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Faculty Presentations
2012
Thirty Thousand Years of Chemistry: Pigments,
Pottery, Perfumes, Potions
Mary Virginia Orna
College of New Rochelle, [email protected]
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Orna, M.V. Thirty Thousand Years of Chemistry:Pigments, Pottery, Perfumes, Potions. Presented at University of Puerto Rico Rio Pedras,
San Juan, PR, 2012. Available at: http://digitalcommons.cnr.edu/facpres/2/
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1/10/2012
Thirty Thousand Years of Chemistry:
Pigments, Pottery, Perfumes, Potions
Mary Virginia Orna
Ancient
Pigments
Grotte Chauvet
(southern France)
32,000 years before present
and 20,000 years older than the
famous Lascaux cave
Oldest known chemical
processes
• Manufacture of charcoal
• Roasting of hydrated iron oxide
to produce various colors
• Purification of manganese dioxide
Cave of the Warrior
5,000 years before present
Neolithic burial site near
Jericho
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Cave of the Warrior
5,000 years before present
• Use of red iron oxide as a «dye» Fe2O3
• Use of first recorded red organic
color: alizarin (from root of the
madder plant)
Egyptian Blue
(IV Dynasty – 4613-4494 BP)
• Calcium copper tetrasilicate, CaCuSi4O10
• Crystalline compound with glass
impurities
• Exact method of manufacture still in
doubt
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Excavations at Masada, Israel
(2,000 years before present)
• Madder (from root of madder plant –
alizarin)
• Indigo (from plant Indigofera tinctoria) C16H10N2O2
• Yellow plant dyes from various sources
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Tyrian, or Royal Purple
(chemically mostly 6,6’-dibromoindigo)
• Extracted from Murex snails
• 1 gram of dye = 10,000 snails
• So expensive that only royalty could
wear garments dyed with it (anyone else
risked a death sentence)
100 mg = 1,000 snails (natural product)
Synthetic product took less than one day to produce several
grams (i.e., more than 30,000 snails!)
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Medieval
Medieval
Case 1
The Glajor Gospel Book
Map of Greater Armenia
• Painted between 1304 and 1325
• Housed in the Special Collections, UCLA
• Painted by five different hands:
1. Ornamenter
2. Evangelist Painter
3. Matthew Passion Painter
4. Transfiguration Painter
5. T’oros Taronatsi
What did the artists use?
• Analyze samples
• Reproduce recipes in medieval
painters’ manuals
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X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of 2B188(90,105)
2B188(90,105)
Azurite
5.12
3.64
3.52
2.99
2.53
2.23
2.09
1.95
1.89
5.15
3.66
3.53
2.98
2.52
2.23
2.09
1.95
1.90
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A Partial List of Armenian Pigments
Azurite
Iron Oxide
Red
2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Fe2O3;Fe2O3.nH2O
Red Lead
(Minium)
Pb3O4
Ultramarine
Blue
Silica-alumina
polysulfide clathrate
Verdigris
Vermilion
(Cinnabar)
White Lead
Most important
blue pigment in
European and Far
Eastern paintings
In use from prehistoric times;
requires only
grinding and
sieving
Madder (Alizarin) 1,2-Dihydroxyanthraquinone
From roots of
Rubia tinctor-ium
Massicot
(Litharge)
PbO
Good hiding power
Orpiment
As2S3
Realgar
As2S2
Once widely used;
extremely
poisonous
Often found in
orpiment deposits
Good hiding
power; widely used
From remote
antiquity; Marco
Polo – Europe
Cu(C2H3O2)2 Cu(OH)2 Highly reactive
and unstable;
green-blue
HgS
Principal ore of
mercury; widely
used
2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2
First synthetic
pigments;excellent
hiding power
Medieval
Case 2
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Pigment
Date Known
Usage Date
Prussian Blue
Zinc White
Blanc Fixe
Cellulose nitrate
1704
Antiquity
1820s
Late 1800s
1720
1780
1820s
20th Century
What did the artists use?
