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IMPACT OF PRODUCTS AND SERVICES PRICES OF
INFRASTRUCTURAL NATURAL MONOPOLIES
ON THE FACTORS OF NATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS
Akvile Cibinskiene1, Valentinas Navickas2
1
2
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania, [email protected]
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania, [email protected]
Abstract
Infrastructure resources in the country‘s economy – is an important factor of competitiveness and the
ability of the society to satisfy its economic and social needs. The Economic theory and international practice
shows that infrastructure industries’ activity plays an important role in economic development,
competitiveness, creates a background for the survival and development of the country‘s economic subjects.
Assessment of the country's competitiveness in the context of infrastructure natural monopoly (INM), price
regulation of the goods or services is gaining even wider sense, since these prices have influence to the
competitiveness of the country, so the assessment of this impact is relevant. Research on different approaches
of competitiveness forms by various authors is made, creating a background for further research of the
relationship between INM and country‘s competitiveness. In this paper the development of the
competitiveness concept and different approaches of various authors is analyzed, the impact of INM goods
and services prices to the country‘s competitiveness factors is defined.
Keywords: Infrastructure, natural monopoly, competitiveness.
JEL Classification: H410, L12, F20.
Introduction
In the conditions of the today’s globalization, competitiveness is becoming more important aiming to
reach country‘s economic development or attraction of foreign investments. Production factors might be
transferred from one country to the other more easily, that is why the importance of higher evaluation of
country‘s competitiveness arises.
Infrastructure resources in the country‘s economy – is an important factor of competitiveness and the
ability of the society to satisfy its economic and social needs. The Economic theory and international
practice shows that infrastructure industries’ activity plays an important role in economic development,
competitiveness, creates a background for the survival and development of the country‘s economic
subjects.
Assessment of the country's competitiveness in the context of infrastructure natural monopoly (INM),
price regulation of the goods or services is gaining even wider sense, since these prices have influence to the
competitiveness of the country, so the assessment of this impact is relevant.
Seeking to ensure country's economic growth, it‘s provision with infrastructure services is necessary.
Infrastructure natural monopoly limits the possibilities of country's economic subjects to choose another
service provider. By regulating INM prices, usually by increasing according to cost-based methodology and
the data provided by monopolists, state can reduce country's competitiveness on domestic and international
market as well as reduce consumers' purchasing power, and hence the country's competitiveness. The
methodology is needed for assessing, how changes in prices of goods and services, provided by INM, affect
country's competitiveness. Higher prices of INM goods or services in the country may reduce foreign
investments in the country, manufacture or certain of its phases can be transferred to other countries in which
INM services are cheaper.
Seeking to define the interaction between infrastructure natural monopolies (INM) and national
competitiveness, it is important to analyze the factors of competitiveness and how they are affected by the
prices for infrastructure natural monopolies products and services.
The object of the paper is impact of products and services prices of infrastructural natural
monopolies on the factors of national competitiveness.
The aim of the paper is to analyze theoretically the impact of products and services prices of
infrastructural natural monopolies on the factors of national competitiveness.
Methods of the study: systemic comparative analysis of scientific economic literature, structural
analysis and logical analysis.
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The theory on competitiveness is one of the most confused and difficult to summarize fields of research,
because of complexity of the concept, numerous varieties of factors, complicated process of competitiveness.
Competitiveness researches and comparisons in Lithuania are made by V. Juscius, V. Snieska (2008), V.
Snieska (2008), A. Saboniene (2009). Regional competitiveness is analyzed by V. Snieska, J. Bruneckiene
(2009), Z. Simanaviciene, J. Bruneckiene, I. Simberova (2007), the importance of the competitiveness forming
factors is studied by J. Urbonas, I. Maksvytiene (2003), D. Bernatonyte, A. Normandiene (2007), J. Ciburiene,
G. Zaharieva (2006). A. Cibinskienė (2010) analyzed links between infrastructure of natural monopolies and
the country‘s competitiveness. Researches of the authors of this article V. Navickas, A. Malakauskaite
(2007), A. Cibinskiene, J. Bruneckiene, A. Guzavicius (2010) showed that while analyzing countries‘
competitiveness most of the scientists used the framework of M. E. Porter „National diamond“.
