Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church:
A Review
By Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ*
,
QWURGXFWLRQ The colloquial caricature by the assertion that to the Roman Catholic faithful the Protestants1 can believe anything they like and to the latter it seems the former
is not allowed to think is rife and common. When asked for an authoritative answer to
a direct question of religious belief and authority a typical Protestant may reply that ‘the
Bible says…’ or even asks ‘where is it in the Bible?’, and now he or she has reached
a conclusion; whereas the classic Catholic may be more likely to reply ‘according to
the teachings of the Church’, or ‘this is what the Pope says about this...’ Obviously,
such mockeries have a limited purpose, but still point towards the factual difficulties
about faith and authority as experienced differently by Protestants and the members of
Catholic Church. Anglicans and Catholics, for example, have strived to reach a limited
agreement through Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC)2 on
the Anglican- Catholic ecumenical relationship, including authority, yet, this is not
enough to convince the misperceptions people encounter in trying to understand the
ecclesiastical structure of authority of the Catholic Church.
In attempt to explicate this confusion, this paper will begin by looking at the
understanding of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and polity in the Church. The core words
in this work, “Authority” and “Church”, are social realities which need to be seen from
the perspective of practice. They are interactions that bind the people involved together
in the context of what the community holds in common and what the traditions of
the community have bequeathed to its members.3 Thus, establishing the relationship
between these two realities will also help in responding to what the Church or authority
is. In addition, the paper will analyze the relevance of authority in the Church by
looking at the secular understanding of authority, the authority of the Church, how this
authority originates from the Scripture, revisiting the nature of Church authority, the
concerns of the Papacy, Papal Primacy and Papal Infallibility. The conclusion will be a
critical understanding of the teaching authority, the Magisterium, as a way of reviewing
the ecclesiastical structure of authority in Catholic Church.
Ecclesiastical Hierarchy and Polity in the Church
The Catholic Church describes as her hierarchy the bishops, priests and deacons.4
In the ecclesiastical sense of the term, ‘hierarchy’ commonly means the body of per Protestants is used here to include members of other Christian faith who are not Catholics.
The Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) is an organization created in 1969 which seeks to make ecumenical progress between the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion. [“The Final Report, Windsor, September 1981, London, 1982.” in C. Hill & E.J. Yarnold (eds.), Anglicans and Roman Catholics: The Search for Unity, (London: SPCK/CTS, 1994)]. 3
David Stagaman, Authority in the Church (Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1999), 35. 4
Catechism of the Catholic Church), #873.
1
2
* Isidore-­Splendor Chukwu, SJ is a Jesuit Scholastic belonging to North-­West Province. He is a third year student of theology at Hekima College.
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
35
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
sons who exercise authority within any organization or Christian church.5 In the Catholic Church, authority rests chiefly with the bishops6, while priests and deacons serve as
their assistants, co-workers or helpers.7 Accordingly, “hierarchy of the Catholic Church”
is also used to refer to bishops alone.8
Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a church or
Christian denomination. It also denotes the ministerial structure of the church and the
authority relationships between churches.9 Polity is closely related to ecclesiology,
the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization.10 Issues of church
governance appear in the first chapters of the Acts of the Apostles.11 Ecclesiastical
polity, however, is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to
the field of church governance in the abstract, but it can also refer to the governance
of a particular Christian body. During the Protestant Reformation, arguments were
made that the New Testament prescribed structures quite different from that of the
Roman Catholic Church of the day, and for this reason different Protestant bodies used
different types of polity for their ecclesiastical structure. Polity is sometimes used as a
shorthand for the church governance structure itself. 12
What is the Church?
The term church is the name employed in the Teutonic languages to render the
Greek ekklesia (ecclesia), a word used by New Testament writers to denote the
community of followers of Jesus Christ.13 The derivation of the word has been much
debated but now agreed that it is derived from the Greek kyriakon (cyriacon), i.e. the
Lord’s house, a term which from the third century was used to signify a Christian place
of worship.14 Ordinarily, it is employed as the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew qahal,
i.e., the entire community of the children of Israel viewed in their religious aspect.
Thus, through the rendering of the Hebrew words qahal ‹êdah, which signify the
religious assembly of the Israelites, the church as a community was adopted. In the
Septuagint these words are rendered, respectively, as ekklesia and synagoge.15 In Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, both words are regularly represented by synagoge. As
time went on ecclesia denotes the Church of Christ while synagoga is for the Jews still
adhering to the worship of the Old Covenant. Occasionally, ecclesia is employed in
its general significance of ‘assembly’ (Acts 19:32; 1Corinthians 14:19); and synagoga
7
8
9
1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, article ‘Hierarchy.’
Catechism of the Catholic Church, #874-­896.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, #886, 888, 893, 939.
Hierarchy in John Hardon, Modern Catholic Dictionary.
Richard Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (London: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 107.
10
Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, 110.
11
Acts begins with Jesus’s charge to the Twelve Apostles to spread the Gospel throughout the world. Peter VHUYHVDVWKHOHDGHURIWKHDSRVWOHVDQGWKHVPDOOFRQJUHJDWLRQRIWKHIDLWKIXOLQ-HUXVDOHP7KHLU¿UVWRUGHURIEXVL-­
ness is to elect Matthias as the twelfth apostle, replacing the traitor Judas Iscariot. During the year of Jesus’s death and resurrection, the disciples are gathered for Pentecost, a religious holiday celebrating the grain harvest. The Holy Spirit descends upon them. As a result of the Holy Spirit’s presence, they begin speaking other languages. 12
Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, 54-­56. 13
New Advent, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03744a.htm, accessed on 25th October, 2013. 14
Thomas P. Rausch, Towards a Truly Catholic Church: An Ecclesiology for the Third Millennium (Minne-­
sota: Liturgical Press, 2005), 34-­35. 15
Rausch, Towards a Truly Catholic Church: An Ecclesiology for the Third Millennium, 17.