• Analyze samples
• Reproduce recipes in medieval
painters’ manuals
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Medieval
Manuscripts
as Laboratory
Manuals
Major Medieval Artists’ Manuals
• Mappae Clavicula
• Lucca Manuscript
• Manuscript of Heraclius
• Manuscript of Theophilus
Blue Pigments through the Ages
Pigment
Egyptian Blue
Azurite
Ultramarine
Smalt
Thénard’s Blue
Iron Blue
Phthalocyanine Blue
Formula
CaO.CuO.4SiO2
2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
SiAlO2/S3CoO.K2O.4SiO2
Co2(Al2O3)2
KFeIIFeIII(CN)6
C32H18N8Cu
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Mappae Clavicula
Silver Blue Recipe Variations
1. If you wish to make the best azure, take a new
pot…and set in it sheets of the purest silver…and
then cover the pot and seal it. Set the pot in the
must discarded from a wine press…and keep it
there for fifteen days. Then uncover the pot and
shake the efflorescence that surrounds the sheets
of silver into a bowl.
• MS Ashmole 1393 (Bodleian, XV century) Place
the plates of silver in a mixture of oil and sal
ammoniac (ammonium chloride) for three days and
nights before treatment with vinegar and wine
must
• Strasburg MS (XIV-XV century)
Treat silver plates with slaked lime mixed with
vinegar
Silver Blue
Two Crucial Questions
A hitherto unknown compound of silver
or
• Are there any compounds of silver that are blue?
• How pure was the silver available to the medieval
craftsman?
A reaction product of one or more impurities present
in silver
The Known Blue Compounds of Silver
• Ag[(C2H5)2NCS]2
• Ag2IrCl6
• AgMnO4
Goldsmith’s Hall, London
• Silver could be refined to better than 99%
• Almost all medieval silver was alloyed with at
least 5% copper
• At times, the amount of alloyed copper approached
the silver – copper eutectic (approximately 30%)
• Blue by virtue of electron
transfer bands
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The Bolognese Manuscript
(XV century)
Recommends alloying three parts of
silver with one part of copper and
suspending thin plates of this alloy
over vinegar for 30 days in an
airtight container
A Comparison of the Cell Dimensions of
Sample E with Literature Values
Single Crystal X-Ray Analysis
• Enraf Nonius Diffractis 563
• Copper-K-alpha doublet
• Semicrystalline graphite monochromator
• NaI(Tl) counter
Dimension
a (Angstroms)
b
c
a (degrees)
b
g
Sample E
7.845±0.001
7.846±0.002
13.079±0.002
99.24±0.01
101.37±0.01
113.79±0.01
Compound*
7.85
7.85
13.07
99.2
101.4
113.9
*Tetra-m-acetato-bisdiaquocopper(II) [Acta.Cryst. B29 (1973)
2393]
Lucca Manuscript
Concerning flowers of copper (iarin). Take pure
copper plates and hang them over strong vinegar.
Place them in the sun without touching them.
After two weeks, open the container and take out
the plates. Collect the efflorescence and you will
have very pure iarin.
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Mappae Clavicula
2. If you wish to make a different azure, take a flask
of the purest copper and put lime into it halfway
up, and then fill it with very strong vinegar. Cover
it and seal it. Then put the flask in the earth or
other warm place and leave it there for one month.
Later uncover the flask.
Trinity College Ms. 1451 (XIV C.)
• Vinegar
• Lime
• Sal ammoniac
• Brass or copper pot
CH3COOH
CaO.Ca(OH)2
NH4Cl
Cu
• 15 days in sealed pot under hot horse dung
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3 Manuscripts (XV and XVI C.)
• Verdigris
• Lime
• Sal ammoniac
• Water
• Oil of tartar
(CH3COO)2Cu.H2O
CaO.Ca(OH)2
NH4Cl
H2O
K2CO3 (aq. sat.)
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Carmine cochineal (carminic acid) –
an historic pigment-dye from the
New World
•
•
•
The real treasure on the Spanish galleons
Extracted from the egg sacs of female scale
insects – cactus plant parasites (Dactylopius
cacti)
Successor to Old World cochineal from the
Kermes insect
Vermilion (Cinnabar as mineral)
HgS
One of the
• Most important
• Most ancient
• Most used
• And perhaps first synthesized pigments
Above: Ground cinnabar
from a painter’s pot
found at Pompeii
«Tribute Horse & Groom» Chinese hand scroll, 1347
POTTERY:
CERAMICS,
GLASSES AND
GLAZES
WHAT IS
POTTERY?
