Dive briefing should be
given to all divers prior to a dive, and with special
attention to tourists.21 It is important for them to
get acquainted with the geographical, maritime, and
climatic conditions of the diving site, possible hazards
(underwater obstacles, dangerous caves, and sea current)
as well to be accompanied by a local diver guide who is
familiar with the area.
Proper education of divers is crucial in the event of
an underwater incident so as to enable the divers to react
promptly in unexpected situations. When inexperienced
divers are diving in a group, they may endanger the
victim and all the other members of the group, in the
event of a diving injury.22,23 On the other hand, diving
105
Diving Fatalities Among Tourist and Resident Divers
with a group of trained divers ensures better reactions
to possible accidents and access to emergency medical
care. This is why it is important for recreational divers
to dive in pairs, be trained in recognizing and dealing
with disrupted health conditions, and for this practice
to be extended to free-divers. Data in this study proved
that free-divers have fatal accidents while diving alone,
most commonly during underwater fishing activities.
The fact that they had been diving alone and had not
logged their dive led to an untimely response of the
rescue team and prolonged the search and recovery of
the body (data not shown).
Lastly, post-event activities that could reduce
accident risks must be performed. They should include
an effective surveillance system of divers and a detailed
investigation of every diving accident including an
autopsy, equipment testing, an evaluation of the diving
plan, and data on the practical/theoretical experience
of the divers involved, allowing us to better recognize
risk factors and the population most at risk. In the
Croatian sample, the majority of victims were foreign
citizens (59.6%), most of whom fell victim to scuba
diving (70.4%); this is in contrast to resident divers
who succumbed during free-diving (79%). The greatest
number of scuba diving fatalities among locals was
related to professional and technical diving. Similar
data were also recorded in the southern part of Croatia,
Split-Dalmatian County.24 The higher ratio of foreign
citizens in the overall number of deaths, and their
significant rise after 1996, can be explained by the
substantial ratio of foreign divers in the country,
especially in the post-war period when diving tourism
in Croatia took off25 (unofficial data report that the
number of foreign divers is rising at an annual rate
of 15%–20% and that they make up almost 80%
of the reported divers12,26 ). The striking difference
in diving styles among locals and tourists can be
explained by economic and cultural factors which induce
a greater number of Croatian divers to practice freediving for leisure while participating in scuba diving for
professional reasons. In addition, fatally injured foreign
divers are often people who start to participate in the
sport later in life when they have achieved financial
autonomy and mobility (as scuba diving is a financially
demanding sport). Being significantly older than local
divers, they have a greater number of preexisting
pathologies that could easily trigger a fatal outcome.
The main limitation of the study was the inability
to clearly establish the population at risk (the exact
number of divers in the county) due to the lack of
a continuous systematic monitoring system of scuba
divers during the 30-year period. The number of freedivers is unknown and impossible to estimate as their
activity is not controlled by law or regulations. However,
the existing data document a continuous increase in the
number of divers in Croatia, the number rising from
42,000 in 200127 to more than 60,000 by the end
of the decade11 (with approximately 14,000 divers and
25,000 dives reported in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County
in 200926 ). Despite this limitation, the systematic
collection and analysis of data regarding diving accidents
in the Primorje-Gorski Kotar region has shown that
there is a need for stricter monitoring of diving
tourism, regular health check-ups for senior divers and,
most importantly, a legally regulated monitoring and
education system for free-divers.
Today, modern diving can be, in every sense, equated
with diving tourism.28 Therefore, its risk-prevention
strategies should also represent a fundamental segment
of research in the fields of travel medicine and tourist
management, as nothing short of an interdisciplinary
cooperation at national and international levels will
guarantee the effective management of diving risk
factors in the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Igor Mijolović for
the significant assistance in collection of data regarding
the type, conditions, and organization of diving. The
authors would also like to thank the two anonymous
reviewers for their comments and suggestions which
helped to strengthen and improve this manuscript.
Declaration of Interests
The authors state that they have no conflicts of interest
to declare.
References
1. Benton PJ, Glover MA. Diving medicine. Travel Med
Infect Dis 2006; 4:238–254.
2. Levett DZH, Millar L. Bubble trouble: a review of diving
physiology and disease. Postgrad Med J 2008; 84:571–578.
3. Goldhahn RT Jr, Scuba diving deaths: a review and
approach for the pathologist. Leg Med Annu 1977;
1976:109–132.
4. Denoble PJ, Marroni A, Vann RD. Annual fatality rates
and associated risk factors for recreational scuba diving.
In: Vann RD, Lang MA, eds. Recreational diving fatalities.
