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Volume 13, Issue 2, April 2015. Scholarly Note. 9-18.
<http://xulanexus.xula.edu/textpattern/index.php?id=207>
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The Magic Wears Off at the Stroke of
Midnight: Subverting Patriarchal Lessons in
Classic Fairy Tales
Ahli Chatters, Biology, Pre-Medicine
Faculty Mentor: Dr. Oliver Hennessey, English
Ahli Chatters is a Biology, PreMedicine major pursuing minors in
Chemistry
and
Professional
Writing. She is a native of New
Orleans, La. After graduation in
2019, she plans to enter a medical
school. Her long-term goal is to
become a child psychiatrist.
Chatters enjoys painting, and doing
volunteer science experiments with
middle school kids. She hopes to
continue to pursue research that
promotes the overall well-being of
children.
!
Abstract
Fairy tales are of the most universal literary works, loved
by children and criticized by scholars for years. This essay
evaluates the progress of feminist literary scholars in their efforts
to challenge the patriarchal lessons about gender that are present in
fairy tales and have shaped the dreams and beliefs of children
since the nineteenth century. I will examine three lessons about
gender found in several classic tales made popular by Charles
Perrault, the Brothers Grimm, and Walt Disney, and provide
examples of these teachings in the texts. This essay proves the
success of the feminist scholarship on fairy tales through an
examination of four resulting extensions of feminist literary study.
Since feminist critics have exposed the implicit and explicit
gender lessons present in fairy tales and have rewritten versions of
these tales themselves, the Western canon has expanded to include
texts and films that subvert patriarchal values through the reversal
of traditional gender roles. Feminist scholarship has resulted in the
inclusion of feminist elements and nontraditional gender roles in
recent Disney animations. These expansions of feminist criticism
antedate a future of more representational, feminist fairy tales.
Key Terms:
• Feminist Literary Criticism
• Fairy Tales
• Patriarchal Lessons
• Disruptive Texts!
• Feminist Disney Films
• Classic Canon!
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“So the little girl took an automatic out of
her basket and shot the wolf dead,” James
Thurber writes at the end of his femaleempowering adaptation of “Little Red Riding
Hood.” Through this unexpected ending,
Thurber challenges the patriarchal values and
lessons present in Charles Perrault’s and the
Brothers Grimm’s classic versions of the tale,
which feature a naïve girl who is blamed when
she and her grandmother are devoured by a wolf.
Thurber’s heroine escapes her male predator
without the help of a huntsman, for she is savvy
enough to recognize the wolf in disguise before
she kills him. “The Little Girl and the Wolf” is
just one of several classic fairy tale rescriptings
that emerged during the second wave of
feminism, and more specifically, within the
feminist school of literary criticism in the late
twentieth century. Since the nineteenth century,
fairy tales have been used widely in North
America and in Western Europe as instruments
to teach children moral lessons, many of which
reinforce the oppression of women, through
patriarchal roles and norms (Joosen 129).
Following the rise of feminist literary
scholarship, feminist critics wasted little time in
criticizing and eventually retelling tales,
instruments which, in their view, contained both
explicit and implicit lessons about gender. These
lessons play a significant role in shaping the selfimages and beliefs of both boys and girls, and
convinced of the didactic potential in the fairy
tale, Marcia Lieberman was one leading feminist
scholar who made it her project to analyze and
critique classic tales in order to subvert their
patriarchal
ideology
(Lieberman
384).
Lieberman writes that the classic canon of tales
has “been made the repositories of the dreams,
hopes and fantasies for generations of girls”
(384). University of Illinois Professor Nina
Baym reassures those who doubt this narrowing
of feminist efforts to the criticism of fairy tales
when she states, “only by learning to apply
feminist principles in particular instances does
one make change occur” (Baym 214). Through
criticism of fairy tales, feminist literary scholars
have exposed three major patriarchal lessons that
young boys and girls internalize: that girls
should be blamed and shamed when they are
victimized, that girls are threats to one another,
and that there are specific gender roles that boys
and girls must abide by; this criticism has since
resulted in the recovery and retelling of tales, a
specific focus on liberating boys from
patriarchy’s harmful effects, a realization for the
need of more culturally diverse characters in
fairy tales, and the recent production of more
feminist Disney films.