5
6
36
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
occurs once in reference to a gathering of Christians, though apparently of a nonreligious character (James 2:2). But ecclesia is never used by the Apostles to denote
the Jewish Church. The word as a technical expression had been transferred to the
community of Christian believers.16
As signifying the Church, the word Ecclesia is used by Christian writers, sometimes
in a wider and restricted sense. It may designate specially to all who, from the beginning
of the world, have believed in the one true God, and have been made His children by
grace;17 to those who exercise the office of teaching and ruling the faithful, the Ecclesia
Docens (Matthew 18:17). Again the governed as distinguished from their pastors, the
Ecclesia Discens (Acts 20:28). In all these cases the name belonging to the whole is
applied to a part. The term, in its full meaning, denotes the whole body of the faithful,
both rulers and ruled, throughout the world (Ephesians 1:22; Colossians 1:18). It may
signify the whole body of the faithful, including not merely the members of the Church
who are alive on earth but those, too, whether in heaven or in purgatory, who form
part of the one communion of saints. Considered thus, the Church is divided into the
Church Militant, the Church Suffering, and the Church Triumphant.18
According to Richard McBrien, “The Church is the whole body, or congregation of
persons who are called by God the Father to acknowledge the Lordship of Jesus, the
Son, in word, in sacrament, in witness, and in service, and, through the power of the
Holy Spirit, to collaborate with Jesus’ historic mission for the sake of the Kingdom of
God.”19 Karl Rahner from his famous fundamental approach to the theology of grace
argues that the Church is the sacrament of the triune God’s presence among us; it is
the mediator of God’s salvific activity on our behalf; and it is a communion of grace
to which all humanity is called in the final Kingdom of God.20
Edward Schillebeeckx’s work on the Church is very clear in its assertion of the
Church as sacramentum mundi, meaning, ‘sacrament of the world.’21 From this
assertion, one could argue that Schillebeeckx’s point is on his view of the ‘world’ as
a fellowship or community of the believers. Thus, the Church is committed to this
fellowship of God’s people as she tries to be in communion and dialogue with the
world. The strivings of the Church continue because in faith the Church believes that
these problems are not insurmountable; “with God, everything is possible” (Luke 1:37).
Like Schillebeeckx, Hans Kung stoutly believes that the Church is first and foremost
a historical reality.22 This historical reality gave birth to the pilgrim People of God
who emerged from the preaching of the Kingdom of God. Hence, the mission of the
Church is basically toward the coming Kingdom by being her “voice, announcer and
herald.”23 Through this service, Kung thinks that the Church is the anticipatory sign of
the Kingdom, the Body of Christ, and the creation of the Holy Spirit.24
Rausch, Towards a Truly Catholic Church: An Ecclesiology for the Third Millennium, 47. Rausch, Towards a Truly Catholic Church: An Ecclesiology for the Third Millennium, 47. 18
Church Militant, http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20011123_True_Soldiers_in_the_Church_Mil-­
itant.html, accessed on 23rd September, 2013. 19
Richard McBrien, Catholicism (NY: Society of St. Paul, 2008), 723. 20
Karl Rahner, The Church and the Sacraments (London: Nelson, 1963), 14-­18. 21
Edward Schillebeeckx, God the Future of Man (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968), 123. 22
Hans Kung, The Church (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968), 83. 23
Kung, The Church, 96. 24
Kung, The Church, 92-­103. 16
17
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
37
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
In addition, Avery Dulles’ ecclesiology of the Church is anchored on the appreciation of Vatican Council II’s progressive development in keeping with Robert Bellarmine’s idea of church as “a group of men bound together by the profession of the
same Christian faith and by the communion of the same sacraments, under the rule of
legitimate pastors… vicar of Christ on earth, the Roman Pontiff.”25 Dulles thinks that
this notion undermines what ought to define the Church, namely, the communion of
minds and hearts through sharing in the same divine life.26 Hence, his bold suggestion
of what the Church is clearly emerges in his famous Models of the Church, where he
maintains that the Church is too rich and diverse to be confined to any single theological category. Dulles presents five models of the Church and insists that the Church
is not just one of them but ‘all of them’ and can even be more. They are: Institution,
Mystical Communion, Sacraments, Herald and Servant.27
The presented scholarly exposé of the Church stands in congruence with Lumen
Gentium’s definition of the Church as a constitution through which her faithful are
defined.28 This means that the faithful need to be conformed to her principles and
ideals. What one finds in Lumen Gentium is nothing less than a ground plan for one’s
existence. The document begins with a thorough consideration of the mystery of the
Church and the Church as mystery. It emphasizes on the important evangelical assertion, something that should be of primary interest to the faithful in this age of the new
evangelization. The grand intention of this Sacred Synod is to proclaim the Gospel to
every creature, to bring the light of Christ to all people, a light brightly visible on the
countenance of the Church.
Thus, there is a connection between one’s understanding of the human existence of
Jesus Christ, and one’s understanding of the Church. The understanding of the nature
and mission of the Church depends upon one’s understanding of the meaning and
value of Jesus Christ, who reveals to us at one and the same time who God is and who
we are. Obviously this presupposes that there is some vital link between Jesus Christ
and the Church, and that the Church issues forth from Christ and is identified with his
person and work. It is precisely because of this connection that we turn to the question
of the images of the Church in the New Testament.
Images of the Church
The Church of the New Testament is portrayed according to various images, the
three most important being: Church as the People of God (linked with Old Testament
idea of corporate personality and covenant, Judges 20:2 and 2 Samuel 14:13), Body
of Christ (symbolizing Christians who constitute a closely-knit community, Ephesians
1:18-23), and the Temple of the Holy Spirit (the dwelling place of God, Ephesians
2:21-22). The mission of the Church is focused as it is Jesus’ mission, on the Kingdom
of God. The Kingdom of God is the reign or rule of God. This Kingdom happens
whenever and wherever the will of God is fulfilled, for God rules where God’s will
25
Avery Dulles, 7KH'LPHQVLRQVRIWKH&KXUFK$3RVWFRQFLOLDU5HÀHFWLRQ(Westminster Md.: Newman Press, 1967), 4. 26
Dulles, 7KH'LPHQVLRQVRIWKH&KXUFK$3RVWFRQFLOLDU5HÀHFWLRQ5. 27
Avery Dulles, Models of the Church (New York: Doubleday, 1974), 3. 28
Fr. Denis Robinson, http://substancehopedfor.blogspot.com/2012/11/rectors-­conference-­lumen-­gentium.
html, accessed on January, 2013. 38
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
is at work.29 Hence, since God’s will is applicable to the world, to nature, to institutions, or to individuals, then the Kingdom of God is extensive and overarching as the
claims and scope of the divine will itself. Therefore, the Church which is a segment of
humankind which now hopes in the future of the world because its fundamental faith
is in the unique significance of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ and in
the abiding power of the Holy Spirit. Her foremost task is to keep alive the memory of
Jesus Christ in word and in sacrament.
