Combust. Sci. and Tech., 178: 1669–1684, 2006
Copyright Q Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0010-2202 print/1563-521X online
DOI: 10.1080/00102200600582392
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON EVAPORATION OF
KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED PRESSURES
AND TEMPERATURES
HOJAT GHASSEMI
SEUNG WOOK BAEK
QASIM SARWAR KHAN
Division of Aerospace Engineering, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of
Science and Technology, Yusung-Gu, Taejon, Korea
Kerosene is a common liquid fuel in many industrial applications.
However, there is little useful data on high pressure and high temperature evaporation for kerosene. In this research, the vaporization
of kerosene droplet was experimentally investigated at high temperatures (between 500 and 1000C) and high pressures (between 0.1 and
3.0 MPa) under normal gravity. High temperature environment has
provided by a furnace. Droplet with initial diameter between 1.0
and 1.2 mm was suspended at the tip of a quartz fiber. The evaporation process was recorded by a high-speed CCD camera. The evaporation rate was extracted from the recorded movie by determining
temporal rate of changing of droplet diameter. Despite its multicomponent nature, the evaporation of kerosene droplet followed the
d2-law after heating-up period. The evaporation rate of kerosene
droplet increased monotonically with an increase in gas temperature.
At low temperature, when ambient pressure increased, the evaporation rate also increased. But at high temperature, evaporation rate
Received 12 November 2004; accepted 9 January 2006.
The present work was supported by the Combustion Engineering Research Center
at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science
and Technology, which is funded by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation.
The first author wishes to thank Dr. M. Golafshani for his valuable discussions about
high rate evaporation.
Address correspondence to H [email protected]
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shows a maximum around 2.0 MPa and then decreases. Also, the formation of dense fuel vapor cloud around the droplet was observed
under conditions with higher evaporating rate.
Keywords: evaporation, kerosene, liquid droplets, single droplet
INTRODUCTION
Vaporization of liquid fuel droplet at high-pressure and high-temperature
environments is one of the basic mechanisms in spray combustion for
various applications such as industrial furnaces, gas turbines, diesel
engines, and liquid propellant rocket engines. The study of evaporation
of a single droplet is necessary for characterizing and understanding
the spray vaporization and combustion. There is a large amount of work
on study of single droplet evaporation of various kinds liquid fuels. Evaporation behavior of single component fuel droplet has been analytically
and experimentally studied under several environments. Some important
review papers present the state of the art in single droplet evaporation
and combustion (e.g., Ranz and Marshall, 1952; Faeth, 1977; Law,
1982; Givler and Abraham, 1996). The effects of temperature and pressure on vaporization of single droplet in normal and microgravity have
been investigated experimentally (e.g., Kadota and Hiroyasu, 1976; Sato,
1993; Nomura et al., 1996).
In many applications fuel droplets consist of a mixture of two or
more pure liquids. This multicomponent droplet may consist of several
species with completely different physical and chemical properties.
The degree of volatility, boiling temperature, evaporation latent
heat, and heat capacity of each component play an important role in
the interior thermo-fluid dynamics of the droplet. The evaporation characteristics of multicomponent droplet have been analytically and experimentally studied (e.g., Law, 1978; Randolph et al., 1986; Arias-Zugasti
and Rosner, 2003; Morin et al., 2004).
On the other hand, kerosene is a common liquid fuel used in many
applications. However, there is little useful data on the high-pressure
and high-temperature evaporation and combustion. The evaporation of
commercial fuels has been studied at 400C and atmospheric pressure
by Elkotb et al. (1991). They examined heavy diesel fuel, light diesel fuel,
kerosene, gasoline, and their blends. In their study it was found that the
evaporation does not follow the d2-law and the rate changes with time.
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The main purpose of this work is to experimentally observe the evaporation behavior of kerosene droplet in high-pressure and high-temperature environments. Experiments were performed with an individual
suspended droplet at the tip of quartz fiber. The initial diameter of droplets range between 1.0 and 1.2 mm. Temporal variations of droplet
diameter were measured for several ambient pressures and temperatures.