This essay presents a condensed
progression of feminist fairy tale criticism
through the review of feminist critique, the
analysis of patriarchal lessons in popular tales,
and the evaluation of four resultant successes of
this school of literary study. In line with feminist
scholarship, this essay focuses on the lessons and
values expressed in classic tales made popular by
the Brothers Grimm, Charles Perrault, and Walt
Disney, simply for the reason that “only the bestknown stories, those that everyone has read or
heard, have affected masses of children in our
culture” (Lieberman 384).
Since the late twentieth century, the
Western fairy tale canon has been expanded from
one that originally only featured such “classics,”
composed predominantly by men, to a more
inclusive canon of recovered non-classic tales
and new versions of tales that reverse traditional
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gender roles, much like Thurber’s humorous
version of “Little Red Riding Hood.” It must
also be noted that while patriarchal teachings in
fairy tales negatively affect young children of
both sexes, much of feminist criticism
“necessarily emphasize[s] the destructive results
of such gender teachings on those humans who
are biologically female” (Baym 213).
Nonetheless,
feminist
approaches
have
expanded, in the words of Dartmouth College
Professor Ivy Schweitzer, “to encompass gender
analysis more broadly defined—including the
study of masculinity, racial and ethnic identity,
class status, and sexuality” (Schweitzer 405).
Moreover, they have been taken up by Disney in
recent films such as Tangled (2010) and Brave
(2012). Feminist scholars continue to battle
patriarchy through criticism of popular fairy
tales, many of which, despite their global
appreciation, enforce a patriarchal order.
Feminist scholars criticize the lesson in
fairy tales that girls and women who have been
wronged by men should be found culpable for
the harm inflicted upon them. The classic “Little
Red Riding Hood” tale popularized by Perrault
and the Grimms was not quite as liberating for
girls as several rewrites featuring the heroine
killing her predator have been. Many oral folk
versions of tales have featured brave and
independent protagonists, but as Harvard
University Professor Maria Tatar notes, classic
versions of tales have transformed heroines into
“either a dimwit or a complicit victim” (Tatar 3).
In classic versions, “Little Red Riding Hood” is
held accountable for provoking the demise of her
grandmother and herself, by speaking to a
stranger. The young girl is condemned for the
wolf’s deception, and Tatar asserts that both
Perrault and the Grimms have intentionally sent
a moral message “by making the heroine
responsible for the violence to which she is
subjected” (6). While Perrault offers an explicit
moral at the end of his version warning children,
“Especially young girls” not “to listen to just
anyone,” his statement that “it’s not at all
strange/ If a wolf ends up eating them,” (13)
implies that girls are responsible for any harm
inflicted upon them by “wolves,” or male
seducers.
What is so ironic about this lesson, as
literary critic Susan Brownmiller explains, is that
women become victims to male violence even as
“they must position themselves as beneficiaries
of male protection” (6). Brownmiller further
offers “Little Red Riding Hood” as a parable of
rape and argues that fairy tales train women to be
rape victims, while men are pardoned for their
crimes (Haase 3). Though many women today
dismiss the term “patriarchy” as anachronistic,
feminist critics recognize that it is often subtle
messages such as those about victim blaming in
the “Little Red Riding Hood” tale, which
perpetuate society’s patriarchal order, and
therefore must be exposed as harmful. Fairy tale
reviews have also pointed to the power of fairy
tales to cause girls to internalize the perception
of other girls and women as competition.