CLAY + WATER + FILLER
+ FIRED
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CLAY – NOT WORKABLE IN THE
DRY STATE
WATER – TO WORK CLAY,
25% IS NECESSARY
FILLER – TO EASE WATER LOSS
ON FIRING – SAND, LIMESTONE,
SHELLS, BASALT, VOLCANIC ASH,
MICA, STRAW, DUNG, FEATHERS,
CRUSHED POTTERY SHARDS
KAOLINITE
FIRING OF CLAY
Temperature (C)
Event
100-125
Unbound water removed; kaolin
transformed to metakaolin
200-1000
Organic material burns off
350-525
Lattice water removed; no shrinkage
573
Low quartz transformed to high quartz
790
MgCO3 decomposes to MgO and CO2
870
Quartz transformed to tridymite
880
CaCO3 decomposes to CaO and CO2
950
Metakaolin to defect spinel-type structure
1000-1250
Mullite, Al6Si2O13, formed from feldspar
present
1100-1300
CaSO4 and MgSO4 decompose
1470
Tridymite transformed to cristobalite
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IRON AGE – IRAN, 3,000 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT
GREEK ARCHAIC. BLACK FIGURE. 2,500 YEARS B.P.
GLASSES AND CERAMICS COMPARED
Ceramics
Shaped at room temperature
Glasses
Shaped at elevated temperatures
Harden with heat
Harden upon cooling
Silicates and aluminates
Silica (SiO2) plus fluxing agents
Almost visibly porous
Nonporous
Microcrystalline in structure
Noncrystalline in structure
Nonconductor of heat and electricity
Nonconductor of heat and electricity
GREEK ARCHAIC. RED-FIGURE. 2,500 YEARS B.P.
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WHAT IS A GLAZE?
Any glassy material coating the surface of a ceramic but not a
glass because a glaze:
Contains a larger proportion of aluminum as alumina (Al2O3),
permitting glazes to be fired at higher temperatures
Posseses an affinity for the pottery body (which also contains
aluminum)
Contains alumino-silicates, whereas glass is a purer silicate
Long-Range Order
of a Crystal
Short-Range Order
of a Glass
DESIRED PROPERTIES OF GLAZES
A glaze is formulated to impart beauty and strength to an object, and
render it nonporous, and increase chemical resistance. Therefore:
It must be fluid enough to fill the external pores upon firing but viscous enough
not to run off the piece in the process, so it must contain fluxing agents (e.g.
boric oxide, PbO) for lower melting points, and stiffening agents (e.g. alumina)
for increased viscosity
It must hide the clay body from view, so it must contain an opacifier (e.g. tin(IV)
oxide, coloring agents such as the oxides or carbonates of chromium, copper,
iron, manganese, nickel, titanium, vanadium)
Separation and
Extraction Techniques
Perfumes and Odorants
• Perfumes from Flowers – Roses, Jasmine,
Violets, Orange flowers, Ylang-ylang, Resins,
Woods
• Perfumes from Fruits – Vanilla, Patchouli,
Orris, Labdanum
• Perfumes from Animals – Ambergris,
Castoreum, Civet, Musk
Headspace Analysis
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Roses
• Principal perfume source of ancient Rome
• Flowers collected before dawn and distilled the same day
to extract the oil.
• Today the major producer is the Rose Valley in
Bulgaria and two other extraction methods are used:
solvent extraction (usually with hexane), and supercritical
fluid extraction with carbon dioxide (l).
• The principal odor producers are all “rose ketones” except
rose oxide, which is a monoterpene-pyran
Jasmine
• Picked at night
• Originally from China and Northern India, it
was brought to Spain by the Moors
• France, Italy, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan
and Turkey currently produce the best essential oil
Major Chemicals in Roses
Other Chemicals:
• β-damascone
•
• β-damascenone
•
• β-ionone
• Rose oxide
Citronellol, geraniol,
nerol, linalool, phenyl
ethyl alcohol, farnesol,
stearoptene, α-pinene,
β-pinene, α-terpinene,
neral, limonene, pcymene, camphene,
eugenol, βcaryophyllene,
citronellyl acetate,
geranyl acetate, neryl
acetate, methyl
eugenol, benzaldehyde,
α-damascenone, benzyl
alcohol, rhodinyl
acetate, phenyl ethyl
formate
Major Chemicals in Jasmine
• Benzyl acetate
•
• Jasmone
•
• Methyl jasmonate
Other Chemicals:
Linalool, linalyl
acetate, benzyl alcohol,
indole
Vanilla
Chemicals in Vanilla
• Extract of essential oil from Vanilla planifolia.