Products and Services Prices of Infrastructure Natural Monopolies and the Factors of
National Competitiveness
Infrastructural resources in the country‘s economics are an important factor of its competitiveness
and the society‘s ability to satisfy its social needs. The establishment of infrastructure itself does not gain
profit. Infrastructure performs the function of integration between branches of production, regions and
countries. It does not create material goods; it performs the function of provision. The better infrastructure
is developed, the faster and easier investments, manpower are attracted, the economic development and
quality of life are improved (Komarov, 2000). P. Rosenstein-Rodan (1961) maintains that economic
analysis of infrastructure is especially important from the social-economic perspective because the
expenses assigned for infrastructural development are not a naturally material product prepared for
realization by the way of purchase and sale but economy received by the users of infrastructure.
The studies conducted prove that economists identify characteristics of infrastructure in different
ways, however the common feature remains the same – infrastructure must establish favorable conditions
for the functioning of both private and public capital (Navickas, Cibinskiene, 2002). It is the essential
condition for a further economic development of developing countries. Within economically developed
countries infrastructure may be analyzed as a supplementary source of capital accumulation or growth, factor
of competitiveness, means of fighting the crisis, etc.
The studies conducted proved the significance of the methodological step – identification of
characteristics thus providing possibilities to group branches of infrastructure and distinguish them from
the totality of branches of the country‘s economy (Navickas, Cibinskiene, 2002). This enables to conduct a
systematic distribution of infrastructure, i. e. distinguish its characteristic elements, identify their interrelationship. Summarizing the above mentioned characteristics of infrastructure, including those also
mentioned in the scientific literature, the following characteristics inherent exceptionally to infrastructure can
be distinguished:
1. Indirect effect of branches of infrastructure on the country‘s economics: expenses for the payment
goods or services of infrastructure are considered as expenses of economic-commercial activities
of economic subjects.
2. Public form of the infrastructure usage: the common characteristics of all branches of
infrastructure involve its „generality“ and „universality“, i. e. it is related to all branches and
spheres of the country‘s economy.
3. Establishment of infrastructure goes ahead of the economic assimilation of the area: none new
business is started in the region unless it is properly accommodated with infrastructure.
4. Branches of infrastructure usually belong to the state or its activities in one way or another are
regulated by the state.
Existence of different economical subjects, their development and success, i. e. competitiveness
depend on impact of particular direct or indirect factors.
J. Reiljan and others (2000) claim that different authors mark different factors of country’s
competitiveness according to their study field. These studies are valuable sources of information to settle
general selection of competitiveness factors. Anyway the analysis of each particular factor does not show
general image of competitiveness. Country’s competitiveness factors are closely related to each other and the
positive change of one factor can influence negative change of another.
According to J. Reiljan and others (2000), factors of country’s or region competitiveness or business
environment (ability to attract) and export (ability to sell) can be classified as the following:
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a. Main factors defining competitive environment: country’s (region) openness to world
economics, world economics openness to region, political stability of region and its environment,
country’s (region) economical geographical locality, “gentle” factors of business environment
(living conditions, cultural environment), climate conditions and natural resources, demographical
situation and structure of human resources.
b. Main market economics characteristics and devices (economical policy): general attitude to
foreign investment and market economics, level of government bureaucracy, stability of prices,
taxes, subsidies and credits, price setting and regulation (monopoly), property, general governance,
foreign economics regulation, trade policy, currency exchange policy.
c. Competitiveness of business infrastructure factors: level of wages, relation of wage and
productivity, work quality, work motivation and attitude, land, energy and ecological environment,
stability of materials and energy supply, existence of territories suitable for business activities,
transport and communications, infrastructure of research and technologies.
Listed factors (groups of factors) are sort of independent, because in some cases they can be improved.
However they should be analyzed as a complex (J. Reiljan and others, 2000). In this classification of
competitiveness factors, products and services prices of infrastructural natural monopolies are included in the
main market economics characteristics and devices, and infrastructure - in the competitiveness of business
infrastructure factors. In this way, INM prices of goods and services impact country’s or region
competitiveness through both of these groups. Here only classification of country’s competitiveness factors
is presented, but relations of particular groups of factors are not mentioned, so the classification of factors are
not studied in the further research.
Groups of factors and their relations determined in M. E. Porter (1990) “National diamond” model
were used in other models of competitiveness too: in D. S. Cho (1994) “Nine factors” model, A. M. Rugman
and others (1995, 1998) “Double diamond” model, H. C. Moon and M. Y. Kim (2006) “Dual double
diamond” model. Wide use of main groups of factors and their relations allow to make an assumption that
these groups of factors can be applied to the assessment model of INM regulated prices impact to country’s
competitiveness.
