International Journal of Performability Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, September 2015, pp. 491-501.
© RAMS Consultants
Printed in India
Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engine: A Review of
Technical Feasibility
S. K. SHARMA1*, P. GOYAL2 and R. K. TYAGI1
1
Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, Amity School of
Engineering & Technology, Amity University, Noida 201303, INDIA
2
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity School of Engineering &
Technology, Amity University, Noida 201303, INDIA
(Received on November 16, 2014, revised on March 14 and 29, 2015)
Abstract: Practically, it is impossible to substitute internal combustion engine which has
become an integral part of the transportation and agriculture sectors. The fossil fuel
resources are limited and depleting at very fast. Therefore, in future our energy system
will have to be renewable and sustainable, efficient and cost effective, convenient and
safe. In order to cope with the environmental concerned there have been many studies and
trials on various types of automobile engines. As indicated by recent studies hydrogen
fuelled vehicles appeared to be more eco-friendly and available in abundance. However
the problems associated with hydrogen fuelled engine are pre-ignition, backfiring, rapid
rate of pressure rise and knocking which need to be overcome so that hydrogen fuelled
driven engine could be further develop and commercialize. This review paper is basically
deliberating the various problems associated with the use of hydrogen driven engines in
automobile sectors and suggestions to make this technology commercially viable.
Keywords: Alternative fuel, S I engine, C I engine, intake manifold, hydrogen injectors,
emissions etc.
1.
Introduction
Energy production is primarily met by non-renewable sources like gasoline. Consumption
of fossil fuel is gradually increasing as a result of population growth and the
improvements in the living standard. During the next 25-30 years, increased population
will result in an abrupt increase in the energy consumption. This will result in increased
oil prices and shortage in supply. Over many years, Hydrocarbons fuels have played an
important role in power generation. [2]
Hydrogen is one of the best alternative fuels since it does not produce emissions like
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons etc. The hydrogen
has different features from other hydrocarbons fuel such as wide flammability limits, high
flame speed, qualitative mixture control and high diffusivity. The use of hydrogen as a
fuel in an internal combustion engine started with spark engine. Many researchers have
tried to make use of intake port-fuelled spark ignition engines. The current research has
focused on direct injection spark ignition engine due to their high volumetric efficiency
and potential to avoid pre-ignition and backfiring problem. [1]. Government has laid down
Stringent regulation on exhaust emissions as well as to conserve the fast depleting fuel
reserves has necessitated research and development of alternative fuels. In order to
address these issues hydrogen is the alternative fuel which is environmental friendly and
has better performance. [3-6].
1.1. Combustion Properties of Hydrogen
There are various important characteristics of hydrogen that strongly influence its use as
an alternative fuels.
*
Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
491
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S. K. Sharma, P. Goyal and R. K. Tyagi
Flame Velocity and Adiabatic Flame
The flame velocity of hydrogen is very high which allows the hydrogen engines to attain
effectively ideal engine cycle (having most efficient fuel power ratio). This can happen
only when stoichiometric fuel mixture is used. However, when the engine is running on
lean condition, it reduces the flame speed and results in fuel economy significantly
[19].The adiabatic flame temperature and flame velocity are important properties for the
engine operation and these parameters help in controlling the combustion stability and
emissions. The flame temperature and laminar flame velocity are plotted as a function of
Equivalence ratio (φ) and are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively [7].
Figure 1: Adiabatic Flame Temperatures for
Hydrogen-Air Mixtures [7]
Figure 2: Laminar Flame Velocity Hydrogen,
Oxygen and Nitrogen Mixtures and Gasoline
and Air-Mixtures [7]
Small Quenching Distance
In the combustion chamber, the combustion flame is typically extinguished by a certain
distance from cylinder wall due to heat losses called as “Quenching distance”. Table 1
shows that, in the alternative fuels, the hydrogen has a small quenching distance 0.6mm as
compared to 2.0mm of gasoline [8].
Table 1: Quenching Distance [9]
Quenching Gap at NTP(mm)
Hydrogen
0.64
Gasoline
2.0
Propane
2.0
Methane
2.0
Wide Range of Flammability
The range of flammability is one of the very important properties of a fuel which is shown
in Table 2. In this regard, hydrogen has a wide range of flammability of 4-75% whereas
gasoline has the flammability range is 1.4-7.6%over which an engine can operate. If the
engine is running on lean mixture as shown in Table 3 then complete combustion of fuel
occurs which results in a greater fuel economy [8].