Droplet evaporation rates are obtained by examining the measured temporal variations of droplet diameter. In this study, temperature and pressure ranges are from 500 to 1000C and 0.1 to 3 MPa, respectively. The
effects of temperature and pressure on evaporation are discussed and
presented in more details. In addition, the vapor film formation around
the droplet under high evaporation rate is reported.
The experimental setup is introduced in the following section. The
available properties of kerosene are presented in the next section. Data
reduction method and a discussion about sources of error are presented
in the next section. In the section of results and discussions, the general
evaporation behavior of droplet, the effects of temperature and pressure
on evaporation process, and a comprehensive discussion about the high
rate evaporation are presented.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A schematic of the experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 1. The
idea of this design is borrowed from Sato (1993). A droplet hanging
on a fine quartz fiber was subjected to the hot environment by an electrical furnace, thereby resulting in evaporation. This unit is enclosed within
a high-pressure vessel installed with glass windows that enabled us to
observe the evaporation process. The evaporation process is observed
using a high speed camera. Due to feature of the furnace design, the
ambient gas temperature steps up from low to high stage in a short time.
Thus the heat leakage from furnace to outside is negligible. Also, since a
thin quartz fiber is used for droplet suspension, the heat transfer between
droplet and fiber is minimized.
To make an experiment at high pressure, a cylindrical pressure vessel
(1) with 800 mm height and 150 mm inner diameter is manufactured. It is
designed to withstand pressures up to 10 MPa. The cylinder contains a
movable electric furnace (4). The furnace is formed with steel plate
and some asbestos shielding on the steel plate to minimize heat transfer
to outside of furnace. Some ceramic shields are also installed on heating
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Figure 1. A sketch of the experimental apparatus: (1) pressure vessel, (2) guide bar, (3) furnace entrance, (4) electric furnace, (5) Quartz glass window on furnace, (6) temperature
controller, (7) lever, (8) Nitrogen vessel, (9) Quartz glass window on pressure vessel, (10)
backlight source, (11) Quartz fiber, (12) droplet, (13) shock absorber, (14) droplet maker,
(15) plunger micro pump, (16) CCD camera.
element to minimize the radiation effects. A temperature controller (6)
controls the temperature set inside the furnace using a K-type thermocouple. The uniformity of gas temperature as well as dynamical behavior
of furnace has been investigated using several thermocouples at different
locations. To reduce the radiation effects on thermocouple bead, a radiative shield is built around it. The maximum attainable temperature limit
is 1000C.
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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Accuracy of environmental gas temperature is investigated by examination of radiation correction. The maximum error in reading the
furnace temperature is about 8C at 500C and þ50 and 35C at
1000C. Two quartz glass windows (5) with 50 mm 40 mm 10 mm
are installed on the furnace to observe the droplet. A small hole (3) with
25 mm 25 mm is made at the bottom of the furnace through which a
droplet comes in when the furnace drops. Two guide bars (2) are set
beside the furnace along which the furnace is guided to fall down. After
one run is finished, the furnace is lifted and reset using a lever (7), which
allows two degrees of freedom, i.e., rotation and sliding along the vertical
axis of cylinder. As the lever is turned while the furnace is hanging over
it, it causes the furnace to fall down. There are contradictory requirements concerning the falling distance.
To shorten the time for the gas temperature to rise before falling of
furnace and to prevent the droplet from being preheated by the furnace,
the falling distance should be long. However, a long travel distance of the
furnace would induce a strong impact on the base when it falls. The falling distance is set about 400 mm in the present study to satisfy the above
requirements. Base on the furnace design, this distance provides a droplet entering time shorter than 30 ms. Impact shock due to collision of the
furnace with bottom wall is relived by placing a couple of shock absorbers (13) at the position of impact of the furnace, so that the droplet
should remain stable. A quartz fiber (11) is fixed on a stand that is
installed at the bottom of the pressure vessel. The fiber diameter is
0.125 mm and it is rounded at the tip with the bead diameter of
0.25 mm. The fiber with 0.2 mm diameter and 0.35 mm bead diameter
was also used for hanging droplets with large diameter.