Proceedings of the Divers Alert Network 2010 April
8–10 Workshop. Durham, NC: Divers Alert Network,
2011:73–83.
5. Vann R, Lang M. Recreational diving fatalities. Undersea
Hyperb Med 2011; 38:257–260.
6. Edmonds C. Why divers die: the facts and figures. In:
Edmonds C, Lowry C, Pennefather J, eds. Diving and
subaquatic medicine. 4th Ed. London: Arnold Publishing,
2002:477.
7. Lippmann J. Diving deaths down under. In: Vann RD,
Lang MA, eds. Recreational diving fatalities. Proceedings
of the Divers Alert Network 2010 April 8–10 Workshop.
Durham, NC: Divers Alert Network, 2011:86–97.
8. Coxon X, Dimmock K, Wilks J. Managing risk in
tourist diving: a safety-management approach. In: Garrod
B, Gossling S, eds. New frontiers in marine tourism:
diving experiences, sustainability, management. London:
Elsevier, 2008:201–219.
J Travel Med 2013; 20: 101–106
106
9. Ihama Y, Miyazaki T, Fuke C, et al. Scuba-diving related
deaths in Okinawa, Japan, from 1982 to 2007. Leg Med
2008; 10:119–124.
10. Pulley
SA.
Decompression
sickness.
Available
at:
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/769717overview. (Accessed 2012 Oct 25)
11. Klisovic J. Nema odgovarajućeg zakona: u Jadranu
roni tko i kako hoće. (There is no corresponding
legislation for diving: in the Adriatic Sea dives whoever
and however wants). Vjesnik. Available at: http://www.
vjesnik.hr/Article.aspx?ID=8834E044-DFE8-422CA4B6-7EA611DD359F. (Accessed 2011 Nov 8)
12. Ministry of Maritime Affairs, Transport and Infrastructure. Ronjenje (Diving). Available at: http://www.mppi.hr/
default.aspx?id=6798. (Accessed 2012 May 25)
13. Wilks J, Davis RJ. Risk management for scuba diving
operators on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. Tourism
Manage 2000; 21:591–599.
14. Edmonds C, Walker D. Scuba diving fatalities in Australia
and New Zealand. Part 1, The human factor. SPUMS J
1989; 19:94–104.
15. Walker D. Project Proteus: an investigation of health
factors in scuba diving. SPUMS J 1995; 25:23–24.
16. Duraković Z, Duraković MM, Skavić J, Gojanović MD.
Unexpected sudden death due to recreational swimming
and diving in men in Croatia in a 14-year period. Coll
Antropol 2012; 36:641–645.
17. Mitchell SJ, Bove AA. Medical screening of recreational
divers for cardiovascular disease: consensus discussion at
the Divers Alert Network Fatality Workshop. Undersea
Hyperb Med 2011; 38:289–296.
18. Taylor DM, O’Toole KS, Ryan CM. Experienced,
recreational scuba divers in Australia continue to dive
J Travel Med 2013; 20: 101–106
Stemberga et al.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
despite medical contraindications. Wilderness Environ
Med 2002; 13:187–193.
Verster JC, Kienhorst EA, van Hulst RA. Alcohol, drugs,
and diving: implication for health and fitness to dive. Curr
Drug Abuse Rev 2012; 5:86–86.
Lippmann JM, Pearn JH. Snorkelling-related deaths in
Australia, 1994–2006. Med J Aust 2012; 197:230–232.
Graver D. The role and responsibilities of NAUI
divemasters. NAUI Diving Association News 1989;
26–30.
Widman B. The early warning signs of diving accidents.
In: Fead L, ed. Proceedings of the 7th international
conference on underwater education. Colton, CA:
National Association of Underwater Instructors, 1975;
448–455.
Wilks J, Christie L. Natural observation of diving
incidents. SPUMS J 1992; 22:143–147.
Definis-Gojanovic M, Breskovic T, Sutlovic D, Petri N.
Divers’ deaths in Split-Dalmatian County, Croatia (case
study, 1994–2004). Int Marit Health 2007; 58:139–148.
Ergovic G. Diving. Zagreb: Croatian National Tourist
Board, 2009.
Ministry of maritime affairs, transport and infrastructure.
Evidencija dnevnika ronjenja za 2009. godinu (Logbook
records for 2009). Available at: http://www.mppi.hr/
default.aspx?id=6798. (Accessed 2010 May 25)
Croatian Diving Association, 2009. Opće informacije o
HRS-u (General information on Croatian Diving Association). Available at: http://www.diving-hrs.hr/opcenito/
opcenito.htm. (Accessed 2012 May 25)
Ecott T. Neutral buoyancy—adventures in a liquid world.
New York: Grove Press, 2011.