GENIMPACT
Evaluation of genetic impact of aquaculture
activities on native populations.
A European network
WP1. Genetics of domestication, breeding and
enhancement of performance of fish and shellfish
Atlantic halibut - Hippoglossus hippoglossus
K. A. Glover1, T. Svåsand1,
I. Olesen2 and M. Rye3
1
3
Institute of Marine Research, Bergen, Norway
2
AKVAFORSK, Ås, Norway
AKVAFORSK Genetics Center, Sunndalsøra, Norway
Glover K.A., Svåsand T., Olesen I. and Rye M. (2006). Atlantic Halibut – Hippoglossus hippoglossus. In:
“Genetic effects of domestication, culture and breeding of fish and shellfish, and their impacts on wild
populations.” D. Crosetti, S. Lapègue, I. Olesen, T. Svaasand (eds). GENIMPACT project: Evaluation of genetic
impact of aquaculture activities on native populations. A European network. WP1 workshop “Genetics of
domestication, breeding and enhancement of performance of fish and shellfish”, Viterbo, Italy, 12-17th June,
2006,5 pp. http://genimpact.imr.no/
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A. Biology, ecology and genetics
Distribution
The Atlantic halibut is distributed throughout the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean and in
parts of the Arctic Ocean (Fig. 1) (1). The species is particularly abundant along the
Norwegian coast, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and southern Greenland. It may also be
encountered in the North Sea and the western part of the Baltic Sea. Along the east coast of
North America, the halibut is distributed from Hudson Strait southward to the southern Grand
Bank and St. Pierre Bank.
Fig. 1. Distribution of Atlantic halibut (hatched areas) in the North Atlantic (1)
Capture
The Atlantic halibut has been an attractive species for European fishermen, and high fishing
intensity has resulted in depletion of stocks in several areas (2). The capture of Atlantic
halibut in Europe has declined from an all time high of 10,000-15,000 tonnes in the period
1950 to 1965, to less than 2,000 tonnes in 2004 (3). In 2004, the main countries fishing for
Atlantic halibut were Norway (1,034 tonnes), Iceland (574 tonnes), Faeroe Islands (497
tonnes), and United Kingdom (251 tonnes).
1
18000
16000
Capture (tonnes)
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
19
50
19
54
19
58
19
62
19
66
19
70
19
74
19
78
19
82
19
86
19
90
19
94
19
98
20
02
0
Fig. 2. Capture of Atlantic halibut in Europe (3)
Biology
The Atlantic halibut is a long-living flat fish that may exceed weights in excess of 250kg.
Spawning occurs in deep water (300-700m) in the period December to March, although peak
activity is generally observed in January and February. The early life-history stages of the
Atlantic halibut in the wild are poorly understood, however, it is known that both the
planktonic eggs and larvae may drift significant distances with ocean currents. After
metamorphosis juvenile halibut adopt a benthic life-style. Coastal areas with depths of 2060m often serve as nursery areas before the halibut undertake migrations to distant areas, both
shallow and deep waters. The species displays sex-dependant growth rates where males attain
sexual maturity at a younger age and smaller size than females. In a study of maturation age
in the Faroe Islands in the 1980s, the average age of sexual maturation in males was estimated
at 4.5 years, 55cm and 1.7kg, whilst in females it was 7 years, 110-115cm and 18kg (2).
However, age at first maturity displays individual, temporal and spatial variation. After
spawning halibut leave the spawning grounds and may be found in deep and shallow waters,
both inshore and offshore. The Atlantic halibut is a batch spawner and may release eggs every
3rd day for up to 15 batches in any given spawning season.
Population genetics
Early tagging experiments demonstrated that mature Atlantic halibut return to the same
spawning site over repeated spawning seasons (2). Such observations lead to the suggestion
that the species may display population genetic structuring (4). Evidence from biochemical
genetic studies has revealed either a lack of or only weak evidence of population genetic
differentiation between geographically distinct samples (5, 6, 7, 8). A more recent study
utilising highly polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers revealed a lack of population
genetic structuring (9). However, this study utilised small sample sizes and considered only a
limited geographic area. It is possible that as is the situation for other marine species, a greater
number of polymorphic markers and more intense sampling may illustrate population genetic
structuring in this species. Until such a large-scale study has been conducted, it is not possible
to draw any conclusions regarding the population genetic structure of this species.
2
Certain traits that may be under quantitative genetic control (e.g., growth, timing of spawning)
show phenotypic variation among halibut collected from geographically distinct locations.
For example, earlier spawning is generally recorded in Atlantic halibut in northern Norway
compared to southern Norway. However, the biological significance of such variation, and the
relative importance of genetics and environment on these differences are not known.