Feminist scholars often criticize classic
fairy tales for their perpetuation of the lesson that
the idea of women working together is
threatening. Critics frequently point to “Snow
White” in discussing the pitting of women
against one another in popular literary works.
Two such scholars, Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan
Gubar, suggest that the tale, made popular by the
Brothers Grimm and eventually Disney, should
be titled, “Snow White and Her Wicked
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Stepmother,” because the only real action in the
tale arises from the relationship between these
women. When the magic mirror reassures Snow
White’s envious stepmother that she is “the
fairest of all,” she is “satisfied, for she knew that
the mirror always spoke the truth” (Tatar 83).
According to Gilbert and Gubar, both Snow
White and her stepmother are entrapped by glass
objects, like the mirror and Snow White’s coffin,
which both represent the ever-present voice of
patriarchy (Gilbert & Gubar 293). Snow White,
as docile and dependent as she is, represents
patriarchy’s ideal, angelic woman. On the
contrary, the stepmother, as wicked as she is
portrayed, represents an assertive woman who
has resisted patriarchy in her struggle to “free
herself from the passive Snow White within”
(295). The “Snow White” tale teaches girls not
only that passivity is a virtuous quality, but also
that they must triumph over other girls, who are
threats in the competition to attain the status of
patriarchy’s ideal girl.
to challenge a societal system that thrives on the
rivalry between women, as they contest
stereotypical gender roles that impose roles
necessary to the perpetuation of patriarchy.
Michael Mendelson of Iowa State
University contends that while the Grimms’
fairytales feature a great amount of collaborative
effort among characters, “it is disturbing… to
realize that the benefits of collective action are
not extended to women” (Mendelson 111).
Analogous to groups of men that work together
toward shared benefits in the tales are “evil
women’s groups,” composed of older sisters and
stepmothers who collaborate to victimize, in
most instances, a younger heroine (115). The
internalization of the notion that there is
something threatening in the idea of female
collaboration by young girls can lead them to
view one another as enemies and prevents the
benefits of female companionship, support, and
understanding (112). Feminist scholars continue
As Lieberman claims, “Cinderella”
presents “a way of predicting outcome or fate
according to sex,” because Cinderella is a girl,
she must endure her ill treatment and loneliness
since there is still hope that a prince will reward
her with marriage. Similarly, Prince Charming is
the perfect gentleman who finds his “true bride”
after he recognizes Cinderella as the girl he
danced with (Lieberman 384). Baym points to
the fact that “unrestricted attempts to read any
particular man or woman by means of a
particular gender code may be far off the mark”
(Baym 217).
Challenging
the
imposition
of
stereotypical gender roles imposed upon young
girls and boys has been a major focus of feminist
fairy tale critique. Lieberman explains that
gender is a learned social construction, and that
“tales serve to acculturate kids to be proscribed
gender roles” (Lieberman 390). Critics’
examinations of the “Cinderella” tale reveal the
way boys are taught to be masculine princes,
while girls are taught to be princesses who
subscribe to submission and wait to be chosen by
their princes (393). In the Grimms’ popular tale,
Cinderella is rewarded for being beautiful and
submissive when “the prince looked her straight
in the face [and] recognized the beautiful girl
with whom he had danced and exclaimed: ‘She
is the true bride’” (Tatar 121-122).
Because gender codes are subjective,
imposed gender roles in popular fairy tales are
especially harmful to children who then have
little chance of escaping stereotypical gender
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roles and developing their own notions of what
constitutes their individual genders. According to
Professor Kelly Wissman, heroines in popular
tales such as “Cinderella” have lost the
“initiative, spirit, and active natures” of heroines
in earlier folk versions (Wissman 20); based on
the equating of beauty with such character traits
as morality and sensitivity, it is unsurprising that
young girls have developed deep-seated desires
to be courted (Lieberman 385). Cinderella’s
reward of social and material gain through
marriage teaches girls to surrender to
patriarchy’s need for submissive women, so that
they too may be chosen by a handsome prince
(386). Analysis and exposure of the stereotypical
gender roles imposed upon children has led
many scholars to expand the classic canon
through recastings of popular tales.