High Diffusivity
High diffusivity as well as dispersion ability of hydrogen is significantly higher than the
gasoline. The main advantage of this characteristic is that it leads to the formation of
.
Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine: A Review of Technical Feasibility
493
uniform air fuel mixture and if any leakage develops the hydrogen disperses in air swiftly.
Thus, hazardous condition can either be minimized or completely avoided [11].
Table 2: Flammability and Ignition Characteristics [10]
Flammability limits (vol.% in air)
Lower limit (LFL)
Upper limit (UFL)
Minimum ignition energy (mJ)
Hydrogen
Gasoline
4
75
0.02
1
7.8
0.24
Methane
5.3
15
Propane
2.1
9.5
Table 3: Lean Flammability Limits of Various Fuels [10]
Fuel
Methane
Propane
Pentane
Octane
Benzene
Methanol
Hydrogen
Chemical
Formula
CH 4
C3H8
C 3 H 12
C 8 H 18
C6H6
CH 3 OH
H2
Lean Flammability
Volume %
5.3
2.2
1.5
1.0
1.4
7.3
4.0
Limits Equivalence
Ratio
0.53
0.54
0.58
0.60
0.51
0.56
0.10
Minimum Ignition Source Energy
The minimum energy necessary for ignition is another important property of a fuel. It is
nearly constant over the range of flammability which is shown in Figure 3. The low
ignition energy means that the hot gases and hot spots on the cylinder walls can assist as a
source of ignition, creating a problem of premature and flashback. In case of ignition
energy of hydrogen air mixture, energy requirement is much less to ignite the charge. This
means combustion can be initiated with the resistance hot wire or with the simple glow
plug [11].
Figure 3: Minimum Ignition Source Energy of Hydrogen-air (•), Methane-air (■) and Heptane Air
Mixture (▲) [12]
Low Density
Hydrogen has a very low density. The lower density of hydrogen is advantageous in terms
of weight but has two major problems. (i) In order to cover the specified range, a large
volume is required to store enough hydrogen as compared to the volume occupied by
gasoline, and (ii) Lower energy density of the hydrogen-air charge, and result into the
reduced power output. [8]
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S. K. Sharma, P. Goyal and R. K. Tyagi
High Self-ignition Temperature
This is the temperature in which the combustible mixture must attain to ignite itself
without the external source of energy. Since the rise in temperature during compression is
linked with the compression ratio having the following relation:
𝑉1 𝛾−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 � �
(1)
𝑉2
where V1/V2 is the compression ratio, T1/T2 is the ratio of initial and final temperature
and γ is the ratio of specific heat. It is shown in table 4 that the hydrogen has high selfignition temperature which requires higher compression ratio in case hydrogen engine.
[13-15].
Table 4: Auto Ignition Temperature [16]
Auto ignition Temperature (oC)
Minimum
Heated air jet (0.4 cm diameter)
Nichrome wire
Hydrogen
585
670
750
Gasoline
228-471
1220
-
Methane
540
885
1220
Propane
487
1040
1050
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio
The theoretical or Stoichiometric combustion of hydrogen and oxygen is given as:
2H 2 + O 2 = 2H 2 O
Moles of H 2 for complete combustion = 2 moles
Moles of O 2 for complete combustion = 1 mole
Because air is used as the oxidizer instead of oxygen, the nitro-gen in the air needs to be
included in the calculation:
Moles of N 2 in air = Moles of O 2 x (79% N 2 in air / 21% O 2 in air)
= 1 mole of O 2 x (79% N 2 in air / 21% O 2 in air)
= 3.762 moles N 2
Number of moles of air = Moles of O 2 + moles of N 2
= 1 + 3.762
= 4.762 moles of air
= 1 mole of O 2 x 32 g/mole
Weight of O 2
= 32 g
= 3.762 moles of N 2 x 28 g/mole
Weight of N 2
= 105.33 g
Weight of air
= weight of O 2 + weight of N (1)
= 32g + 105.33 g
= 137.33 g
= 2 moles of H 2 x 2 g/mole
Weight of H 2
=4g
Stoichiometric air/fuel (A/F) ratio for hydrogen and air is:
A/F based on mass:
= mass of air/mass of fuel
= 137.33 g / 4 g
= 34.33:1
A/F based on volume:
= volume (moles) of air/volume (moles) of fuel
= 4.762 / 2
= 2.4:1
The percent of the combustion chamber occupied by hydrogen for a Stoichiometric
mixture:
% H 2 = volume (moles) of H 2 /total volume (2)
Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine: A Review of Technical Feasibility
495
= volume H 2 / (volume air + volume of H 2 )
= 2 / (4.762 + 2)
= 29.6%
As from these calculations, the Stoichiometric or chemically correct A/F ratio for the
complete combustion of hydrogen in air is about 34:1 by mass. [12].
