Shanghai International Studies University
A TENTATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE IMPLIED MEANING IN
MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS ADVERTISING: LINGUISTIC
AND SOCIAL IDENTITY PERSPECTIVES
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate School and College of English
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
Degree of Master of Arts
By
Kang Wanyi
Under Supervision of Professor Xu Haiming
April 2014
i
Acknowledgements
The completion of this thesis could never have been possible without the
assistance of many people.
First and foremost, my special gratitude goes to Professor Xu Haiming for all his
support and encouragement over the years and for his useful comments and advice on
this thesis. As my supervisor, Professor Xu gave me strong academic and moral
support. I spent numerous stimulating hours discussing the discourse analysis theories
and methods with him. Without his generous help, this thesis could not have been
written.
I also with to express my gratitude to my other teachers for their sincere
instruction over the last one and half years of Master degree program. The knowledge
they generously provided is conductive to the writing of this thesis.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my parents and my classmates for their
manifold support in writing this thesis.
i
摘要
作为一种重要的信息传播形式和营销手段，广告在现代社会中起到了举足轻
重的作用。近几年来，广告逐渐成为一门流行的研究学科，对其研究涉及到如经
济学，媒体传播，美学和心理学等诸多领域。然而，相对以上领域，在语言学领
域和社会文化认同领域对广告的研究仍然不多。
本文旨在对中英文通信类产品广告语中的隐含意义进行话语分析。首先，本
文对广告语和文化社会认同给出了清晰的定义。其次，本文介绍了相关学术理论
（如会话含义，人际语法隐喻，概念隐喻等）和研究方法作为指导依据。接着，
本文结合语言学和社会认同理论框架对具体的中英文通信运营商的广告语案例
进行话语分析，探讨了广告语隐含意中的话语特点和形式内容。最后，本文阐述
了不同地域的人们的文化和社会认同是如何对广告语隐含意义产生影响的。在语
言学层面上，通过消费者社会身份和文化心理对广告语具体反应的研究，体现出
了该广告语话语分析的价值，并且有助于人们对广告语言进行改进。
关键词：通信广告语中的隐含意；话语分析；社会认同；会话含义；人际语法隐
喻
ii
Abstract
As an important information spreading approach and marketing means,
advertising plays an extraordinary role in modern society. In the last few years,
advertising has become a popular subject of study, approached from a wide range of
disciplines, such as economics, media and communication, aesthetics, and psychology.
Unfortunately, compared to above disciplines, the research of advertising in linguistic
field is still rare.
This thesis aims to analyze the implied meaning in mobile communications (MC)
advertising discourse in China and English speaking Countries. The thesis first gives a
clear definition of advertising language and cultural and social identity as well.
Second, the thesis introduces some academic theories such as Grice’s implicature,
Halliday’s international grammatical metaphor, and Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual
metaphor theory, and research methodology as a reasonable guidance. Then the thesis
analyze some concrete Chinese and English MC advertising cases within the
framework of linguistic and social identity theories, exploring the features and
contents of the implied meanings applied in the advertisements. At last, the thesis
explains how people’s cultural and social identities in different regions influences the
implied meaning in Chinese and English MC advertising discourse. Through the
linguistic research of advertising with Consumer’ social identity and cultural
psychology, the value of advertising discourse analysis will be brought as well as help
people to improve the language of advertising.