Secular understanding of authority
The word authority is derived from the Latin word autor (author), or augere (to
increase, to enlarge). Authority maybe de iure (by right or law) or de facto (in fact,
the way it is).30 Authority refers to an abstract concept with both sociological and
psychological components. The concept of authority has a lot to do with power and
legitimacy.31 Power and legitimacy are concerns not only in the abstract but also in the
concrete sense; they are often confused to mean the same thing. One is defined as a
function of the other and vice-versa. “Authority is that form of power which orders or
articulates the actions of other actors through commands which are effective because
those who are commanded regard the commands as legitimate.”32 This definition depicts what David Stagaman calls the “social reality”33 of authority because authority is
what helps a society or community to be bound together in all its interactions. Stagaman avers: “In the life of a community, authority plays a role that is analogous to the
role freedom plays in the life of an individual. Authority makes it possible for a community to determine what it is and to have a sense of purpose… authority functions
at the heart of our living together.”34 Max Weber used the term authority to refer to
legitimate power, so that authority is seen as power which is regarded as legitimate in
the minds of followers.35
Power and Legitimacy in connection with authority
Power is the ability, whether personal or social, to get things done, either to enforce
one’s own will or to enforce the collective will of some group over others. Legitimacy
is a socially constructed and psychologically accepted right to exercise power. A person can have legitimacy but no actual power.36 A person can have actual power but
no legitimacy, like the usurper who exiled the king and appropriates the symbols of
office.37 Here, we begin to approach an understanding of what authority is because
in all social situations a person is treated as an authority only when they have both
power and legitimacy. We might consider, for example, the phrase uttered so often
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
29
30
McBrien, Catholicism, 724. McBrien, Catholicism, 739. Hannah Arendt, The Concept of Authority: Between Past and Future (New York: Viking, 1961), 3. Marx Weber, The Three Types Of Legitimate Rule (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1958), 20. Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 35. Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 35. Collins Randal, Weberian Sociological Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 158. The legitimate king might reside in exile, destitute and forgotten. Randal, Weberian Sociological Theory, 160. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
39
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
when someone intrudes into another person’s business in order to give commands:
“You have no authority here.” What does this mean? It might mean that the person has
no legitimate claim to be heard or heeded. It might mean that the person has no social
power; s/he has not the ability to enforce his/her will over the objections of others. Or,
it might mean both. In any case, both must be present for authority to exist (socially)
and be acknowledged (psychologically).38
Exercising Authority
In exercising authority, one expects that when one makes a decision you will go
along with that decision, even if one does not take the time to explain it to you and
persuade you to do what is asked. In turn, your acceptance of one as an authority
implies that you have already agreed to be persuaded, implicitly, and will not demand
explicit explanations and reasons.39 So when you act, it will not be because of one is
enforcing one’s will over you, nor will it have anything to do with the legitimacy of
one’s power. Instead, it will simply be you exercising your will for your own reasons.
For example, a priest who pastors a parish has the religious authority over his
parishioners. This priest has the legitimate, religious and social power to see that his
will and that of his superiors are enforced over the members of the parish. More than
this, however, we must understand that those members have implicitly accepted that
the priest does not need to patiently reason with each one of them in turn in order to
get them to independently agree to the decisions he makes. So why does the priest
not explain everything? There can be many reasons; perhaps, members of the parish
lack the sophisticated training necessary in order to understand them, or maybe there
is no enough time. What is important is that the priest could explain things, but does
not. Authority from this standpoint means not having to explain everything but being
able to wield legitimate power anyway. Only in a community of infinitely rational individuals with an infinite amount of time would it be possible for everything to be fully
explained all the time. In the real world, we rely upon authority figures to make decisions for us. As a part of this, we invest them with the power and legitimacy necessary
to cause those decisions to be meaningful and relevant.
From the above analysis one can see that the exercise of authority is a constant and
pervasive phenomenon in human society. Human society maintains itself because of
‘order’ – and it is authority that serves as the foundation of social order.40 It is wrong
to assume that ‘authority’ is purely a political phenomenon. In fact, in all kinds of organizations, political as well as non-political, authority appears. Every association in
society, whether it is temporary or permanent, small or big, spiritual or temporal has its
own structure of authority. Weber’s notion of authority does not imply that power is legitimate and that illegitimate power plays no role in society; rather “Weber only argues
that legitimacy is a general condition for the most effective and enduring manifestations
of power. Still this legitimacy may take different forms and different justifications.”41
40
41
38
39
40
Randal, Weberian Sociological Theory, 146. Randal, Weberian Sociological Theory, 146. Randal, Weberian Sociological Theory, 224. Weber, The Three Types Of Legitimate Rule, 15. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
Power Based on Authority
Power based on authority is usually and unquestionably accepted by those to
whom it is applied, for obedience to it has become a social norm. Power based on coercion, on the other hand, tends to be unstable, because people obey only out of fear
and will disobey at the first opportunity. For this reason every political system must be
regarded as legitimate by its participants if it is to survive. Most people must consider
it desirable, workable and better than the alternatives. If the majority of the citizens in
any society no longer consider their political system legitimate, it is doomed, because
power that rests only on coercion will fail in the long run. The American, French and
the Russian revolutions42, for example, have proved it. The authority of the respective
monarchies was questioned, and their power which was based mainly on coercion
rather than on loyalty inevitably crumbled. In these cases, the exercise of coercive control was in conflict with the exercise of legitimate authority. The legitimacy of authority
is ultimately a matter of belief concerning the rightfulness of the institutional system
through which authority is exercised. It depends on the rightfulness of the exerciser’s
incumbency in the authoritative role within the institutional systems.
It also depends on the rightfulness of the command itself or how the promulgation
is made. To substantiate this position, Marx Weber describes three ideal types of legitimation which correspond to three types of authority: Traditional, Legal and Charismatic
authorities.43 Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The ability
and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity. It does not change overtime,
does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an
individual. Weber saw a charismatic leader as the head of a new social movement, and
one instilled with divine or supernatural powers, such as a religious prophet. Weber
seemed to favor charismatic authority, and spent a good deal of time discussing it.
Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the
law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience is not given to a specific individual
leader – whether traditional or charismatic – but to a set of uniform principles. Weber
thought the best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy (political or
economic). However, no authority structure, Weber wrote, could actually be exclusively bureaucratic, because some positions would be held by a variety of charismatic
leaders. He also stated that non-bureaucratic legal authority could be found in organizations that have rotating office holders, such as “Parliamentary and committee administration and all sorts of collegiate and administrative bodies.”44
However, the focus of the analysis is to recognize what authority in the Church
means, not necessarily to follow the norms presented in the secular or social understanding of authority but to build a reinforced line of thought for a better discourse. According to Stagaman, “Church authority is fundamentally sacramental,”45 rendering the
42
This was a time of great turmoil in the history of the world. It was the time when the people, the masses, the proletariat, took laws into their hands and with one voice of solidarity subdued the power that be and changed the history of the world. After these revolutions, many new reforms were created. This was an age of enlightenment for a once oppressed people.
43
Weber, The Three Types Of Legitimate Rule, 2-­3. 44
Weber, The Three Types Of Legitimate Rule, 3. 45
Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 30. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
41
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
grace of God efficaciously. It is through symbolic actions that the words and gestures
of human beings in the community are made manifest. Church authority is about the
ends and not the techniques; it is about the union of people with God and not their
separation from other people.46 By this statement, Church authority stands in opposition with juridical or secular authority because they are not about the same cause
and pursuits. Through the knowledge of the gospel and its interpretation, one can
rightly embrace the authenticity and core of Church authority that is built on her
historicity and tradition.
The Source of authority in the Catholic Church
The New Testament bears witness in numerous places to the fact of authority in the
Catholic Church. The witness clearly shows that Christ gave his Apostles his authority
to continue his mission on earth because the authority, exousia,47 which is ascribed to
Jesus, is what he transferred to his apostles so that the mission of spreading the good
news to the ends of the earth would carry on. The Catholic Church views the Bible as
one of two definitive witnesses to divine revelation. Christ taught many other things to
the Apostles that are not found in Scripture; they are called Catholic tradition, literally
meaning “that which is handed on.” Tradition is the full, living faith of the apostles as
received from Christ.48 Here are some of the important Scriptural references that deal
with the authority of the Church directly:
a. Jesus drew near and said to them, ‘I have been given all authority in heaven
and on earth. Go, then, to all peoples everywhere and make them my disciples:
baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit and teach
them to obey everything I have commanded you. And I will be with you always,
to the end of the age (Matthew 28:18-20).
Analysis of the passage:
’ 9TbdbcT[[bcWT0_^bc[TbcWPccWTPdcW^aXchWTXbVXeX]VcWT\STaXeTbUa^\WXb
own, divine authority. (“All authority...” / “Go therefore.”)
’ CWT0_^bc[Tb´PdcW^aXchP]S\XbbX^]R^\TbSXaTRc[hUa^\2WaXbcWX\bT[U
’ CWT]PcdaT^UcWXb\XbbX^]Xbc^[TPS^aV^eTa]±\PZTSXbRX_[Tb²bP]RcXUh
(“baptizing them”), and to teach (“teaching them to observe”).
’ 2WaXbc_a^\XbTbc^aT\PX]_aTbT]cfXcWcWT\P[fPhbX]bd__^ac^UcWXb\Xbsion (“I am with you always, to the end of the ages”).
b. John 20:21: “Jesus said to them again, ‘Peace be with you. As the Father has sent
me, even so I send you.’”
In this passage, Jesus commissions the Apostles to continue his own mission. Again,
this mission has its source in the divine authority of the Father. (CCC. 859).
c. Luke 10:16: “He who hears you hears me, and he who rejects you rejects me,
and he who rejects me rejects Him who sent me.”
Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 30-­31. McBrien, Catholicism, 741. 48
Church Authority, http://www.beginningcatholic.com/church-­authority.html, accessed on January 19th, 2013. 46
47
42
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
Here, Christ explicitly identifies himself with the Apostles: this identification is so
complete that accepting or rejecting the Apostles is the same as accepting or rejecting
Christ. The passages compare the union between Christ and his Apostles to that of the
Son and the Father within the Holy Trinity.
And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock, I will build My Church, and the powers of
death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven, and
whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven, and whatever you loose on earth
shall be loosed in Heaven (Matthew 16:18-19).
This passage is pivotal for the understanding of Church authority:
’ 2WaXbc´bST[XQTaPcTX]cT]cc^TbcPQ[XbWP2WdaRW³8fX[[QdX[S<h2WdaRW´
’ 7XbRW^XRT^U?TcTaPbcWTU^d]SPcX^]^aWTPS^UcWXb2WdaRW
’ 2WaXbcR^]UTab^]?TcTaWXb^f]SXeX]TPdcW^aXch³cWTZThb^UcWT:X]VS^\^U
Heaven’) for ruling the Church (‘bind’ and ‘loose’). This power to bind and
loose, repeated also in Mt 18:18 to the Apostles as a whole, is understood
and believed as applying first to Peter and his successors (the Pope), and
then to the rest of the Apostles and their successors (the Bishops) in union
with Peter.
The Acts of the Apostles provides abundant evidence of how Church’s authority
was practiced during the apostolic age.49 However, the absolute power which Jesus
claims in Matthew 28: 18 is not only transferred to his disciples or the leaders of the
Church but to everyone.50 It is a fact that the Spirit is given to the whole Church and
not exclusively to the Church leaders (1 Corinthians 12:1-28 and Romans 12:3-8). There
is a diversity of gifts and charismas and all must work together as one for the good of
the whole. The power which the Church authority has is from the Holy Spirit and the
Holy Spirit is accessible to all. Indeed, no one can profess that Jesus is Lord except in
the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthian 12:3). The authority required by the moral order derives
from God: “Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no
authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God. Therefore
he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and those who resist will
incur judgment” (Romans 13:1-2; 1 Peter 2:13-17). Hence, McBrien states that “authority
in the Church is always of a unique kind, not simply another form of standard social
or political authority. It is a power existing within the Body of Christ, not just within
another human organization.”51 Authority as a function of the Body of Christ is a new
concept of authority since the Body of Christ is a new society; thus, authority of the
Church is profoundly rooted in the Holy Spirit because every authority emanates
from God.