1.2 Hydrogen as a Clean Fuel for Automobiles
From the table the comparison of the amount of the carbon dioxide in the exhaust gases of
various types of fuel when they completely burnt off for the equal amount of energy.
Table 5: CO 2 [kg/ (Q)] as a Combustion Product of Various Fuels [17] Q = heat value of 1 litre of
Gasoline
Fuel
Gasoline
Diesel Fuel
Methanol
Natural Gas
Hydrogen
Molecular
Formula
C 8 H 18
C 16 H 34
CH 3 OH
CH 4
H
Calorific value
10630
10590
4770
11930
28700
Carbon
Dioxide
2.27
2.28
2.26
1.80
0
Comparison with
Gasoline
1.00
1.01
0.99
0.79
0
Gasoline, light oil and Methanol emerging the same amount of carbon dioxide. The
natural gas produces 1.5 times less carbon dioxide than that of gasoline correspondingly
as shown in Table 5. On the other hand the hydrogen does not give any traces of carbon
dioxide thus it is best to use hydrogen obtained from water by solar energy or some other
natural energy.
The next is the electrical automobile but their practical implication is very limited
because the battery used in them are heavyweight as shown in Table 6 if their weight were
reduced to one-tenth of their current weight they would still weigh 5 times as much of
gasoline or 2 times as much as liquid Hydrogen with the similar quantity of fuel.
Table 6: It shows the comparison of fuel storage weights corresponding to 30 litres of Gasoline.
Fuel Tank
Content
Volume (1)
Weight (Kg)
30
22
62
49
8.2
670
8.2
115
8.2
Tank Weight
(Kg)
5
8
764
755
65
Total Weight
(Kg)
27
57
772
763
73
1360
Gasoline
Methanol
Hydrogen MH
HP (15MPa)
LH 2
Battery (*)
(*) Presuming that energy density is 40 Wh/kg and that the efficiency of the battery’s conversion to power is 5
times higher than that of Gasoline Engines [16].
In case of Hydrogen Engine using liquid hydrogen as a fuel the total weight of the fuel
tank and fuel itself is 1.3 times and 2.7 times that of methanol and gasoline engine
respectively and it can deliberate this to be in within practical range. Therefore an internal
mixing hydrogen engine has tremendous basic features as compared to gasoline Engine.
In this scenario it appears to be the most promising engine for clean vehicles.
Use of Hydrogen in Spark Ignition Engine
Hydrogen is an excellent alternate fuel for spark ignition engine with its highly desirable
properties [8]. When the hydrogen fuel mixed with air to produce the combustible mixture
for spark ignition engine at an equivalence ratio below the lean flammability limits of
496
S. K. Sharma, P. Goyal and R. K. Tyagi
gasoline results into the ultra-lean combustion produces low flame temperature and leads
directly to lower heat transfer to the walls, higher engine efficiency and lower exhaust of
NO x emissions [18-20].
Use of Hydrogen in Compression Ignition Engine
A significant amount of research has been devoted to the growth of Hydrogen
Compression Ignition engines. In fact, various researchers who have worked on the
development of high pressure direct hydrogen injection method utilizing diesel
configurations. CI engines have the benefit of higher thermal efficiency and durability.
The single difficulty with the use of hydrogen in a CI engines is that it needs
comparatively high auto ignition temperature, which makes it very difficult to ignite
without the help of some external source of ignition. [21, 22]
1.3 Fuel Induction Techniques for Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine
The fuel induction technique has been originated to play an important role in determining
the features of an IC engine. Therefore, following techniques have been developed to
ensure the efficient supply of hydrogen into an engine. [23]
1. Fuel Carburetion Method [CMI]
2. Inlet Manifold and Inlet Port Injection
3. Direct Cylinder Injection [DI]
Fuel Carburetion Method [CMI]
The simplest and the oldest technique is the carburetion with the use of a gas carburettor
which is shown in Figure 4 (left). The difficulty of central injection in internal combustion
engine, the volume occupied by the fuel is about 1.7% of the mixture whereas using
gaseous hydrogen, results in 15% decrease in a power output. Another problem is
associated with this method is the back fire which can cause the serious injury to the
engine components. [24, 25].