Keywords: Implied Meaning in MC Advertising; Discourse Analysis; Social Identity;
Implicature; International Grammatical Metaphor
iii
Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... i
摘要................................................................................................................................ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ iii
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter One Literature Review ..................................................................................... 4
1.1 Overview of Advertising Language .................................................................. 4
1.1.1 Definition of Advertising Language ....................................................... 5
1.1.2 Distinguishing Advertising Language from Other Language Forms ...... 5
1.1.3 Review of Previous Research on Advertising Language ........................ 7
1.2 Overview of Cultural and Social Identity ......................................................... 9
1.2.1 Definition of Cultural Identity ................................................................ 9
1.2.2 Definition of Social Identity ................................................................. 10
1.2.3 Review of Previous Studies on Advertising Language with Cultural and
Social Identity ................................................................................................ 10
Chapter Two Theoretical Framework and Research Methodology .......................... 12
2.1 Towards a Framework for Interpreting the Implied Meaning in Mobile
Communications Advertising ........................................................................ 12
2.1.1 Linguistic Theoretical Framework for Interpreting the Implied Meaning
in MC Advertising.......................................................................................... 12
2.1.1.1 Grice’s Implicature Theory ......................................................... 13
2.1.1.2 Halliday’s Interpersonal Function and Grammatical Metaphor
Theory ..................................................................................................... 15
2.1.1.3 Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory .................. 18
2.1.2 Social Identity Theoretical Framework for Explaining the Implied
Meaning in MC Advertising .......................................................................... 20
2.1.2.1 Social-categorization................................................................... 21
2.1.2.2 Social Comparison ...................................................................... 22
2.1.2.3 Positive Distinctiveness .............................................................. 23
2.2 Methodology for the Present Study ................................................................ 23
1
2.2.1 Data Collection ..................................................................................... 24
2.2.2 Methods for Analyzing the Advertising Discourse ............................... 24
Chapter Three Analyzing the Implied Meaning in MC Advertising Discourse within
the Framework of Linguistic Theories ......................................................................... 24
3.1 The Context of Situation to Analyze the Implied Meaning of MC Advertising
Discourse ....................................................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Addressor, Addressee and Setting ......................................................... 35
3.1.2 Code, Channel and Purpose .................................................................. 37
3.2 The Representation of Discourse Structure to Analyze the Implied Meaning of
MC Advertising Discourse ............................................................................ 40
3.2.1 Theme Structure .................................................................................... 41
3.2.2 Grammatical Structure .......................................................................... 43
3.3 Rhetorical Strategies to Analyze the Implied Meaning of MC Advertising
Discourse ....................................................................................................... 46
3.3.1 Covert Communication Applied in Advertising ................................... 47
3.3.2 Puns in Advertising ............................................................................... 48
3.3.3 Metaphors in Advertising...................................................................... 52
Chapter Four Explaining the Implied Meaning in MC Advertising Discourse within
the Framework of Social Identity Theory .................................................................... 55
4.1 Language, Culture, and Social Identity........................................................... 55
4.2 Explaining the Implied Meaning in MC Advertising Discourse with the Social
Identity Theory .............................................................................................. 56
4.2.1
Implied
Meaning
in
MC
Advertising
Discourse
and
Social-categorization of Consumer ................................................................ 56
4.2.1 Implied Meaning in MC Advertising Discourse and Social Comparison
of Consumer ................................................................................................... 59
4.2.3 Implied Meaning in MC Advertising Discourse and Positive
Distinctiveness ............................................................................................... 62
Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 63
Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 67
2
Introduction
Background of the Study
It has become axiomatic to state that there exists a close relationship between
language and culture. As early as in the 1920s, a school of Anthropologic Study of
Linguistics came into being in England. For instance, Malinowski, an anthropologist,
observed that in this primitive culture the meaning of a word greatly depended upon
its occurrence in a given context, or rather upon a real language situation in life.
As an important information spreading approach and marketing means,
advertising plays an extraordinary role in modern society. In today’s highly
development of commodity economy, advertising has entered thousands of
households, penetrated into all aspects of people’s life. According to the statistics, the
number of advertisements that each American ordinary consumer faces every day is
up to 1600; in the United Kingdom, more than 1/3 newspaper space is used for
advertising, and 1/10 broadcast time of the national television channel ITV is also
used for advertising (International Advertising 国际广告, 2009). In all media, mobile
communications advertising plays an important part. The products of MC advertising
are related to most people’s daily needs. The MC advertising, with the wide region
scope involved, large quantities of consumer groups focused, and high costs that the
operators input, is one of the representative advertisements.
In the last few years, advertising has become a popular subject of study. The
impact of advertising on various cultures and societies has been the focus of intense
debate among the fields of economics, media and communication, aesthetics, and
psychology. Unfortunately, compared to above disciplines, the research of advertising
in linguistic field is still rare. Because of commercial purpose and mode of action in
common, advertising language is an important part of Chinese and foreign advertising.
Through long-term development, advertising language gradually stands out above the
general language family, and becomes a distinctive, unique language form and style.
Significance of the Study
No-one is likely to spend much time deciding whether to read a printed
1
advertisement or listen to a spoken one: if their attention is not attracted immediately
and held firmly for the short amount of time necessary to absorb what is being said,
then the advertisement will have failed miserably.
To communicate effectively with consumers around the world, it is necessary for
the mobile communications advertisers to use some implied meanings. Therefore, we
must also take into account the notion of social and cultural identity. Indeed, the
implied representation of society and culture in advertising is a powerful strategy that
can make or break a campaign. The use of Hollywood movie stars in advertising
distributed internationally, for instance, has met with some resistance from those who
feel that American faces and cultural values should not be used as a persuasive tool on
consumers worldwide. The Asians will accuse the advertisers by their frequent use of
western elements, ‘Why do we need to use the western models’ faces in our
advertisements? Are our own people not handsome?’ Thus, the advertisers abandon to
use the exotic faces to express their product and try to add local elements.