Feminist literary critics and teachers have
recovered less popular versions of classic tales,
revived rewritten versions of classic tales, and
rewritten new versions themselves in order to
refute popular patriarchal ideals. Baym discusses
the power that literature has in challenging
popular perceptions and asserts, “the existence of
a broader canon can guarantee, to be sure—and
this is no small thing—that students of the future
need not perceive ‘literature’ as a fixed, given
external storehouse of works created entirely by
men” (Baym 221). Hilary Crew, a professor at
Kean University, celebrates the revised tales of
Professor Donna Jo Napoli who “has spun new
life” into several popular tales “so that young
people might read them from different
perspectives,” that is perspectives not in alliance
with patriarchal ideologies (Crew 77). In their
rewrites, Napoli and her colleagues have utilized
new narrative strategies, offered different gender
representations, and renegotiated patriarchal
values (77). For example, in Napoli’s “The
Magic Circle,” a rewrite of “Hansel and Gretel,”
the once-sorceress witch is given the agency to
tell her own story and explain her choices that
have led to her damnation as a witch. The first
person narrative gives voice to the “others,”
outcasts and villains, of classic tales, allows the
reader to identify with the protagonist, and is
characteristic of feminist writing: since the
reader is more engaged, encoded anti-patriarchal
elements become more evident (82).
Feminist writers have also set to “revise
sexist discourses in fairy tales by imagining how
men and women may be differently engendered”
(82). Conservative gender roles are abandoned in
“Zel,” for instance, Napoli’s retelling of
“Rapunzel,” in which the protagonist Zel, unlike
the confined Rapunzel, would “dry trenches up
with the length of both arms” with a “sharp
stone,” and “fill her room with blood” (83).
Napoli’s male and female protagonists push the
boundaries that constrain them, in agreement
with Crew’s claim that a feminist fairy tale is
one in which the main character is empowered,
regardless of gender (82). Feminist writers like
Napoli have generated considerable progress in
the feminist literary school: their fairy tale
retellings preserve the magic of classic tales
while they offer children a new understanding of
gender and empowerment beyond the limits of
patriarchal tales (92). Further progress is evident
in the development of a new focus on combatting
stereotypes about masculinity and the lessons
that popular fairy tales teach boys.
Since the twentieth century, feminist
literary criticism has evolved to include a focus
on liberating boys and men from the restrictive
patriarchal lessons present in most classic fairy
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tales. Schweitzer recalls that in earlier critical
climates, “feminine scholarship on male writers
and masculinity tended to be dismissed or
invisible” (Schweitzer 405). However, as Baym
declares, “feminism represents a logical and
inevitable expansion of humanistic principles”
(Baym 216). In rewrites of traditional tales, we
see a move to revise stereotypes of masculinity,
which are harmful to the development of young
boys. This inclusion is necessary because though
patriarchal systems are more explicitly directed
at oppressing women, they teach men to
perpetuate patriarchal standards. Critics Pollock
and Shuster confirm that it is important to “teach
boys that there are many different ways to
become a real man” (Crew 83). Much of Crew’s
praise of Napoli’s fairy tale rewrites stems from
the way that Napoli pays just as much attention
to subverting stereotypes of heroes and princes
as she does to those of heroines and princesses
(80).