Factor conditions according to M. E. Porter (1990) are: human resources, physical resources,
knowledge resources, capital resources and infrastructure. While studying human resources from
competitiveness point, their quality, skills and personnel costs are evaluated. These resources can be divided
to many subcategories. Physical resources are country’s land, water, mineral resources, hydroelectric power
reserves, piscatorial areas and other. Their quantity, quality, attainability and price are evaluated. Climate
conditions, locality of the country and geographical size are also included in these resources. Knowledge
resources comprise country’s scientific, technological and market knowledge resources, related with
development of goods and services, their production and offering. Universities, state research institutes,
private research enterprises, state statistic agencies, business and scientific literature, market research reports
and data bases, trade associations and other institutions all are knowledge resources. Knowledge resources
can be classified to many different subjects. Capital resources are the amount and price of country’s
financial reserves. General country’s capital resources and way, that they are divided, depend on country’s
savings ratio and capital market structure. Infrastructure includes type, quality and price, that consumer is
paying for it (transport system, communications, post, health care and etc.), of present infrastructure which
affects competitiveness. Moreover, provision of accommodation, cultural institutions, which affect quality of
living, attraction of the country as working and living place also are treated as infrastructure. Importance of
which is highlighted by C. Freeman (2004),
M. E. Porter (1990) marks main and progressive factors in order to emphasize the importance of factor
conditions to competitive advantage. Main factors are natural resources, climate, allocation, unqualified and
low qualification labor force and capital in debt. Progressive factors are infrastructure of modern
communication system and qualified personnel: engineers and scientists. According to M. E. Porter (1990)
progressive factors are key factors of competitive advantage. They are essential in order to gain such
competitive advantage as differentiated products and patented production technology. They are rare because
their development needs huge and often long-lasting investment in human and physical capital. Institutions
that create progressive factors (e. g. education programs) need educated human factors and technologies
themselves. In this case, infrastructure natural monopoly, according to its function, can be treated as main
and as well as progressive factor. Other significant classification of the factors is according to their
particularity. General factors can be used in many industries and economic fields. Specialized factors can be
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applied just in a few or one industry. INM can be seen as general factor; therefore its goods and services are
widely used in various industries as well as households.
The significance of human factor to country’s competitiveness was highlighted by J. Fagerberg and
others (2005), R. Martin and others (2003), J. Bagdanavicius (2006), R. Saner (2001). They claimed that the
main wealth of any society is people and the last criterion of economic-social progress is a human and fuller
satisfaction of his needs.
Studies show that it is essential to seek the quality of factors and increase industry’s competitiveness
and state that quality of factors impacts competitiveness. M. E. Porter (1990) propose that in order to create
permanent and big competitive advantage, progressive factor conditions must be developed. Basis of
international competitiveness are: effectively developed and spread technology, products and production
technology companies and how the technology is used. W. Niefer (1990), S. S. Cohen and J. Zysman (1988),
P. Dufour and Y. Gingras (1988), R. Calori and R. Noel (1986) claim that permanent investment to science,
technology development and spread, and education are the main factors that maintain companies’
competitive advantages. J. Duffey (1988) and D. G. Vice (1987) mark out that future success in international
market will be defined by capability to develop, create and put on the market new high quality products and
services that will satisfy the consumers by competitive price. This capability in long-term relies on the
quality of labor force which in turn relies on residents’ education. The studies of A. Sapienza (1989) show
that research and development collaboration with scientific studies is the key criteria to increase efficiency of
production factors. H. C. Moon, A. M. Rugman and A. Verbeke (1998) treated scientists and specialists as an
indicator of country’s progressive factor conditions in the study of Korea and Singapore global
competitiveness, and appreciated their impact to competitiveness. D. D. C. Tam (1998) defined that
numerous and qualified labor force can increase country’s competitiveness. Studies show that the quality of
factors affects competitiveness positively.
When the wage in the country increases, economical-commercial operations that need lots of labor
force are moved to other countries where the labor force is not so expensive. At the same time, it is needed
to attract international companies from developed countries that they would invest in the country, and
during research and development cooperation acquire modern technologies and improve local factor
conditions. Both leaving the country and coming into the country investment is important while assessing
country’s factor conditions. X. Liu and H. Song (1997) mark that direct foreign investment is essential
resources of spread and sharing the knowledge as well as competitiveness. Different authors support
different opinions of balance of direct investment. Substantial direct investment indicates attractiveness of
the country. This means that it is worth to invest in that country. On the other hand, orientation of direct
investment shows excess of balance of payments, which means that country can allocate its capital abroad
(H. Trabold, 1995).