In order to produce a droplet around the bead at the tip of the quartz
fiber, a droplet maker (14) is installed. It produces a droplet as small as
1 mm in diameter. It consists of a hypodermic needle, connecting tube,
and a lever. It connected to a plunger micro pump (15) and operates quite
well even in high-pressure gaseous environments. The needle is connected
to the micro pump through a fine capillary tube. The movement of needle
is provided by a lever on which needle is mounted. The lever can carry the
needle very close to the suspended fiber by vertical displacement and
then, the liquid fuel is transferred to the bead by turning the lever, thereby
generating a droplet. Four quartz windows (9) with 24 mm thickness and
50 mm effective diameter are installed on the high-pressure vessel in
order to watch the droplet formation and then evaporation phenomenon.
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The vessel is purged by injecting nitrogen gas (8), which replaces air
inside the chamber in order to avoid combustion and oxidation processes. The pressure inside the cylinder is maintained at the desired level
by a pressure regulator. As the furnace is lifted up, a droplet is produced
at the tip of quartz fiber. The initial diameter of the droplet is controlled
by observing its formation on a computer screen through the CCD
camera. The absolute size of the droplet is determined by comparing it
with the diameter of quartz fiber which had been previously measured.
After recording the initial diameter of the droplet, the furnace is allowed
to fall down, thereby evaporating of suspended droplet. The whole evaporation process is photographed through a CCD camera (16). The
resulting frames are recorded on data storage and then are analyzed to
calculate evaporation rate.
KEROSENE PROPERTIES
Kerosene is a blend of relatively non-volatile petroleum fractions. They
typically consist of 60% of paraffins, 32% of naphthenes, and 7.7% of
aromatics, by volume. The overall average properties of kerosene are
very roughly equivalent to dodecane, C12H26 (Goodger, 1975). The critical temperature and pressure of dodecane are 388C and 1.81 MPa,
respectively.
Kerosene, which was used in the present study, has 180–270C boiling range and 0.80 specific gravity at 15C and is produced by Junsei
Chemical Company from Japan. A simple analysis of the kerosene composition has determined the mass fraction of three essential substances;
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen using CHN-100 elemental analyzer
according to ASTM D5291 standard. The result shown 0.8572,
0.1413, and 0.0012 for mass fraction of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
respectively.
DATA REDUCTION
Time histories of evaporation process are recorded on a computer.
Several recording speeds were examined. Comparison of evaporation
coefficients obtained for several cases did not show significant difference
for 25, 50, and 100 frames per second. Due to clear evaporation behavior, 50 frames per second were selected for the image recording speed.
A flexible image-processing program is developed to extract the droplet
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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shape and size. The resolution of each image in horizontal and vertical is
1158 dpi. Using high-resolution image diminishes the error in droplet
size extraction via image processing.
Uncertainty in determination of droplet diameter comes from two
sources. One is the scale factor, which is used to convert the droplet
diameter size in terms of pixel to real unit (mm). An opaque needle with
a known diameter is used as a reference scale. At the worst case, the measurements in wide range of light intensities show the error is lesser than
0.05 mm. The next source for error in measuring of droplet diameter is
due to optical effect of hot and dense environment. At high pressure and
high temperature, fuel vapor surrounds the droplet so that a determination of droplet boundary incurs some difficulty, because a density
gradient around droplet would produce mass diffusion and make visibility poor. Using a least-squares regression in the calculation of evaporation rate from instantaneous diameter trajectories would minimize this
sort of error.