Consequently, it is at present unclear as to whether or not the Atlantic halibut displays local
adaptation or not.
B. Breeding and culture practices
Production
Experimental aquaculture of Atlantic halibut was initiated in Norway and Iceland in the mid
1980s, however, it was not before the late 1990´s that significant commercial production was
realised.
Year
Norway
UK
Iceland
Total
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
----20
20
453
--50
503
100
5
30
135
100
189
100
389
100
250
--350
500
250
95
845
500
250
105
855
2005
(Provisional)
500
300
105
905
Tab. 1. Halibut aquaculture production (in tonnes) (10)
Whilst yearly production fluctuated in the period 1998-2005, there has been a general increase,
and at present approximately 1,000 tonnes is produced by aquaculture on a yearly basis within
Europe. Norway is the primary producer of Atlantic halibut followed by UK and Iceland. It is
likely that within the next decade, aquaculture production of Atlantic halibut will overtake
wild capture.
Due to its good taste and limited availability, Atlantic halibut is often regarded as an exclusive
product with prices that reflect this. Whole fish can reach market prices of 10-15 €, making it
an economically attractive species for further aquaculture development.
Hatchery practices
Broodfish used for gamete collection are most often wild caught individuals that are kept in
captivity. Whilst some high performing F1 individuals are also used for gamete collection, a
practise that varies greatly from farm to farm, and country to country, the majority of juvenile
production still arises from wild broodfish.
Ripe females kept in large shallow tanks are coaxed onto stripping boards that are often
neoprene covered to protect the slime layer. Eggs are stripped into jars and fertilised
externally with sperm from 1-3 stripped males. The process from incubation to weaning is
best carried out at approx. 6ºC although temperatures between 3-8°C are tolerated for this
phase. Eggs are incubated in the dark in cylinders where they are suspended in the column
through continuous flow of cooled and preferably often sterile salt water. After approximately
2 weeks (82 degree-days), eggs hatch and the resultant yolk-sac larvae are transferred to
larger incubation silos which may vary between 1 and 15 cubic meters. Start-feeding has
historically been the major bottleneck in halibut juvenile production where in excess of 75%
mortality at this stage was common in early attempts. Both semi-intensive and intensive
feeding methods have been utilised although intensive methods are almost exclusively used at
present. Light quality and strength was demonstrated to be of significance in addition to
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quality of Artemia to feed upon. Addition of algae and zooplankton to the tanks has also
increased survival during this critical phase. After metamorphosis where the larvae become
fry and the left eye migrates to the right eye, the halibut will often seek the bottom of the tank.
At this stage they can be reared in very shallow flat-bottomed tanks that are either round or
long with water inlet at the top end. They are gradually weaned onto commercial feeds and
reared in this manner until approximately 5g.
Grow-out
From 5g to approximately 30-50g the halibut continue to be reared in shallow land-based
through-flow tanks fed with commercial diet. At this stage halibut can be transferred to
adapted marine cages which have flat bottoms with tight mesh so that they can rest on them.
Some cover may be required for these relatively shallow cages in order to avoid fish from
becoming sun burnt. Size at slaughter is preferably over 5kg although 3-5kg fish are also
marketable. Grow-out usually takes 2-4 years of cage rearing.
Selective breeding
The life-cycle for Atlantic halibut was first closed in culture in Norway in 1992/93 when
offspring from the 1985 year class were first used for breeding at the Institute of Marine
Research Austevoll research station outside Bergen. However, despite the life-cycle having
been closed since the early 1990´s, at present the majority of halibut production is still based
upon wild captured individuals being used as broodstock. No systematic selective breeding
programme for Atlantic halibut is in operation in any country in Europe, although this topic
has been addressed on several occasions, most recently in a Norwegian meeting run by the
Norwegian Flatfish Forum (March 2006).
In a recent experimental breeding project funded by the Norwegian Research Council, 22
family groups were produced in 1997-1998 (11). In this study, family survival rate varied
from 50 to 84,6% and between 30 and 78,8% for the 1997 and 1998 year classes respectively.
Mean weight varied from 1.0 to 1,6 kg at ca 3½ years for the 1997 year class and from 0.4 to
1.1 at 2½ years age for the 1998 year class. The significant differences in both growth and
survival suggest additive genetic variation for these traits. This has the potential for
exploitation in a future commercial breeding programme. Although a breeding plan has been
designed for Atlantic halibut in Norway (12), there is first a need for more knowledge about
the spawning process of halibut in order to obtain a more stable egg quality and control
maternal effects.