Factor conditions are influenced by three other groups of factors of “National diamond”. Among the
firm strategy, structure and rivalry the main impact to factor conditions is made by local rivalry. In order to
compete successfully, qualified human resources, technologies, etc. are needed. This need promotes creation
of the factors. Related and supporting industries impact factor conditions by creating and renewing factors
themselves. Demand conditions influence factor conditions through private investment, designed for creating
factors of marketable products and services.
Carried research shows that subjects offering infrastructure goods and services are included in factor
conditions. Also their existence, quality and price of their goods or services directly affect country’s
competitiveness. Natural monopolies, which prices of goods and services are set by the State, are also among
these subjects. INM prices of goods and services impact country’s competitiveness directly through factor
conditions which in turn affect three other factor groups of country’s competitiveness.
Demand conditions. M. E. Porter (1990) excludes scale of demand and consumers’ sophistication and
need. Companies in the country gain competitive advantages if its customers are sophisticated and
demanding for goods and services. These customers make companies keep high standards of product quality,
features and services. H. E. Edmondson and S. C. Wheelwright (1989) and J. R. D’Cruz and A. M. Rugman
(1993) also accept this attitude. According to D. S. Cho and H. C. Moon (2000) higher level of consumers’
education leads to higher demand sophistication.
Size of local demand (amount). Big local market can determine competitive advantages to industries,
which have manufacturing economies of scale and education, and can stimulate companies to invest in large
scale equipment, technologies development and efficiency increase. Local demand can be seen as more clear
and easily predicted, when foreign demand is more doubtful, even if companies think they can satisfy it. The
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size of local market for country’s competitiveness is important just in particular industries (or segments),
especially in those, that have high requirements for research and development, substantial manufacturing
economies of scale, large manufacturing-technological leaps or high level of uncertainty. Size of country’s
market is advantage if it promotes investment and re-investment. On the other hand, big local market can
offer wide opportunities, so companies may not want to perform foreign trade, that can rebound on
dynamism and turn to be loss-making. Other factors, as intensity of local market, explain if large country’s
market is advantage or disadvantage.
M. E. Porter (1990) marks these elements that affect demand conditions: number of independent
consumers, growth of local demand, early needs of local demand, early market saturation, mobile or local
multinational consumers, impact to foreign needs.
Firm strategies, structure and rivalry factor group as well as local competitiveness, which through
product and marketing innovations create demand to its products and exercise the sophistication of
consumers, also make impact to demand conditions. Active competitiveness inside the country can increase
the foreign demand too. Related and supporting industries can strengthen international demand to the
production of these industries. Demand internationalization is affected by factor conditions and factor
creating mechanisms. Country which has fancy factor creating mechanisms, related with particular industry,
will attract foreign students and companies. These students and employees will form foreign demand for
country’s goods and services.
INM regulated prices of goods and services do not affect demand conditions (demand scale and
consumers sophistication) directly, but can reduce demand through decreased consumer purchasing power.
When INM prices for goods and services increase, consumers cannot refuse these goods and services or
substitute them, so they are forced to reduce their expenses for other consuming goods and services.
Third group of country’s competitiveness is related and supporting industries in the country
(clusters). Probably the most important benefit of existence of local suppliers is innovation and development
process. Competitive advantages come from close relationship of world class suppliers and industries.
Suppliers help companies to notice new methods and provide opportunities to apply new technologies.
Companies quickly get the information, new ideas and innovations of suppliers. They have possibility to
impact technical endeavor of suppliers and to try the innovations. Due to this process innovation speed in the
country accelerates. To have competitive local supplier is much better than to rely on even much qualified
foreign suppliers. The existence of managing and technical personnel in the country and cultural similarities
makes free and open information exchange easier. Moreover, presence of related competitive industries in
the country prompts the development of new competitive industries. In international scale, successful
presence of related industries in the country creates opportunities to exchange information and technical
innovations likewise in the local suppliers’ case. Proximity and cultural similarities make it easier.
International success of one industry can increase the demand of complement (supplementing each other)
goods or services.
Factor conditions and factor creating mechanisms affect the development of related and supporting
industries. Specialization of supporting industries and its manufacturing volumes depend on size and
growth of local demand. Local rivals can promote formation of more specialized related and supporting
industries.