Figure 2 depicts a sample of droplet evaporation history. It shows
the square of droplet diameter versus time for kerosene droplet vaporization at 0.1 MPa and 700C. The initial diameter of droplet is 1.52 mm.
This curve is composed of two completely different sequences. The first
Figure 2. Temporal variation of the square of droplet diameter.
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sequence shows a non-linear behavior while the second one shows a
linear regression in squared diameter. In the first or heat up period,
the diameter of droplet increases and after some times decreases. For
the case shown in this figure, the maximum increment of squared diameter,
(Dd2)max, is about 4% in relation to initial squared diameter, which corresponds to 2% in initial diameter. This behavior of droplet is due to its
heat-up by thermal conduction from gas and subsequent thermal expansion. As temperature of droplet surface increases and reaches its boiling
temperature, evaporation starts. After that, a balance between thermal
expansion and evaporation determines the diameter of droplet. When the
temperature inside of droplet reaches to a quasi-steady state, only evaporation is controlling the droplet size. From this stage, the d2-law is valid.
In Figure 2, the lifetime of the droplet has been divided into two
parts; t0 indicates the non-linear behavior and the remainder is related
to d2-law evaporation lifetime. For purpose the evaporation study, t0
does not have importance, because the evaporation rate is determined
by the second part of droplet lifetime. In the study of ignition and combustion of droplets, however t0 is an important characteristic of a large
liquid fuel droplet. The behavior of t0 is a function of initial droplet size,
temperature of environment, and composition of droplet. Base on mass
the flux of the evaporating liquid droplet (Frohn and Roth, 2000), for a
small droplet, of which heat-up period is negligible, d2-law is expressed
as d 2 ¼ d02 Cv t, where Cv is the evaporation rate (evaporation coefficient) and d0 is the initial droplet diameter. As indicated in Figure 2,
the evaporation rate can be expressed as the time derivative of droplet
squared diameter, Cv ¼ dðd 2 Þ=dt. This coefficient can be extracted
from the linear part of the evaporation history curve. The slope of this
line, which is passing through the second part, is the negative of the evaporation rate. The slope of the best straight line can be estimated using the
least square regression.
Experimental study of a single droplet, suspended at the tip of a
quartz fiber, encounters with two additional side effects. Heat conduction from quartz fiber into droplet and radiative heat transfer from the
furnace wall introduce extra heat feedback to the droplet. The effect of
heat conduction through the supported fiber has been investigated
experimentally and theoretically (e.g., Wong and Lin, 1992; Yang and
Wong, 2002). They conclude that heat conduction through quartz fiber
enhances evaporation. The effect is strong when environment temperature is low and the fiber thickness is high. In the present study, a
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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thin fiber has been used in a very hot environment. The effect of
radiative heat transfer from the furnace wall into the droplet has been
studied (Kadota and Hiroyasu, 1976) using an analytical model. A
combination of radiative effect and heat conduction through the fiber
can decrease the lifetime of the droplet dramatically. In a specific case,
using n-heptane droplet in a nitrogen-filled environment at 500C and
3.0 MPa, the lifetime of a droplet was reduced by about 15%. In the
present study, using a shielded heating elements decrease the radiative
effects on droplet.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
General Behavior
Figure 3 shows the variations of normalized squared diameter with the
normalized time for different environment temperatures at 1.0 MPa
pressure. Each evaporation history follows the same general behavior.
After a finite heat-up period, the variation of the square of droplet diameter becomes approximately linear with time while keeping d2-law. The
Figure 3. Variations of normalized square diameter with the normalized time for several
environment temperatures at 1.0 MPa pressure.
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small deviation at 1000C is discussed later. This general behavior has
also been observed in evaporation at different environment pressures.