• Native to Mexico, now widely grown throughout
the tropics.
• Madagascar is today’s largest producer.
• Pre-Columbian industry among the Totonac
people
• Vanillin (4-hydroxy, 3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is
the major aroma
• Piperonal is a minor aroma component
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Musk and Civet
Other Vanilla Components
• Synthetic material is almost pure vanillin
• The Real seedpod extract is an extremely
complicated mixture of several hundred different
compounds, including acetaldehyde, acetic acid,
furan-2-carbaldehyde, hexanoic acid, 4hydroxybenzaldehyde, 2-methoxy-4-(prop-2-en1-yl)phenol, methyl 3-phenylprop-2-enoate, and
2-methylpropanoic acid
Naturally Occurring Fragrances
Ancient
Potions
Hallucinogens
• Psychedelics – any drug with perception
altering effects, e.g., peyote, psilocybin
mushrooms, mescaline, ayahuasca
• Dissociatives – produce catalepsy, amnesia,
analgesia, e.g., Salvia divinorum
• Deliriants – produce confusion and inability
to control actions, e.g., Atropa belladonna,
Datura stramonium, Amanita muscaria
(fungus)
Synthetic Musks
Types of Potions
•
•
•
•
•
Hallucinogens
Specific Purposes
Religious
Medicinal
Fermented Foods
Alcoholic beverages
Salvia divinorum (right)
Amanita muscaria (below)
Basket of Amanita
(mosaic floor of
Aquileia Basilica,
oldest church in
Christendom, 432)
Datura
stramonium
12 C. «Berserker»
chessmen – who fought
with reckless abandon
thought to be induced
by Amanita muscaria
(note left: biting shield)
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Specific Purposes
Ayahuasca Religious Usage
For Prophecies: Fumes made of linseed, fleabane seeds, roots of violets and parsley
doth make you to foresee things to come and doth conduce to prophesying
For Youth: Make a powder of the flowers of elder, gathered on Midsummer’s Day,
being before well dried, and use a spoonful thereof in a good draught of boragewater, morning and evening, first and last, for the space of a month; and it will make
you seem young for a great while.
N, N-dimethyltryptamine
For Invisibility: On Midsummer’s Eve gather some fern seed between eleven and
noon. Whenever you carry it, you will be invisible. But you must take care not to
lose any of it; else you will not regain your proper shape.
To Find Out a Thief: To discover who they are that have stolen from you and make
them confess: take quicksilver and the white of an egg. Mingle them together and
make an eye upon the wall with it. Then gather together all whom you suspect, and
tell them to gaze upon the eye. His or her eye that stole from you will water.
To Improve the Appearance: If you wish to make hair grow on your head, anoint it
with milk and honey and fennel seed. Do this twice a day.