Another way in which advertisers imply to local consumers is to create a
particular ‘mood’ in advertising by making visual or verbal reference to localization.
For instance, the ‘mood’ in Chinese advertisements is distinguished with the distant
locations considered ‘exotic’ such as Europe, India, or America. This is particularly
noticeable in advertising for home furnishing and decorative items.
Therefore, the distinction of consumer’s social identity and cultural psychology
in different regions should be taken into consideration by the advertiser. At present,
few researchers, not only in the field of linguistics but sociology, have focused on the
implied meaning in advertising discourse with the connection of local consumer’s
social and cultural identity. This being said, it is undeniable that many advertisers
around the world are making a concerted effort to tailor their message to the cultural
values and worldview of specific consumers, and they are using increasingly
sophisticated methods.
One of the aims of this thesis is to demonstrate the social and cultural influence
on the expression of implied meaning in Chinese and English advertising discourse.
The representation of society and culture in advertising takes on a new research
2
perspective on advertising discourse study. This kind of discourse analysis could be
further applied in many advertisements of global brands.
Objectives of the Study
The main purpose of this thesis is to analyze the implied meaning in advertising
discourse in China and English speaking countries within the framework of linguistic
and social identity theories, investigating some aspects of communication prominent
in the language of advertising, and to explain how people’s cultural and social
identities in different regions influences the advertising language and effects.
The implied meaning in advertising discourse is a rich source of data for
linguistic analysis, whether it be the puns exhibited in slogans, some other rhetorical
strategies in the context, to address special audiences, or the invented covert
communications by the advertiser, all of which, and more, are described in detail in
this thesis.
Through the research of advertising with Consumer’ social identity and cultural
psychology, marketing value will be brought as well as help people to improve the
advertising language.
Organization of the Thesis
This thesis mainly consists of four chapters other than the Introduction and
Conclusion:
Chapter One is a brief definition of advertising language as well as cultural and
social identity. The current study of advertising language is reviewed.
Chapter Two is a framework of linguistic and social identity theories as applied
in advertising language. Linguistic theories are introduced, including Grice’s (1975)
implicature, Halliday’s (1985/1994) international grammatical metaphor, and Lakoff
and Johnson’s (1980) conceptual metaphor theory. Meanwhile, the chapter introduces
the three psychological processes of social identity: social-categorization, social
comparison, and positive distinctiveness. Moreover, the thesis introduces the related
research methodology which will be used in the analysis.
Chapter Three is the concrete analyses of implied meaning in Chinese and
English mobile communications advertising discourse within the framework of
3
linguistic theories in Chapter 2. This chapter analyze the collection of representative
4G network advertising cases of mobile communications operators in China and
English speaking countries in detail, including U.S.A, United Kingdom, Ireland,
Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.
Chapter Four explains the implied meaning in Chinese and English mobile
communications advertising discourse within the framework of social identity theory
in Chapter 2. This chapter explores the relationship of the implied meaning in
advertising language, and the distinctive consumers’ social identities and cultural
psychologies in aspects of social identity theory’s three psychological processes:
social-categorization, social comparison and positive distinctiveness.
The whole thesis ends with a conclusion that the implied meaning expressions in
Chinese and English mobile communications advertising are closely related to
linguistic and social identity perspectives. The representation of society and culture in
implied meaning of MC advertising discourse takes on a whole new meaning. Indeed,
it is undeniable that many advertisers around the world are making a concerted effort
to tailor their message to the social values and worldview of specific consumers, and
they are using increasingly sophisticated methods. Hence the kind of discourse
analysis in this thesis could be further applied in many advertisements of global
brands.
Chapter One Literature Review
1.1 Overview of Advertising Language
As we know, language features of advertising must be those that can produce
immediate impact and effect rapid persuasion. Nevertheless, it is far from enough for
a good advertising. Advertising discourse is a rich source of date for linguistic
analysis, and also a good means of communication to convey information about the
product and creating a positive emotional response.
4
1.1.1 Definition of Advertising Language
Advertising has been described by some scholars, for example, as a form of
manipulation, a deliberate use of language, symbolism and imagery to lure audiences
into a fantasy world where dreams and desires may become reality. Advertisements
also perpetuate social myths and contribute to cultural self-image (female imagery, for
instance) and can be disguised as other forms of discourse as a way of concealing
their main objective, such as to sell goods and services.