49
The Apostolic Age is the time in which the Apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ lived and preached the Chris-­
tian faith. It accounts for approximately 70 years and extended from the foundation of the Church on the day of Pentecost on 30 AD to the departure of St. John the Apostle, 100 AD. (http://nacopts.org/index.php?option=com_co
ntent&task=view&id=13&Itemid=29, accessed on 12 of March, 2013). 50
McBrien, Catholicism, 742. 51
McBrien, Catholicism, 742. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
43
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
Catholic Church’s Authority
The authority of the Church vehemently has its source in Jesus Christ. The New
Testament shows that the Church firstly began to exist through the gathering or assembling of Christ’s disciples; and this has become the vehicle of his continuing mission in
the world. He promised to remain present in his Church for all time, and he lovingly
guides it through the presence of the Holy Spirit. To ensure the success of this mission,
Christ gave his Church the ability to teach, govern and sanctify with his own authority. The apostles selected successors to ensure that the Gospel would continue to be
handed on faithfully as “the lasting source of all life for the Church” (Vatican II, Lumen
Gentium 20; also Catechism #860). The source and guarantee of this Church authority
is Christ’s continuing presence in his Church: “Lo, I am with you always, to the close
of the age” (Matthew 28:20).
The purpose of this authority is to give the Church the ability to teach without error
about the essentials of salvation: “On this rock, I will build My Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it” (Matthew 16:18). The capacity of this authority
concerns the official teachings of the Church on matters of faith, morals, and worship (Liturgy & Sacraments). We believe that, because of Christ’s continued presence,
his Church cannot lead people astray with its official teachings (which are distinct
from the individual failings and opinions of its members, priests, bishops, and Popes).
The Church shares in the authority of Christ and in the power of the Holy Spirit. Its
authority is for the same purpose: to proclaim the Gospel of the Kingdom of God
and to manifest and release the power of the Holy Spirit to “re-create and re-unite the
whole human community.”52
The nature of Church’s authority re-examined
It appears valid to argue that Church authority exists so that Christ can continue
to guide his Church in the continuing work of salvation. This is to mean that Church
authority is entirely at the service of the salvific mission of Christ. We believe that Christ
desired the Church to have this authority so that we could be sure of essential matters
of the Faith.53 Thus, the capacity of this authority is limited to things that are essential to
our salvation. Since the authority of the Church is at the service of Christ’s gift of divine
revelation, then the Church takes care to show how her declarations about faith and
morals are consistent with that of revelation (Scripture and Tradition). It is important to
see this authority as something more divine because of its nature that is built on God
than to relate it to the secular exercise of power. Actually, most Catholics experience
Church’s authority in the form of straightforward declarations regarding faith and morals: that something is or is not a part of the faith; and that living in accordance with the
faith requires or forbids certain actions.54
One always retains the freedom to decide whether or not to remain in the faith
by following those teachings that proffer one’s relationship with God. In the Gospels,
there are many cases where people hear Christ but evidently decide not to follow him.
McBrien, Catholicism, 750. John McKenzy L., Authority in the Church (NY: Sheed & Ward, 1966), 154. 54
McKenzy L., Authority in the Church, 150. 52
53
44
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
By definition, his disciples are those who seek to follow him closely and learn from
him, even when it is hard. Catholics see the Church as continuing in Christ’s role of
teaching the truth: “He who hears you hears me” (Luke 10:16). In every human society
there is need for authority, at least for governance. Thus, the foundation of such authority lies in human nature, a nature that is made in the image of God (Genesis 1:26).
This same authority is necessary for the unity of the people in a given society. Its role is
to ensure as far as possible the common good of the society. Hence, the nature of the
authority of the Church agrees absolutely with the claimed position and because it is a
service rendered in the ‘assembly’ of God’s people, it even endears Catholics the more.
The Papacy and Papal Primacy
The papacy is a matter of central importance in the Catholic tradition. Belief in the
Petrine ministry as exercised by the Bishop of Rome distinguishes Catholicism from all
of the other great Christian traditions. The principal doctrine pertaining to the Petrine
office concerns the primacy of the Pope over the whole Church.55 Matthew’s gospel
ends with Jesus saying: “I am with you always until the end of the world” (28:20b).
The apostles believed that the risen Lord would never leave them without guidance.
The Church was to be indestructible because Jesus said to Peter: “Upon this rock I shall
build my Church. The gates of hell shall not prevail against it” (Mt. 16:18). This promise
was based on the indefectibility of the Church as a whole. No single member, not even
the Pope, as a private person, has such a guarantee of holiness or adherence to the
true faith. The Church is the sacrament of the unity which God wills for all humankind
in Christ through the Holy Spirit. But the fact is that the Church is divided. There are
Catholic Christians, Protestant Christians, Pentecostal Christians and also Evangelical
Christians. Ironically, a particular ministry within the Catholic Church which exists
precisely for the purpose of symbolizing and helping to realize the unity of the whole
Church is also a great obstacle to that unity.56
The Petrine Chair
Peter’s role of leadership is clear in that he is the spokesman of the apostles (Mark
8:29; Matthew 18:21; Luke 12:41; John. 6:67-69). In the four lists of the apostles he is
always first (Mark 3:16-19; Matthew 10:1-4; Luke 6:12-16; Acts 1:13). Paul in the earliest
account of the resurrection writes “that he was seen first by Cephas,” (1 Corinthians
15:5). However, three special texts bring out Peter’s unique role. First, Jesus gives Simon a new symbolic name, Petros (Kephas [Aramaic] = Rock).57 He is to be the rock
foundation of the Church and to have the Chief Rabbi’s prerogative of “binding and
loosing” (Matthew 16:19). Second, after a quarrel among the twelve over the ambition
of some, Jesus gave Peter a special duty. “I have prayed for you that your faith may
never fail. You in turn must strengthen your brothers” (Luke 22:32). Third, Jesus presents himself as the good shepherd (John 10), and then passes on his role of tending
the sheep to Peter (John 21:15-19).