Figure 4: Fuel Carburetion Method (left) and Inlet Manifold Injection (right) [12]
Inlet Manifold and Inlet Port Injection
In an intake port injection system which is shown in Figure 4 (right), both air and fuel
enters in the combustion chamber through the intake stroke, but the air and fuel are not
mixed in the intake manifold. The hydrogen is injected into the intake manifold on
commencing the intake stroke. In port injection, the inlet supply pressure is higher than
the carburettor or central injection systems, but is less than the direct injection systems
[DI] [11].The fuel can either be metered by changing the injection pressure of the
hydrogen, or by varying the duration of injection by controlling the signal pulses of the
injector [12].
Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine: A Review of Technical Feasibility
497
Direct Injection System
Direct injection of hydrogen into the cylinder has all the benefits due to its delayed
injection as compared to the manifold injection system as shown in Figure 6. In addition,
the system permits the fuel delivery after the closing of the intake valve and thus,
fundamentally prevents the occurrence of backfire since dispersing and mixing of
hydrogen and air takes place quickly. [23]
Figure 5: Direct Injection Method [12]
Figure 6: Hydrogen Injector [26]
Specifications of Injector
Fuel injection system has two basic functions:
1. fuel pressurization
2. fuel metering
While dealing with gaseous fuels, only the metering function is required to be carried
out by the injection system as the pressurization is performed separately. Various types of
injectors have been used in both inlet manifold and direct cylinder injection in hydrogen
internal combustion engines; one of the types is shown in the Figure 6. As it has been
already indicated, the design of inlet port injectors or inlet manifold are less challenging
as lower injection pressures are required. For direct cylinder injectors, not only the design
accommodates for higher injection pressure against the cylinder pressure, but the
equipment must also be capable of enduring the unfriendly environment of the
combustion chamber [8]. Designs of direct injector are more complex due to the
lubrication between the injector moving parts. Injector construction is shown in Figure 6.
Two types of injectors are obtainable for use in D.I. systems.
1. Low-pressure direct injector (LPDI)
2. High pressure direct injector (HPDI).
When the pressure is low inside the cylinder as the intake valve closes, the low-pressure
direct injector injects the fuel. At the end of the compression stroke, the high pressure
direct injector injects the fuel [16].
2.
Emission Characteristics of Hydrogen Fuelled Engine
In recent years, the internal combustion engines driven vehicles are well known for their
environmental pollution by the emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of Nitrogen
(NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2). [27]. Fuel flows from 0.78 to 1.63 (kg/h), i.e., Ф from 0.35
to 1.02, and presenting exhaust gases in a phased manner, substituting air. These tests
were carried out at an engine speed of 1500 rpm. This technique was shown as an real
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S. K. Sharma, P. Goyal and R. K. Tyagi
method to reduce emissions of nitric oxides to less than 10 ppm, obtaining an improved
power output than that with lean mixtures (Ф<0.45, i.e., 14% Vol. of hydrogen), with
thermodynamic efficiencies approximately 31%[28]. The experiment was carried out on
hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine to determine the effect of exhaust gas recirculation
and a standard 3-way catalytic converter (TWC) on NOx emissions and engine
performance. The Combustion of H2 with O2 gives water as the by product:
2H 2 + O 2 = 2H 2 O
The Combustion of hydrogen with air also produces oxides of nitrogen (NO x ):
2 H 2 + O 2 + N 2 = H 2 O + N2 + NO x
During combustion, high temperature inside the combustion chamber causes the NO x
formation. This high temperature causes some of the nitrogen in the air to combine with
the oxygen in the air. The amount of NO x formed depends on the engine compression
ratio, whether thermal dilution is utilized, the engine speed, the ignition timing the air/fuel
ratio. In addition, traces of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide would be present in the
exhaust gas with the NO x , due to the fast oil burning in the combustion chamber.
Figure 7: Emissions for Hydrogen Engine (left) for Gasoline Engine (right) [11]
As shown in the Figure 7, as the phi (φ) decreases, NO x for a gasoline engine is
reduced which is similar to the hydrogen engine. However, there is an increased in carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons as a consequence of NO x reduction in gasoline engine. The
Figure 7 shows the typical NO x curve related to phi (φ) for a hydrogen engine and other
figure for gasoline engine.