Fermented Foods
Bean-based
Cheonggukjang, doenjang, miso, natto, soy sauce, stinky tofu, tempeh soybean paste, Beijing mung
bean milk
Grain-based
Batter made from rice and lentil (Vigna mungo) prepared and fermented for baking idlis and dosas
Amazake, beer, bread, choujiu, gamju, injera, kvass, makgeolli, murri, ogi, sake, sikhye, sourdough,
sowans, rice wine, malt whisky, grain whisky, idli, dosa, vodka
Vegetable-based
Kimchi, mixed pickle, sauerkraut, Indian pickle
Fruit-based
Wine, vinegar, cider, perry, brandy, atchara, nata de coco, burong mangga, asinan, pickling, vişinată
Honey-based
Mead, metheglin
Dairy-based
Cheese, kefir, kumis (mare milk), shubat (camel milk), cultured milk products such as quark,
filmjölk, crème fraîche, smetana, skyr, yogurt
Fish-based
Bagoong, faseekh, fish sauce, Garum, Hákarl, jeotgal, rakfisk, shrimp paste, surströmming, shidal
Meat-based
Jamón ibérico, Chorizo, Salami, pepperoni
Tea-based
Kombucha
The Muggles Guide to Harry Potter Magic
Felix felicis potion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Muggles%27_Guide_to_H
arry_Potter/Magic/Felix_Felicis
Wolfsbane potion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Muggles%27_Guide_to_H
arry_Potter/Magic/Wolfsbane_Potion
Polyjuice potion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Muggles%27_Guide_to_H
arry_Potter/Magic/Polyjuice_Potion
Shamans
Harmine
Harmaline
Banisteriopsis caapi
Tetrahydroharmaline
Alcoholic Beverages
• Mead – fermented honey –
archaeologically identified as old as
9,000 years – China. Ancestor of all
fermented drinks – predates
cultivation
• Wine – chemically identified as old as
8,000 years, with resin (preservatives)
added
• Beer – dates back to 12,000 years ago
in Egypt & Mesopotamia
My favorite references that pertain
to Art Historical Chemistry
Heinrich Zollinger
Color: A
Multidisciplinary
Approach
New York: WileyVCH, 1999
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My favorite references that pertain
to Art Historical Chemistry
Royal Society of
Chemistry and
National Gallery
The Chemistry of
Art Learning Pack
London: The Royal
Society, 1999
My favorite references that pertain
to Archaeological Chemistry
Joseph B. Lambert
Traces of the Past:
Unraveling the
Secrets of
Archaeology
through Chemistry
New York: AddisonWesley, 1997
My favorite references that pertain
to Archaeological Chemistry
Mary Virginia Orna
Archaeological
Chemistry: Organic,
Inorganic and
Biochemical Analysis
New York: Oxford
University Press &
American Chemical
Society, 1996
24
Pigments Bibliography (in chronological order of the PowerPoint)
Curtis G (2006) The cave painters: probing the mysteries of the world’s first artists. Knopf, New
York
Valladas H, et al (2001) Radiocarbon AMS dates for Paleolithic cave paintings. Radiocarbon
43(2B):977-986
Schweppe H, Winter J (1997) Madder and alizarin. In: FitzHugh EW (ed) Artists’ Pigments: a
handbook of their history and characteristics, Vol. 3. Oxford University Press, New York, pp.
109-142
Koren ZC (1996) Historico-chemical analysis of plant dyestuffs used in textiles from ancient
Israel. In Orna MV (ed) Archaeological chemistry: Organic, inorganic and biochemical analysis.
American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., pp. 269-310
Tite MS, Bimson M, Cowell MR (1984) Technological examination of Egyptian blue. In:
Lambert, JB (ed) Archaeological chemistry III. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC,
pp. 215-242
Riederer J (1997) Egyptian blue. In FitzHugh EW, ed. Artists’ pigments: a handbook of their
history and characteristics, Volume 3. National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, pp. 23-46
Schweppe H (1997) Indigo and woad. In: FitzHugh EW (ed) Artists’ Pigments: a handbook of
their history and characteristics, Vol. 3. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 81-108
Koren ZC (2008) Archaeo-chemical analysis of royal purple on a Darius I stone jar. Microchim
Acta 162:381–392
Koren ZC (2011) Tekhelet: announcing the discovery of the first authentic biblical-blue tekhelet
from ancient Israel after a millennium and a half of disappearance. Presentation at the
International Edelstein Color Symposium, 27-28 February 2011, Shenkar College of Engineering
and Design, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Kraft D (2011) Rediscovered, ancient color is reclaiming Israeli interest. The New York Times
International, 28 February 2011, p. A7
Mitchell MM, Barabe JG, Quandt AB (2010) Chicago’s “Archaic Mark”( ms 2427) II:
microscopic, chemical and codicological analyses confirm modern production. Novum
Testamentum 52:101-133
Orna MV, Mathews TF (1981) Pigment analysis of the Glajor gospel book of U.C.L.A. Stud
Conserv 26:57-72
Berrie B (1997) Prussian blue. In FitzHugh EW, ed. Artists’ pigments: a handbook of their
history and characteristics, Volume 3. National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, pp. 191-217
Plesters J (1993) Ultramarine blue, natural and artificial. In Roy A (ed) Artists’ pigments: a
handbook of their history and characteristics, Volume 2. National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., pp. 37-65
Schweppe H, Roosen-Runge H (1986) Carmine – cochineal carmine and kermes carmine. In:
Feller RL (ed) Artists’ pigments: a handbook of their history and characteristics, Vol. 1. National
Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, pp. 255-283
Greenfield AB (2005) A perfect red. HarperCollins, New York
Gettens RJ, Feller RL, Chase WT (1993) Vermilion and cinnabar. In Roy A (ed) Artists’
pigments: a handbook of their history and characteristics, Volume 2. National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C., pp. 159-182
Pigments Synthesis
McKee JR, Zanger M (1991) A microscale synthesis of indigo: Vat dyeing. J Chem Educ
68:A242-244
Orna MV, Ogata P (2010) The chemistry of color (COLR): Synthesis of Prussian blue and
making a gouache paint. The New ChemSource, CD. American Chemical Society, Washington,
D.C.