Jean-­M., Tillard R., The Bishop of Rome (Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1983), 114. Tillard R., The Bishop of Rome, 120. 57
Tillard R., The Bishop of Rome, 20. 55
56
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
45
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
In Acts of the Apostles, Peter is clearly in the role of leadership (1-10). Peter’s presence in Rome is well attested to (1 Pt. 5:13). Because of his role in Jerusalem, Peter
continued to be a leader in Rome. Peter and Paul died as martyrs during the Neronian
persecution (60 AD).58 The third bishop of Rome from the apostolic age, Clement,
writes that a disagreement arose in the Corinthian Church and how he mediated a
solution. For the early fathers the identity of the oral tradition with the original revelation is guaranteed by the unbroken succession of bishops in the great Sees going back
lineally to the apostles.59 The catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Roman
Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys infallibility in virtue of his office, when
as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful – who confirms his brethren in the
faith – he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith and morals. The
recent ecumenical discussions of the papacy are of the highest importance. The Protestants already embrace and accept realities which serve the unity of the Church as a
whole: Baptism, the Sacred Scripture, liturgies, creeds, confessions of faith and ecumenical councils. Catholics and other Christians have differed about the meaning and
implications of Peter’s role in the New Testament church. These differences are listed
under the following three headings: Historical, Theological and Canonical. Historically,
the papacy is a succession of power that is rooted in Christ’s bestowal of power on
Peter, but others say no; theologically, the papacy is of divine law, i.e. by Christ’s will,
but the others say it is only human; and canonically, that the legal power of the pope
is supreme, full, ordinary and immediate, but some claim it is an abuse of power.60
Papal Infallibility
Infallibility literally means “immunity from error.” But what is infallibility? The heart
of infallibility is this: The power of divine grace (not the human strength of its members) cannot allow the Church as a whole to fall away from the truth of God. Simply
put, the presence of God will not allow the Church to self-destruct.61 Infallibility is a
characteristic of the Church, vested in those who have supreme authority over the
whole Church. As stated above, this supreme authority is the college of bishops with
the pope as head of the college.
Infallibility is not a characteristic of the pope’s personal conduct or his private
views. Even when Vatican I defined papal infallibility, it did so in terms of the Church.
Vatican I stated that when the pope defines a dogma of faith (often described as speaking “ex cathedra”, from the chair), he is gifted by the Holy Spirit with that infallibility
with which God wished the Church to be endowed in defining a doctrine of faith or
morals.62 This infallibility is also present in the body of bishops when together with
Peter’s successor they exercise the supreme magisterium in an ecumenical council.
Vatican II stated in Lumen Gentium that infallibility must be related to the faith of
the whole Church, that there must be collegial cooperation between the pope and the
bishops (22). It also states: “the whole body of faithful who have an anointing from the
Holy One cannot err in matters of belief.” They too, have “a share in Christ’s prophetic
60
61
62
58
59
46
Collins Roger, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the Papacy (New York: Basic Books, 2009), 220-­223. Roger, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the Papacy, 230. Tillard R., The Bishop of Rome, 161. Peter Chirico, Infallibility: The Crossroads of Doctrine (New York: Michael Glazier Inc., 1983), 5.
Chirico, Infallibility: The Crossroads of Doctrine, 23. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
office” (12). Vatican II reemphasized this point when it states: “This sacred synod, following in the steps of the First Vatican Council, teaches and declares with that Jesus
Christ, the eternal pastor, set up the holy Church by entrusting the apostles with their
mission as he himself has been sent by the Father. He willed that their successors, the
bishops namely, should be the shepherds in his Church until the end of time.”63
This infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed
in defining a doctrine of faith and morals is co-extensive with the deposit of divine
revelation, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. This is the infallibility which the Roman pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue
of this office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faith, who confirms
his brethren in their faith, he proclaims by a definitive act some doctrine of faith or
morals. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of the bishops
when that body exercises supreme teaching authority with the successor of Peter.64
Magisterium: The Teaching authority of the Church
The Magisterium (Latin: magister, ‘teacher’) is the teaching authority of the Church.65
Many Christians do not understand the teachings of the Catholic Church, especially on
the authority of the Scripture. They think that the Catholic Church believes the same as
every other Christian in the question of Scripture. That, however, is not true. Catholic
Church does not believe that the Bible alone is the final authority which formulates
their beliefs. “We believe that the Bible, Church Tradition and the Magisterium of the
Church are all equally authoritative.”66 The term magisterium has a long history and
during the Middle Ages it referred to the teaching authority proper to theologians,67 i.e.,
those who by study and diligence have achieved some understanding of the truths of
the faith and their relationship to truths that can be known without the light of faith.68
But today this term has a very precise meaning, one given it by the Church herself in
her understanding of herself as the pillar and ground of truth (Tim 3:15) against which
the gates of hell cannot prevail (Mt 16:18; Gal 1:8), and as the community to which
Christ himself has entrusted his saving word and work. From the above perspective,
the Church teaches that the magisterium is the authority to teach, in the name of Christ,
the truths of Christian faith and life (morals) and all that is necessary and/or useful for
the proclamation and defense of these truths (Dei verbum, 8).
Lumen Gentium 18.
Lumen Gentium 22.
65
Richard Gaillardetz, Teaching With Authority: A Theology of the Magisterium in the Church (New York: Liturgical Press1997), 33. 66
Francis Sullivan, The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Catholic Church (New York: Paulist, 1983), 15.
67
Contemporary writers offer four ways of relating the Theologians to what is called ‘Ordinary magisterium’ LQDVHQVHRIQRQGH¿QLWLYHWHDFKLQJDFWLYLW\DWKHRORJLDQVDV&KULVWL¿IHOHVmembers of Christ’s faithful;; b) ser-­
YDQWVRIWKHPDJLVWHULXPFXQLTXHSRVVHVVRURIWKHRI¿FHRIVWULFWO\GRFWULQDOWHDFKLQJZLWKLQWKH&KULVWLDQIROGG
traces the theologians’ distinctive work within the context of those varied charisms that Church pastors are meant to channel, integrate, respect and foster [Nichols Aidan, The Shape of Catholic Theology (NY: Continuum, Burns & Oates, 2003), 249]. 68
Sullivan, The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Church, 150-­151. 63
64
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
47
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
Ways in which the Magisterium is exercised
This teaching authority is actually vested in the college of bishops under the headship of the Roman Pontiff, the “concrete center of unity and head of the whole episcopate,” the successor of the Apostle Peter (Vatican Council II, Lumen Gentium, 22;
Vatican Council I, DS 3065-3074). This magisterium, moreover, demands assent to its
teachings by the faithful in virtue of the divine authority vested in it and not simply
in virtue of the contents of the message it teaches (Vatican Council I, DS 3020). It
has authority in teaching all the faithful in keeping with the inner constitution of the
Church itself (Lumen Gentium, 23-24). Its teaching, moreover, is an exercise of its
pastoral office, to care for the ‘souls’ of all the faithful, i.e., to safeguard the divine life
within them.69 Francis Sullivan argues that, at times, the magisterium proposes matters
of faith and morals infallibly. This is done with the assurance that what is proposed is
absolutely ir-reformable and a matter to be held definitively by the faithful. At other
times the magisterium proposes matters of faith and morals authoritatively as true, but
not in such wise that the matter proposed is to be held definitively and absolutely.70
But still the matter proposed is to be held by the faithful and to be held as true. Note
that the proper way to speak of teachings proposed in this way is to say that they are
authoritatively taught; and not to say that they are fallibly taught.