A small and initial breeding programme has been conducted on the West Atlantic (Canada).
An attempt to establish a low cost breeding program for halibut in Scotland without rearing
families separately until tagging failed due to too big variation in survival of different family
groups, with a consequently low effective population size and increased inbreeding rate (13).
Concentration of research on other production-limiting factors such as weaning, diet and
pigmentation problems have received a greater focus than establishment of halibut breeding.
However, it is likely that a selective breeding program will be initiated in the near future.
C. Interaction studies
At present, there are no available data on the number of farmed escaped halibut in the wild.
However, due to the fact that many halibut are reared in land-based facilities where
escapement to the wild is either difficult or impossible, and the level of production is still low,
it is likely that there are few farmed escapees. No scientific studies investigating the numbers
of escapees, and genetic or ecological interactions of potential escapees in native stocks have
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been conducted. Furthermore, no studies have been carried out looking into the potential
genetic or ecological differences between cultured and wild Atlantic halibut.
Due to the fact that aquaculture production of this species is currently based upon collecting
gametes from wild captured adults that are not the product of a selective breeding programme,
it is likely that the genetic differences between the F1 farm progeny and wild individuals is
limited. However, it is predicted that the genetic difference between wild and cultured
Atlantic halibut will increase if a selective breeding programme for this species is
successfully implemented.
D. Conclusions / Implications
Throughout most of its range, the Atlantic halibut has already been heavily exploited through
over-fishing, and it is likely that this leaves the species in a vulnerable state with respect to
potential impacts from escapees from halibut culture or further exploitation. At the present
level of aquaculture production however, and with the use of wild caught broodstock for
gamete collection, it is likely that genetic impacts of escapees on wild populations are
minimal. However, this topic has not been studied, and this situation may quickly change if a
selective breeding programme for this species is initiated and the level of production increases.
Clearly, in order to be able to predict or understand the potential genetic interactions between
farmed and wild Atlantic halibut, a significantly better understanding of its population genetic
structure and potential fitness-related genetic differences this may give rise to, is required.
Furthermore, a better understanding of the biology and ecology of the halibut in the wild,
especially with respect to the early life-history stages, is required.
References
(1) Haug T. (1990). Biology of the Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus (L., 1758). Advances in Marine
Biology, 26: 1-70.
(2) Jakupsstovu S. H. I, and Haug T. (1988). Spawning of the Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus in
deep waters on the continental slope south west of the Faroe Islands. Frödskaparrit, 34/35: 79-80.
(3) FAO (2006). FishStat. http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISHPLUS.asp
(4) McCraken F.D. (1958). On the biology and fishery of the Canadian Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus
hippoglossus. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 15: 1269-1311.
(5) Mork J. and Haug T. (1983). Genetic variation in halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (L.) from Norwegian
waters. Hereditas, 9: 167-174.
(6) Haug T. and Fevolden S.E. (1986). Morphology and biochemical genetics of Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus
hippoglossus from various spawning grounds. J. Fish Biol., 28: 367-378.
(7) Fevolden S.E, Haug T. (1988). Genetic population-structure of Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 45: 2-7.
(8) Foss A., Imsland A.K. and Nævdal G. (1998). Population genetic studies of the Atlantic halibut in the North
Atlantic Ocean. J. Fish Biol., 5: 901-905.
(9) Reid D.P., Pongsomboon S., Jackson T., McGowan C., Murphy C., Martin-Robichaud D., Reith M. (2005).
Microsatellite analysis indicates an absence of population structure among Hippoglossus hippoglossus
in the north-west Atlantic. J. Fish Biol., 67: 570-576.
(10) FEAP (2006). Aquamedia European production.
http://aquamedia.org/Production/euproduction/euproduction_en.asp
(11) Olesen I, Barr Y., Holmefjord I., Refstie T., Pante Ma. J.R. and Lein I. (2001). Avlsforsing på kveite.
Sluttrapport. AKVAFORSK AS. Fagrapport 37/01. 16 s.Olesen, I, Y. Barr, I. Holmefjord, T. Refstie og
I. Lein. Avlsforsking på kveite. 2002. Norsk Fiskeoppdrett, 27: 42.
(12) Gjerde B., Refstie T., Salte R., Andersen Ø., Holmefjord I., Lein I. and Rye M. (1999). Strategiar for
avlsarbeid. AKVAFORSK rapport. 42 s.
(13) Frank-Lawale A.S., Taggart J.B., McAndrew B.J. and Woolliams J.A. (2005). The use of microsatellite
markers for pedigree analysis in the Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus: the first step towards
a sustainable breeding programme. Aquaculture, 247: 13.
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