There are some fluctuations in the data. One source is related to an
optical problem in a very high temperature environment. There is a temperature difference between the nitrogen background and kerosene
vapor coming from droplet. Due to this temperature gradient, a weak
density flow, i.e., natural convection forms around the droplet. Its effect
on image is much like the Schlieren effect. Therefore, the droplet boundary does not seem very sharp through quartz windows, the lens, and
camera. To filter out the density flow effects, one way is to decrease
the contrast of light between the droplet and background. At this condition, the droplet seems clear (see Figure 7a), but the extraction of
droplet size encounters some difficulty due to low contrast between
droplet and background light. The wrinkles in the evaporation curve of
1000C in Figure 3 are more than those for other curves. It is due to
vapor formation around the droplet (see Figure 7b), which makes the
boundary of droplet hard to extract.
In spite of the multicomponent nature of kerosene, its evaporation
follows the d2-law. The main components of kerosene are heavy saturated
hydrocarbons (paraffins) and the lighter components have higher volatility. Each component would vaporize at a different rate. Therefore, a
concentration gradient forms around and within the droplet. At low
environmental temperature, the rate of heat diffusion into droplet is comparable to the rate of mass diffusion. Therefore, the heat diffusion plays
significant role in vaporization of droplet. More study on evaporation of
kerosene droplet at low temperature (400C and lower) has shown it does
not follow the d2-law.
At high environmental temperature, the heat diffusion is much faster than mass diffusion. So the temperature inside the droplet during
the whole evaporation process is fairly constant and the mass diffusion
due to concentration gradient controls the evaporation rate. That is
why for a multicomponent droplet like kerosene, the species concentration within an outside the droplet does not determine the evaporation rate alone so that the evaporation process seems to follows the
d2-law for moderate temperatures from 500 up to 900C as shown in
Figure 3. But for rather high temperature of 1000C, the gaseous mass
diffusion outside the droplet begins to control the evaporation rate,
so that the multicomponent evaporation of kerosene droplet does not
follow the d2-law.
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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Effects of Temperature
The effects of ambient temperature on the evaporation rate have been
investigated under six different environment temperatures. The variations
of evaporation rates in terms of environment temperature are depicted
in Figure 4. As the ambient temperature is increased, the evaporation rate
monotonically increases. A simple comparison between the evaporation
rates of n-hepatne (Sato, 1993) and kerosene at 1.0 MPa pressure is shown
in Figure 4a. As this figure shows, the evaporation rate of heptane is greater
than the rate of kerosene, but the general behavior is the same. In Figure 4b
the effects of temperature on evaporation rate are shown for different
environmental pressures. As indicated in this figure, the pressure does
not affect on the monotonic dependence of evaporation rate on the
temperature.
Effects of Pressure
Unlike the monotonic effect of temperature, the pressure shows a different
effect on the evaporation rate of kerosene. Figure 5 shows the variation
of evaporation rate versus ambient pressure for several environmental temperatures. As indicated in this figure, at lower temperatures ranging from
500 to 700C, the evaporation rate is observed to monotonically increase
with pressure, while reaching the maximum at even higher pressure that
is not shown in Figure 5. However, at higher temperatures ranging from
Figure 4. Effects of ambient temperature on the evaporation rate; (a) a simple comparison
between the evaporation rate of n-heptane and kerosene, (b) the evaporation rate at different ambient pressures.
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Figure 5. Dependency of the evaporation rate on the ambient pressure for several ambient
temperatures.
800 to 1000C, when ambient pressure increases, the evaporation rate
increases and then decreases. It takes a maximum somewhere around
2.0 MPa or higher which is very close to the critical pressure of kerosene.
For pure fuels, the evaporation rate shows a maximum around critical pressure when the ambient temperature is greater than critical value.
Normally, kerosene contains light components as well as heavy components like dodecane. The light components have higher critical pressure
than heavy components. Also, the presence of a maximum in the curves
of evaporation rate versus ambient pressure, may indicate that evaporation takes place at critical state. Consequently, at the lower ambient
temperatures, even higher than the critical temperature of components,
droplet does not evaporate at critical state. So, the evaporation curves
do not show a maximum. At higher environmental tempratures, the evaporation of heavy components which have lower critical pressure, plays a
significant role. Under this condition, it is possible that the evaporation
rate takes a maximum at lower environmental pressure.