According to Tanaka (1992), the language of advertising must be “a language of
immediate impact and rapid persuasion. It must bring the advertised produce into
attention, stress its qualities in the most attractive way, clearly outline the reason for
buying it, and, preferably, leave a memorable echo of that has been said about the
product ringing in the reader’s or listener’s mind.” The effects of all these
requirements are clear in the language used for advertising, making it one of the best
defined of all the varieties of language.
Advertisements do differ amongst themselves according to the purpose for which
they are designed, the medium in which they are presented and the places in which
they are found.
1.1.2 Distinguishing Advertising Language from Other Language
Forms
No-one is likely to spend much time deciding whether to read a printed
advertisement or listen to a spoken one: if their attention is not attracted immediately
and held firmly for the short amount of time necessary to absorb what is being said,
then the advertisement will have failed miserably.
There are nearly always certain linguistic features present in any advertisement
that serve to mark it very clearly for what it is, and distinguish it from other language
forms. Leech (1996) made a quite detailed description of written English advertising
5
in phonetics, phoneme, grammar, vocabulary and other aspects in English in
Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain. Some of these features
are not only possessed in the written English advertising, but also found in
advertisements of other languages or forms.
These features include a basically simple grammatical structure, especially as
regards the sentences, most of which are short and many of which, in dispensing with
anything that is not absolutely necessary, manage to work very effectively without
parts that would be considered essential in normal written usage. Many, too, consist of
constructions which could usually only occur as a subordinate part of a sentence, but
which become independent items in the language of advertising. Sentences of this
kind are common, too, in the language of commentary. They also turn up quite often
in spontaneous speech. Another vey common grammatical feature of advertising
language is the large number of imperative verbs which urge the likely customers to
‘see’ the product, ‘try’ it, and eventually, if the advertisement has been successful,
‘buy’ it.
Vocabulary is strongly linked to particular types of product, or the effects to be
realized, and tends to become stereotyped: food is always ‘tender’ and ‘juicy’;
cosmetics ‘caressingly seductive’. But whatever its particular slant, the vocabulary is
always richly suggestive and descriptive, with lots of imaginatively contrived
compound adjectives. There are, too, many favorite words, suitable for any kind of
advertisement, which come in for a tremendous amount of use. These often refer to
basically desirable attributes, such as, ‘new’, ‘fresh’, ‘clean’, ‘wonderful’, and so on,
and also to activities the advertiser desires to promote: ‘come’, ‘look’, ‘choose’, etc.
Generally speaking, ‘unpleasant’ or ‘negative’ words will be conspicuously absent.
Certain linguistically ‘decorative’ effects are also common, ranging from the
alliteration, and repetition of words, found in all types of advertising, to the little
rhymes spoken or sung on television.
Finally, it is worth nothing that in television advertising, some of the most
distinctive characteristics are to be noted in the sound of the speech. There seems to
be a general tendency for the actors and actresses who read the advertisements to
6
exaggerate the quality of their voices so as to achieve certain appropriate effects. For
instance, any extremely smooth, soft manner of articulation will be adopted for a
cosmetics advert, perhaps with the introduction of a breathy or husky quality of voice,
while some masculine, powerful product will elicit loud, resonant, clearly articulated
speech.
1.1.3 Review of Previous Research on Advertising Language
To explore issues of advertising language, we will begin this literature review
with the researchers such as Geoffrey N. Leech, G. Dyer and Keiko Tanaka.
Leech (1996), Dyer (1982) and Tanaka (1992) have made prominent
contributions to research the advertising from the linguistic perspective. For instance,
in English in Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain, Leech
(1996) made a quite detailed description of written English advertising in phonetics,
phoneme, grammar, vocabulary and other aspects. This book clearly explains the
notion of advertising. According to reality, Dyer’s Advertising as Communication
(1982) studied different types of advertising communicative processes and stylistic
features. The features listed by Leech and Dyer made a great help for this thesis to
distinguish advertising language from other language forms. However, both Leech
and Dyer mainly elaborated or summarized the characteristics of advertising language,
and the contents are lack of the concrete analyses of advertising cases. Part of the
features in their description cannot represent all advertising language.