The magisterium can propose matters infallibly in two different ways. First, a matter of faith or morals can be solemnly defined by an ecumenical council or by the
Roman Pontiff when, “as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, he “. .
. proclaims by a definitive act some doctrine of faith or morals” (Vatican I, DS 3074).
Secondly, and this is most important, the magisterium can propose matters of faith or
morals infallibly in the ordinary, day-to-day exercise of its authority when specific conditions are fulfilled. These conditions are clearly stated in the Dogmatic Constitution on
the Church of Vatican Council II (Lumen Gentium). In a centrally important passage of
that document the Council Fathers declared: locates
Although the bishops individually do not enjoy the prerogative of infallibility, they nevertheless proclaim the teaching of Christ infallibly, even when they are dispersed throughout the
world, provided that they remain in communion with each other and with the successor of
Peter and that in authoritatively teaching on a matter of faith and morals they agree in one
judgment as that to be held definitively (25).
This teaching of Vatican II on the infallible character of authoritative magisterial
teaching in the day-to-day or ordinary exercise of its authority was by no means a novel teaching of Vatican II. It had been set forth in the 1917 Codex Iuris Canonici (1323,
#2), a canon repeated as canon 74, #2 in the new Codex Iuris Canonici promulgated in
1983, and drawn almost word for word from Vatican I’s solemn teaching on the same
matter (cf. DS 3011). The teaching of Lumen Gentium also makes it reasonably clear
that the magisterium can (and does) propose teachings on moral matters when the
conditions so clearly described are met.
Moreover, the magisterium is an authoritative teacher of Catholic faith and morals
when it exercises its teaching authority in a manner that is not clearly intended to be in69
Charles E. Curran et al., Dissent In and For the Church: Theologians and Humanae Vitae (New York: Sheed and Ward, Inc., 1989), 63. 70
Sullivan, The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Church, 128. 48
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
fallible. When the bishops teach on matters of faith and morals in their capacity as bishops, they “speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and
adhere to it with a religious assent (obsequium religiosum71) of soul.”72 This religious
submission of will and mind must be shown in a special way to the authentic teaching
authority of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra. That is, “it
must be shown in such a way that his supreme teaching authority is acknowledged
with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his
manifest mind and will” (Lumen Gentium, 25).
The Catholic Theologians
One can argue that if it is true Church’s authority is originally divine and from
God then no one has the power to dispute or challenge this authority. This argument is valid in the sense that individual Catholics are obliged to give assent to those
doctrines that are fundamental to the very identity of what it means to be Catholic.
But it is vague, to some extent, on the degree of assent required to statements and
teachings proclaimed in the course of the exercise of the Church’s Magisterium. These
statements and teachings are: Papal encyclicals, the teaching of individual Bishops in
their dioceses, statements issued by regional Bishops Synod/Conferences, Instructions
issued by the various Sacred Congregations of the Vatican etc. So who makes the call
when errors are dictated in magisterial influence? It is the theologians. Their primary
role is to support the Church in its unwavering teaching by ensuring that she teaches
accurately reflects the gospel at a particular time and in a particular culture. In fulfilling
this role it is recognized that the theologian requires apposite freedom of research that
is nevertheless exercised within the context of the faith of the Church. The reality is
that history is sated with many examples of statements of the Church’s Magisterium that
have subsequently been judged to have been in error. Examples are the condemnation
of Galileo and the excommunication of Mary MacKillop.73 Given all of this, how then
can a theologian, or any individual member of the Church for that matter, respond
on issues that in good conscience they cannot agree with when it comes to Church
authority or teaching?
This may appear as a partial expression of a deep-seated resistance to change of
structures, culture, and attitude. Stagaman notes how Roman congregations sometimes
lose respect by standing on their legal rights, creating the appearance of knowing all
the answers, and giving the impression that they are not able to change what has been
taught or done. These “characteristics of an insecure personality,” he notes, “belie the
call of the Gospels for continued conversion.”74 I tend to concur that our Church is a
learning Church, and the hierarchical magisterium has to learn before it can instruct, a
71
Obsequium religiosum is a Latin phrase which means religious submission or religious assent, particularly in the theology of the Catholic. 72
Sullivan, The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Church, 165. 73
Mary Helen MacKillop RSJ, also known as St Mary of the Cross MacKillop, was an Australian Nun of Scottish descent who has been declared a saint by the Catholic Church. MacKillop was invalidly excommunicated by Bishop Sheil after she refused to accede to the change of the constitution of her Congregation, Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart. On his deathbed, Sheil instructed Fr. Horan to lift the excommunication on MacKillop. (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_MacKillop, accessed on July, 2013).
74
Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 130. Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
49
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
point made by Curran, when he avers: “Until church structures and institutions change
to reflect the church as a community of religious and moral discourse with a special
role for the hierarchy, the existing tensions will persist and grow.”75 It is also on this
ground that I extol and reiterate the words of Pope Francis, “The feminine genius is
needed wherever we make important decisions. The challenge today is this: to think
about the specific place of women also in those places where the authority of the
church is exercised for various areas of the church.”76
&
RQFOXVLRQ Often ‘authority’ is defined in terms of legality or power. But the
authority of the Church in the world does not come from legal sanctions or
coercive power, as is the case with state authority; it comes from the churches’
ability to legitimately or rightfully influence opinion and actions. This notion of authority
is close to the original meaning of the word, which was “the ability to elicit voluntary
agreement or assent.”77 It is also close to the etymological root of the English word
“authority” and the Latin auctoritas and point to the idea of authority as the source
of knowledge or truth.78 This is the authority of an expert, one who is acknowledged
as possessing knowledge and wisdom, such as a guide, a scientist, or an experienced
leader. This same resonance is found in the Greek exousia which literally means “out
of, or from, [the] being.” Authority in this sense differs from political or legal power:
one may have political or military power, but not the authority of genuine wisdom.