2.1
Abnormalities Associated with Hydrogen Combustion
Backfire
Hydrogen has a low ignition temperature and it burns rapidly. The presence of hot spot
results into the burning of fuel even before the closing of intake valve, which results into
the backfiring. Consequently, any measure that helps to avoid pre-ignition also reduces
the risk of backfiring. To avoid the backfiring, another research has been done on intake
design optimization and injection strategy. [12]
Pre-Ignition
Pre-ignition is not the only cause of backfiring and normally it does not occur under
normal compression and equivalence ratio. It is interesting to note that the peak pressure
for the pre-ignition case is higher than the regular combustion cycle. However, due to the
early pressure rise that starts around 80 °CA BTDC, the specified mean effective pressure
for the pre-ignition case is around 0 bars. [29].
Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engine: A Review of Technical Feasibility
499
Knocking and Auto Ignition
When the end gas conditions (pressure, temperature, time) are such that the fuel-air
mixture spontaneously auto-ignites, this follows a quick release of the remaining energy
generating high-amplitude pressure waves, are known as engine knock. The most
common, detonation knock, describes as a result of self-ignition and explosion of the end
gas which is unburned gas ahead of the flame (see Figure 8) [9].
Figure 8: Knocking-end Gas Ignitions [29].
3.
Power Output in Hydrogen Engine
There is an important effect of Ignition timing on engine performance and combustion.
Brake mean effective pressure and effective thermal efficiency increase with the decrease
in the time intervals from the completion of fuel injection to the ignition start. Therefore,
depending on how the fuel is metered the maximum output for a hydrogen engine can be
either 15% higher or 15% lesser than that of gasoline if a stoichiometric A/F ratio is used.
However, at the stoichiometric A/F ratio, there is a formation of large quantity of nitrogen
oxides (NO X ) due to the high temperature of combustion chamber, which is a hazardous
pollutant. Therefore, hydrogen engines are not normally designed to run at a
stoichiometric A/F ratio. [30]
4.
Conclusion
An alternative fuel in the form of hydrogen is available in abundance, but not in a free
state in nature and has to produce from the variety of processes. The hydrogen gas can be
used in traditional gasoline powered internal combustion engines with certain
modifications. After the study of literature on the subject matter, the following points have
emerged:
a) Hydrogen can be used as an alternative fuel, both in case of spark ignition as well
as compression ignition engines without any major modifications. During the
study it was also revealed that the NO x emissions are 10 times lesser than in case
of hydrogen as compared to gasoline. HC and CO were found to be insignificant
except some traces of these emissions due to burning of lubricating oil films on
the cylinder walls.
b) The problem of backfire can be overcome by the use of sequential injection
system in place of carburetion. Another measure to reduce the problem of
backfire is to inject liquid hydrogen directly into the manifold mainly due to the
improved cooling.
c) Another problem associated with the hydrogen is pre-ignition in the intake
manifold which can be solved by direct injection. It has also emerged from the
study that internal combustion engines can be used for both gasoline as well as
hydrogen.
d) Surface ignition can also be reduced to a large extent by the use of improved
design. Hydrogen engine may achieve lean-combustion in its actual cycles.
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S. K. Sharma, P. Goyal and R. K. Tyagi
e) In order to use hydrogen commercially in internal combustion engines, there are
number of issues which need to be resolved. The main issues are constraint on
the availability of hydrogen as fuel for vehicles and availability of technology
and infrastructure required during its storage and use.
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S.K. Sharma is currently working towards an M. Tech degree in Automobile
Engineering in Amity school of Engineering & Technology, Amity University, Noida.
He received a Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical & Automation Engineering from Amity
School of Engineering & Technology, Amity University, Noida. He has published 8
research papers in International Journals and conferences. His research interests are
focused on Automotive Intake and Exhaust system, catalytic converter, Additives and
blending of gasoline fuel to reduce emissions.
Priyanka Goyal is an assistant professor in Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering,
Amity University Noida. She received her M. Tech degree in Automobile Engineering
and Bachelor’s degree in Aerospace Engineering from Amity School of Engineering &
Technology, Amity University. Her Research interest is focused on automotive wind
tunnel testing, blending of alcohol with gasoline, I.C Engine Emissions controls.
R. K. Tyagi is currently an associate professor in department of Mechanical &
Automation Engineering in Amity School of Engineering & Technology, Amity
University, Noida. He has an M. Tech in design and Ph.D. in Non-Traditional Machining
Process. He filed 17 patents in different Field. His research area is Composite Material,
Design aspects of I.C Engine, Non Tradition machining process, Automotive Exhaust
system.