In Advertising Language (1992), Keiko Tanaka applied relevance theory. The
theory, proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson (1986), is the first pragmatic
theory that has been used in the study of advertising. Combining with context, Keiko
Tanaka analyzed the advertisements in Great Britain and Japan systematically and
comprehensively. In this book, Tanaka explain how communication occurs between
advertiser and audience. The examples used by Sperber and Wilson are mainly
concerned with situations in which communication occurs between trusting and equal
7
partners. Some of her means of analysis, such as ‘covert communication’ is applied in
this thesis in Chapter 3. Nevertheless, the writer’s exploration of advertising is part of
a more general investigation into the force of language, more specifically the way
language is used to persuade, convince, and manipulate others. The attempts, which
applied the central notions of Relevance Theory to the very different social situation
of the advertising, seemed to be unobvious.
In addition, some linguists focused on the ideological processes in advertising
(Williamson, 1978; Vestergaard and SchrØder, 1985; Fairclough, 1989). Others who
have analyzed advertising discourse have focused on word play in advertising copy,
presenting advertisements more as a form of entertainment (for example, Grunig,
1990; Cook, 1992; Myers, 1994).
Strategies used by ad makers to attract attention to their creations and stimulate
the curiosity of their audiences include the use of foreign languages for special effect,
and imitation varieties (Myers, 1994; Martin, 1998a), both of which are featured in
the present corpus as well.
To explore the use and perceptions of English in advertising distributed to
international markets specifically, we will find some studies of marketing blunders
involving poor lexical choices for brand names and slogans (for instance, Mueller,
1996; Zeff and Aronson, 1999; Goddard, 2002) as well as code-mixed advertising
using English as a pair language in different countries (for instance, Larson, 1990).
Generally speaking, the researchers above mostly focused on English advertising
as the research object without putting other languages of advertising into
consideration. Actually, with the development of commodity economy, the importance
of advertising should not be disregarded in many other language speaking countries,
such as in China. Furthermore, the previous researches, involving ideological
processes, lexical choices, marketing effects, etc., presented no exploration of implied
meaning in advertising language.
8
1.2 Overview of Cultural and Social Identity
Identity as a concept pertains to descriptions of persons with which we
emotionally identify. Identities are discursive-performative (Butler, 1993, 1994) in the
sense that they are best described as constructed through discursive practice which
enacts or produces that which it names through citation and reiteration of norms or
conventions.
The popular cultural repertoire of the western world holds that we have a true-self,
and identity which we possess and which can become known to us. Identity is thought
to be a universally and timeless core, and ‘essence’ of the self that is expressed as
representations recognizable by ourselves and others. That is, identity is an essence
signified through signs of taste, beliefs, attitudes and lifestyles.
Particular philosophers and cultural studies writers have questioned the
assumption that identity is a fixed ‘thing’ that we possess. Identity, it is argued, is not
best understood as entity but as an emotionally charged description of ourselves.
Rather than being cultural conjunctures, in particular, identity mark the composition
of persons in language and culture.
1.2.1 Definition of Cultural Identity
Cultural identity is the identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as
one is influenced by one's belonging to a group or culture. Cultural identity is similar
to and overlaps with, identity politics.
Various modern cultural studies and social theories have investigated cultural
identity. In recent decades, a new form of identification has emerged which breaks
down the understanding of the individual as a coherent whole subject into a collection
of various cultural identifiers. These cultural identifiers may be the result of various
conditions including: location, gender, race, history, nationality, language, sexuality,
religious beliefs, ethnicity, aesthetics, and even food. The divisions between cultures
can be very fine in some parts of the world, especially places such as Canada or the
9
United States, where the population is ethnically diverse and social unity is based
primarily on common social values and beliefs.
1.2.2 Definition of Social Identity
A social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from
perceived membership in a relevant social group. As originally formulated by Henri
Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s (1979/1986), social identity theory
introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup
behaviour. Social identity theory is best described as a theory that predicts certain
intergroup behaviors on the basis of perceived group status differences, the perceived
legitimacy and stability of those status differences, and the perceived ability to move
from one group to another.
1.2.3 Review of Previous Studies on Advertising Language with
Cultural and Social Identity
Some scholars have made great contribution to explore the relationship between
language, culture and identity, examining how consumer identities are constructed
through language contact and cultural imagery in advertising. Included in this
research is the representation of America in Japanese advertising (Maynard, 2003),
cultural stereotypes (O’Barr, 1994), and country-of-origin appeals that associate
product characteristics with a particular language or culture (Haarmann, 1984;
Kelly-Holmes, 2000; Piller, 2001).
For example, Maynard (2003) explored identity formation, arguing that ‘the
Japanese anchor their self-identity within the multicultural spaces of advertising’ and
that ‘ultimately Japanese cultural identity overrides and domesticates the West’.
Having closely examined some 2000 print advertisements, he concludes that despite
10