All data obtained in this study was put together and plotted in Figure 6.
This figure shows the dependency of the evaporation rate of kerosene to
pressure and temperature.
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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Figure 6. Dependency of evaporation rate on ambient pressure and temperature.
High-Rate Evaporation
In Figure 6a, four frames from the evaporation process for the temperature and pressure of 900C, and 1.0 MPa respectively are shown. These
images are representative of the type of photographs that are taken as
Figure 7. Sequential images from evaporation of a droplet at the pressure of 1.0 MPa;
(a) T ¼ 900C, (b) T ¼ 1000C.
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the evaporation proceeds in high pressure and high temperature environments. To distinguish the condense vapor around the droplet clearly, a
low intensity back light has been used. For low-temperature and lowpressure environment, a high contrast back light provides a better result
such that the shape and boundary of the droplet, which is suspended
from a quartz fiber, are vividly clear. The bright spot near the center of
droplet is due to light reflection. In Figure 7b, four frames are again displayed for the temperature of 1000C, and pressure of 1.0 MPa. As seen
from this set of figures, a foggy zone appears to form around the outside
of droplet, which must be condensed fuel vapor. Its light grayish color in
the image is distinctively different from the ordinary droplet color seen in
the previous set.
Based on different scale of gray, it is clear that the phase state of
outer shell of the droplet is not liquid. In fact, the evaporation rate
increases with ambient temperature at constant pressure. Therefore,
the evaporation rate for ambient temperature of 1000C in Figure 7b
must be much higher than that for 900C in Figure 7a. Since for ambient
temperature of 1000C, the amount of fuel vapor generated at the droplet
surface is more than that transported away by the combined action of
molecular diffusion and convective mass transfer. Consequently, the
vapor at the droplet surface cannot quickly penetrate into the surrounding gas so that it is accumulated therein. This kind of situation has also
been observed at microgravity conditions where the natural convection
due to buoyancy is negligible (Sato, 1993).
The boiling temperature range for kerosene is between 180 and
270C at atmospheric pressure. Thus, when the droplet is exposed to
the hot gas temperature, initially there is a large temperature difference
between the drop and its surrounding gas. In the beginning, when an
initially cold droplet is exposed to the high temperature environment,
the liquid at the surface of droplet reaches the boiling temperature due
to heat feedback and starts to evaporate. Consequently, if the fuel vapor
formed is not diffused out easily in the radial direction, it may accumulate therein. This condensed fuel vapor, then, inhibits the efficient evaporation of droplet. Thus, this fuel vapor cloud begins to influence the
evaporation process. Otherwise, the evaporation used to take place at
such a very high rate that a very small droplet would be rapidly evaporated. Similar images like Figure 6b have also been observed for the
pressure higher than 1 MPa at 1000C. However, the vapor film
does not seem as bright as before. This accounts for the reduction of
EVAPORATION OF KEROSENE DROPLETS AT ELEVATED T, P
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evaporation constant as the pressure increases for the temperature
higher than 700C.
CONCLUSION
The focus of this work was on the study of the evaporation of kerosene
droplets to provide some useful data for high pressure conditions and
various ambient temperatures. The results are summarized as follows:
1) In spite of the multicomponent nature of kerosene, its evaporation
follows the d2-law after an initial heating up period.
2) The evaporation rate of kerosene droplet increases monotonically
with increase in ambient temperaure.
3) At higher ambient gas temperatures, when ambient pressure
increases, the evaporation rate increases and then decreases. It shows
a maximum around 2.0 MPa. At low ambient temperatures, the evaporation rate increases with environmental pressure monotonically.
4) At the highest ambient gas temperature in this study, a cloud of condensed fuel vapor is observed around the droplet due to high evaporation rate. This would hinder the efficient evaporation of the droplet.
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