Solomon SD, Rutkowsky SA, Mahon ML, Halpern EM (2011) Synthesis of copper pigments,
malachite and verdigris: Making tempera paint. J Chem Educ 88:1694-1697
Pottery Bibliography
Charles RT (1967) The nature of glasses. Scientific American 217(9):126
Companion A, Schug K (1973) Ceramics and glass. Chemistry 46(10):27
Cooper EA (1972) A history of pottery. Longmans-Green, London
Denio A (1980) Chemistry for potters. J Chem Educ 57:272-275
Gilman J (1967) The nature of ceramics. Scientific American 217(9):112
Lambert JW (1997) Traces of the past. Addison-Wesley Helix Books, Boston
Nelson CG (1960) Ceramics. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Orenstein L (1989) The chemistry of ceramics. The Science Teacher 56(4):49-51
Perfumes Bibliography
Fortineau A-D (2004) Chemistry perfumes your daily life. J Chem Educ 81:45-50
Isoe S, Katsumura S, Sakan T (1973). The synthesis of damascenone and beta-damascone and
the possible mechanism of their formation from carotenoids". Helv Chim Acta 56 (5): 1514–1516
Lubinsky P, Bory S, Hernández JH, Kim S-C, Gómez-Pompa A (200) Origins and dispersal of
cultivated vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. [Orchidaceae]). Economic Botany 62(2):127-138
Mannschreck A, von Angerer E (2011) The scent of roses and beyond: Molecular structures,
analysis, and practical applications of odorants. J Chem Ed 88:1501-1506
Sell CS, ed. (2006) The chemistry of fragrances: From perfumer to consumer, 2nd ed., Royal
Society of Chemistry, London, Chapter 3 (jasmine)
Sell CS (2008) Understanding fragrance chemistry. Allured, Carol Stream, IL
Surburg H, Panten J (2006) Common fragrance and flavor materials. Wiley-VCH, New York
Winter RT, van Beek HL, Fraaije M (2012) The nose knows: Biotechnological production of
vanillin. J Chem Educ 89:258-261
Wood WF (1999) The history of skunk defensive secretion research. Chemical Educator 5(3), no
pages given. URL: http://chemeducator.org/sbibs/s0004002/spapers/420044ww.htm (last
accessed 20120110) This paper is included in the bibliography not because skunk odor is a
“perfume” but because its distinctive odor was long erroneously believed to be 1-butanethiol,
whereas the major component has recently been shown to be 2-butene-1-thiol. Errors have been
incorporated into the literature for many years. This is a lesson to be wary of with respect to
other compounds discussed in this paper. Also, folklore asserts that skunk odor can be
neutralized by tomato juice; not so – the spray can be easily neutralized by oxidation to sulfonic
acids (perhaps by hydrogen peroxide, pharmaceutical grade).
Potions Bibliography
Arnold JP (2005) Origin and history of beer and brewing: From prehistoric times to the
beginning of brewing science and technology, Reprint Edition. Beer Books, Cleveland, Ohio
Dobkin de Rios M, Rumrrill R (2008) A hallucinogenic tea laced with controversy: Ayahuasca
in the Amazon and the United States. Praeger, Westport, Connecticut
Luck G (1987) Arcana Mundi. Magic and the occult in the Greek and Roman worlds. John
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
McGovern P (2009) Uncorking the past: The quest for wine, beer and other alcoholic beverages.
University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles
Wasson GR (1968) Soma. Divine mushroom of immortality. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New
York