It also differs from the ability to sell or merely persuade, for authority, in the sense of
expertise, implies more than sales skills; it implies real competence and knowledge.
It is therefore an intrinsic, not extrinsic, quality. “Authority” in this sense may carry
overtones of power, but power in the older sense of the word “virtue” means power
adequate to the production of a given effect, like “virtue went out of” Jesus (Mark 5:
31).
This is to further state that the structure of authority in the Church is not inconsiderately and outright man-made, just to fulfill certain interest of some group or people.
Rather, it is an authority held in high esteem according to the tradition Christ instituted
and handed over to his disciples (Matthew 28:18-20). Bernard Hoose argues that the
discussion about authority in the Church has to do with two meanings; ruling or
governing, and the power to teach.79 He claims these two types of power have been
intertwined and confused. According to him, ruling or governing power originally conceived as service soon became overlaid with foreign ideas such as a platonic notion
of hierarchical order; hence, the assimilation model of a Roman magistrate presents
bishops as rulers than servants.80 This modification of governing power became confused with the power of teaching. Hence, the power to teach has been exercised too
75
Charles Curran, The Catholic Moral Tradition Today: A Synthesis (Washington: Georgetown University, 1999), 227.
76
A Big Heart Open to God, http://americamagazine.org/pope-­interview, accessed on 20th September, 2013.
77
Leonard Kreiger, “Authority,” Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. Philip Wiener, 5 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973-­74), 141. 78
The statement of St. Augustine: (“And, surely, the highest authority is that of truth itself, when it is clearly known”) “On True Religion” in Joseph Lienhard, The Bible, The Church, and Authority (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1995), 75.
79
Bernard Hoose, ed., Authority in the Roman Catholic Church: Theory and Practice (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2002), 68.
80
Hoose, ed., Authority in the Roman Catholic Church: Theory and Practice, 74. 50
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
Ecclesiological structure of Authority in Catholic Church: A Review
often in a domineering way that has discouraged dialogue. But the truth of the matter
is all ecclesial structure of authority is a ‘divine vicariate’, governance originates not
from ordination or sacramental status “but under God from election by the ecclesial
community.”81
Authority is derived from the community of the faithful.82 Those who exercise authority represent the Church. If it is true that Church’s authority is domineering, then
she needs to re-assert its authority authentically; she must do so by a continuous hermeneutical engagement of the entire people of God. In this sense of authority, any
authority the Church claims to possess derives ultimately from God and is manifested
through Jesus the Christ (“All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me”
[Matthew 28:18]). The Church, one argues, witnesses to the authority of God and Jesus
in the world. Of course, the Church has also been vested with legal authority or legal
power at various times and places in its history. This has happened principally through
its association with the state. But such authority is extrinsic and may or may not be
present in some situations (the Church may have no political or legal authority and may
even be persecuted). Whether or not such authority is present, the Church’s intrinsic
authority derives from and witnesses to the authority of the triune God.
Bibliography
Aidan, Nichols. The Shape of Catholic Theology. NY: Continuum, Burns & Oates, 2003.
Arendt, Hannah. The Concept of Authority: Between Past and Future. New York: Viking, 1961.
Chirico, Peter. Infallibility: The Crossroads of Doctrine. New York: Michael Glazier Inc., 1983.
Curran, Charles E. et al. Dissent In and For the Church: Theologians and Humanae Vitae. New
York: Sheed and Ward, Inc., 1989.
Curran, Charles. The Catholic Moral Tradition Today: A Synthesis. Washington: Georgetown University, 1999.
Dulles, Avery. Models of the Church. New York: Doubleday, 1974.
Dulles, Avery. The Dimensions of the Church: A Post-Conciliar Reflection. Westminster Md.:
Newman Press, 1967.
Gaillardetz, Richard. Teaching With Authority: A Theology of the Magisterium in the Church. New
York: Liturgical Press1997.
Hill C. & E.J. Yarnold, Eds. Anglicans and Roman Catholics: The Search for Unity. London: SPCK/
CTS, 1994.
Hooker, Richard. Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. London: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Kreiger, Leonard. “Authority,” Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. Philip Wiener, 5 vols. New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974.
Kung, Hans. The Church. New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968.
Lienhard, Joseph. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1995.
Hoose, ed., Authority in the Roman Catholic Church: Theory and Practice, 80. Stagaman, Authority in the Church, 29. 81
82
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013
51
Isidore-Splendor Chukwu, SJ
McBrien, Richard. Catholicism. NY: Society of St. Paul, 2008.
McKenzy, John L. Authority in the Church. NY: Sheed & Ward, 1966.
Rahner, Karl. The Church and the Sacraments. London: Nelson, 1963.
Randal, Collins. Weberian Sociological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Rausch, Thomas P. Towards a Truly Catholic Church: An Ecclesiology for the Third Millennium.
Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2005.
Roger, Collins. Keepers of the Keys: A History of the Papacy. New York: Basic Books, 2009.
Schillebeeckx, Edward. God the Future of Man. New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968.
Stagaman, David. Authority in the Church. Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1999.
Sullivan, Francis. The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Catholic Church. New York: Paulist, 1983.
Tillard, Jean-M., R. The Bishop of Rome. Wilmington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1983.
Weber, Marx. The Three Types Of Legitimate Rule. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1958.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911.
Catechism of the Catholic Church.
Hardon, John Modern Catholic Dictionary.
Internet sources:
A Big Heart Open to God: http://americamagazine.org/pope-interview, accessed on 20th September, 2013.
Church Authority: http://www.beginningcatholic.com/church-authority.html, accessed on
January 19th, 2013.
Church Militant:
http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20011123_True_Soldiers_in_the_Church_Militant.
html, accessed on 23rd September, 2013.
Fr. Denis Robinson: http://substancehopedfor.blogspot.com/2012/11/rectors-conferencelumen-gentium.html, accessed on January, 2013.
Mary MacKillo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_MacKillop, accessed on July, 2013.
New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03744a.htm, accessed on 25th October, 2013.
http://nacopts.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=29, accessed
on 12 of March, 2013.
52
Hekima Review, No. 49, December 2013