In “Beast,” Napoli’s rewrite of “Beauty
and the Beast,” readers are positioned to identify
with the first-person narrative of the Persian
Prince Orasmyn, who struggles to “hold on to his
human sense of self while adjusting to the body
and instincts of a lion” (84). Orasmyn has
traditionally feminine attributes, such as his
delicate respect for Belle’s feelings, and the way
that he sees the different sides of Belle’s
personality and her abilities results in a unique
construction of the traditional gendered, princeprincess relationship (84). Napoli’s “Beast” is
one example of a revised tale that has
empowered male protagonists and given boys
“lots of opportunities to explore the broad range
of behaviors and experiences that lead to healthy
manhood” (83). Authors of male-empowering,
feminist rewrites have been acclaimed for this
extension of opportunities and roles to boys
beyond being ultra masculine or the perfect
Prince Charming. Just as feminist scholarship
has extended to the inclusion of addressing
patriarchy’s effects on males, it has expanded its
focus to issues in classic fairy tales specific to
race and ethnicity.
The rise of feminist retellings of
traditional fairy tales has led to the recognition of
race and ethnicity as a critical topic to be
included in discussion of feminist literature.
Professor Anne Barbeau Gardiner emphasizes
the fact that global white dominance prevails,
and how even within feminist literary study, men
and women of color have been marginalized
(Gardiner 396). This is especially ironic
considering men and women of color face the
harmful effects of patriarchy in addition to the
harmful effects of racism. Donald Haase, a
professor at Wayne State University, suggests
that in order to successfully test generalizations
and to theorize the role of gender in fairy tales,
scholars must “expand the focus of feminine
fairy tale research beyond the Western European
and Anglo American tradition, and even within
those traditions to investigate the fairytale
intertexts in the work of minority writers and
performers” (Haase 29).
In line with this suggestion, novelist
Sandra Cisneros has recasted popular fairy tales
in “The House on Mango Street.” This novel
features a Latina protagonist and alludes to
classic fairy tales to reveal true-to-life
consequences for women, particularly those of
color, who are “socialized to live their lives
waiting for the happy ending” (Wissman 18).
Wissman argues that both the incorporation of
culturally attuned theories, like Latina feminism,
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and the discussion of ways that race, culture, and
ethnicity shape gender can “enrich the field of
feminine literary criticism” (19).
Racial and ethnic studies may also help
further the diversification of heroes and heroines
in fairy tales (19). While the precise time when
children begin to see themselves in relation to
their skin colors is debatable, Eastern University
Professor Dorothy Hurley states that the need for
children to “see” themselves in order to develop
positive self-images is indubitable (Hurley 221).
A 1999 ethnographic study conducted on
children ages 9-11 revealed the “illuminating”
fact that most children, including those of color,
see the color white as good, pretty, and living
happily ever after (223). This is unsurprising,
considering the evidence of white privileging
and a binary color symbolism in many popular
tales (223).
For example, in Hans Christian
Anderson’s “The Little Mermaid,” the unnamed
mermaid has “beautiful white arms,” while the
evil sea witch has “black blood” in her breasts
(224). Though a number of retellings of tales
featuring protagonists of color have begun to
infiltrate the Western canon of fairy tales, Hurley
proposes a solution to increase this number:
feminist scholars should select and add to the
great canon “disruptive texts,” texts that
challenge conventional storylines about race,
gender, and class through the presentation of
unexpected characterizations and outcomes
(229). It is obvious that boys and girls of color
remain far from being totally “seen” and
liberated by feminist literary critics, but still, the
acknowledgment of many critics for the need to
address multicultural issues marks progress
toward a future of more diverse and
representational fairy tales. Disney has also
hinted at a future of feminist fairy tales gaining
popularity through its inclusion of more feminist
elements in several recent films.
In the past five years, Disney has shifted
from its encoded patriarchal ideals to more
feminist values in its animations, Tangled
(2010), Brave (2012), Frozen (2013), and
Maleficent (2014). Feminist headway in
Disney’s realm of fairy tale adaptations is so
vital because “Disney productions have become
the dominant source of children’s intertextual
knowledge of fairy tales” (Hurley 224). As a
postgraduate student at Government Victoria
College, Palakkad, Vishaka Venkat claims,
Disney has moved away from hegemonic
masculinity in its new female-centric films
(Venkat 34). These animations have altered
throughout the three waves of feminism (35).