M. E. Porter (1990) stated that related and other supporting industries, as banks and financial services,
energy supply, transport and communication are essential for country’s competitiveness growth. X. Liu and
H. Song (1997) also proposed that better infrastructure prompts economical growth. J. D. Roessnger and
others (1996) summarized that social-economical and technical infrastructures are two most important
factors of country’s competitiveness. G. S. Wang (1996) strongly declared that infrastructure helps to
strengthen competitive advantages.
It is important that infrastructure is included in factor conditions, but it is also called supporting
industry. This shows the significance of infrastructure for country’s competitiveness.
Firm strategy, structure and rivalry. Firms’ goals, strategies and activity organization are different
in different countries. Scale of local competitiveness plays an important role in the process of innovations
and modern perspectives and in achieving competitiveness.
According to M. E. Porter (1990) huge differences between countries exist in their companies’ goals
and motivation of employees and employers. Countries’ industries perform successfully when their goals and
motivation are related with resources of competitive advantages. In many industries element of gaining longterm (permanent) advantage is long-term (permanent) investment. Firms’ goals depend on property structure,
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owners and shareholders motivation, nature of general board. Industries function successfully when the goals
of owners and managers match the needs of the industry. Influence of capital market varies due to the
different need of the capital. Motivation of persons who manage and work in the company may strengthen
or weaken the success of particular industry. Quality of human resources in particular industry, personal
motivation and even shareholders are affected by prestige or national priority. When industry becomes a
known business (occupation) or acquires national importance, often it stands as competitive advantage.
Significance of long-term obligations. Aims of companies and individuals reflect in capital and human
resources obligations to industry, company and occupation. Local rivalry. Local rivalry as any other
rivalry motivates firms to improve and apply innovations. Local competitors promote each other to reduce
the costs, improve quality and services, and create new products and processes. Due to the fact that firms
cannot keep advantages for long period of time, active pressure of local competitors induces innovations.
Local rivalry not only creates advantages but also helps to bypass some difficulties. Together with local
competitors, according to particular competitive strategies, obstructions for government intervention
which suppress innovations and rivalry are made. Establishment of new business. Establishment of new
companies is also very significant in strengthening competitive advantages because it promotes
innovations in industries.
INM regulated prices of goods and services can impact firm strategy, structure and rivalry through
manufacturing factors and input.
Studies show that the role of the government is widely discussed in evaluating country’s
competitiveness. It is seen as an important, even the most important factor of modern international
competitiveness. On the other hand, M. E. Porter (1990) states that it is not right and even not useful to take
the government as the fifth factor, because then the role of the government can be wrong understood.
Decisions of the government can influence all four factor groups of “National diamond”. This in its turn can
affect particular factor groups positively or negatively. Factor groups can also make influence to the
government. Of course the actions of the government are significant to country’s competitiveness.
Government subsidies, education and finance market are related with production factors in local and in
international markets. On the other hand, regulation of manufacturing standards affects production demand,
and regulation of financial policy, taxes and antitrust legislations affect circumstances of companies’
competitiveness.
Conclusions
It is stated that prices of goods and services of infrastructure natural monopolies affect factors of
country’s competitiveness because there are no close substitutes and needs for basic necessities must be
satisfied. Infrastructure includes type, quality and price, that consumer is paying for it (transport system,
communications, post, health care and etc.), of present infrastructure which affects competitiveness.
Moreover, provision of accommodation, cultural institutions, which affect quality of living, attraction of the
country as working and living place also are treated as infrastructure. INM can be seen as general factor;
therefore its goods and services are widely used in various industries as well as households. Natural
monopolies, which prices of goods and services are set by the State, are also among these subjects. INM
prices of goods and services impact country’s competitiveness directly through factor conditions which in
turn affect three other factor groups of country’s competitiveness. INM regulated prices of goods and
services do not affect demand conditions (demand scale and consumers sophistication) directly, but can
reduce demand through decreased consumer purchasing power. When INM prices for goods and services
increase, consumers cannot refuse these goods and services or substitute them, so they are forced to reduce
their expenses for other consuming goods and services. It is important that infrastructure is included in factor
conditions, but it is also called supporting industry. This shows the significance of infrastructure for
country’s competitiveness. INM regulated prices of goods and services can impact firm strategy, structure
and rivalry through manufacturing factors and input.
Infrastructure natural monopolies can be marked as separate factor of country’s competitiveness.
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