During the first wave of feminism in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
women’s denial of sexual autonomy and social
equality is reflected in films like Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs (1937), in which princesses are
dependent and never assert power (36). From the
1960s to the 1990s, women’s progress in gaining
more social equality is represented in movies that
depict the “transition from men saving the
damsels to a climax where women rescue their
love,” such as Pocahontas (1995) and Mulan
(1998) (36).
Most notably, new feminist elements
have “deconstructed the concept of mother,
body, gender, and women as a whole” in recent
films of feminism’s third wave (36). While for
decades the mother figure had been absent and
often replaced by an evil stepmother in early
Disney fairy tale animations, the mother-
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daughter relationship has become central in
Maleficent. In this feature, motherly affection
breaks Aurora’s sleeping spell (37). Docile
princesses, once characterized and sexualized
primarily by their beauty, have been transformed
into unsophisticated, adventurous heroines (36).
Venkat notes that long hair has frequently been a
symbol of beauty, “but this thought of having
long, well maintained hair gets diverted with the
climax in ‘Tangled’ where Rapunzel cuts her
hair to save Eugene” (37).
In addition, the male protagonists, once
high-class princes have become ordinary, lower
class heroes, including the thief Eugene in
Tangled
(39).
Furthermore,
Disney’s
introduction of non-white princesses, Jasmine,
Pocahontas, Mulan, and Tiana, while marking
the beginning of increased cultural diversity, has
received critical backlash. One such critic,
Professor Sarita Gregory at Kennesaw State
University, contends that Disney’s attempt to
portray Princess Tiana as empowered does not
reach far beyond “the stereotypical image of
black women as invisible or as solely attached to
labor” (Gregory 433). Gregory’s criticism
reinforces the need for the consideration of
multicultural issues in feminist scholarship.
Though the feminist changes made in recent
Disney films are not immensely visible or felt by
children, particularly because female characters
remain “under the inscrutable male gaze,”
(Hurley 40) in addition to the domination of the
Western canon, it is possible that Disney will
make its changes felt through the production of
more feminist and culturally-sensitive films in
years to come.
Patriarchal values present in classic fairy
tales have met their match; feminist criticism of
patriarchal elements in fairy tales has
transformed the way that fairy tales have been
interpreted and recreated. Patriarchy is essential
to the survival of feminism, so where there are
patriarchal implications, there is feminist
criticism set to challenge harmful lessons and
stereotypical gender codes that perpetuate
societal acceptance of male-dominance. Analysis
of classic fairy tales has not only resulted in the
exposure of harmful lessons that children
internalize, but also the expansion of the great
western canon to include texts and films that
feature empowered heroes and heroines and
multicultural elements.
Many critics attack the feminist literary
school on the basis that children actually receive
minimal exposure to rewritten feminist fairy
tales as compared to their pronounced exposure
to versions made popular by the Grimms,
Perrault, and Disney, and also for the fact that
people of color remain marginalized in feminist
literary discussions. Still, as Baym contends,
“feminism is ultimately a practical decision
about where to put one’s limited energies and
powers as one does one’s mite toward improving
a radically imperfect world” (Baym 217).
Perhaps the greatest success of the feminist
literary school lies in its success in suggesting
revolutionary and liberating conventions, which
continue to gradually transform societal norms
and behaviors. In fact, according to a Modern
Language Association survey, feminist criticism
in recent times has had “more impact on the
teaching of literature than any other school”
(Gardiner 393). So, perhaps the successes of
feminist critique that have penetrated the literary
world, as well as society, merely anticipate a
more progressive future of this most ubiquitous
of popular literary forms.
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Literary
Acknowledgements
My mentor, Dr. Oliver Hennessey, has
provided me invaluable advice and support in
this endeavor.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No
Derivate Works 3.0 License. To view a copy of
this license, visit:
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/3.0
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