THE NEW RELIGIONS
OF JAPAN
By H. Neill McFarland
Professor of Perkins School of
Theology, Southern Methodist
University, Dallas, Texas
(Reprinted by permission of the author)
— Continued from the September issue
originated in the days of the social
General Characteristics
quakes that accompanied the de­
of the New Religions
cline of the Tokugawa Shogunate
In the complete absence of a
and the beginning of the Meiji
really intensive scholarly analysis
Restoration in the mid-nineteenth
of the New Religions of Japan，all
ccntury or emerged from the chaos
generalizations
of World War II，these sects are
concerning
them
must be regarded as tentative.
It
prime examples of the manner in
is with this admission that I set
which religion may be employed,
forth here my own generalizations,
when crisis has laid bare the ele­
which for the most part are derived
mental needs of man，to intensify
impressionistically
contacts
the eesential emotions in his life
with the sects which have just
and thus to restore apparent sta­
been described. As I have reflected
bility.
upon
crisis has been endemic in Japan.
these
from
experiences,
it
has
For over a century social
seemed to me that, as a generic
The
group, the New Religions reflect
have varied in detail, but the crisis
two broadly general characteristics
itself, in a large measure, has been
vvithin which individual sects mani­
unrelieved, particularly as it has
fest certain variations.
affected the depressed classes in
1. Functionally the New Religions
are crisis religions.
Whether they
causes and
manifestations
that land. It is from the people of
such classes—naive and unsophisti­
— 57 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
cated as they are—that the New
tion
Religions draw the majority of their
numerical size.
devotees.
To them they promise,
(2)
to
their
They promise material well­
being.
either explicitly or implicitly, some
or all of four boons by which social
more appropriate
Prosperity for all of their devo­
crisis may be, or may seem to be， tees, or at least a sufficiency of
essential goods，seems to be a
alleviated.
(1) They promise physical health.
general goal of the New Religions.
A
Their concern with economic in­
large number of the New
Religions practice “ faith healing，
’， security may lead them on occasion
and apparently most of the others
to sociological analyses and reme­
also are, in some sense, guarantors
dies,
of
Not uncom­
attempt to convince the harrassed
physical
health.
but
characteristically
they
monly the teaching is propounded
individual that his greatest need
that illness is illusory，a factor
is for the rectification of his own
which often suggests comparisons
mind and heart.
between some one
another
vited to take the way of religious
Japanese sect and Christian Science.
faith and ritual performance as the
While there is no indication that
means by which he may remove
bizarre healing practices are dimi­
from his
nishing, it is perhaps very signifi­
hinders him in his quest for pro­
cant that some of the most suc­
sperity.
or
cessful sects associated with ‘‘faith
healing” (notably Tenri-kyo and
Rissho-kosei-kai) have established
own
Hence, he is in­
life
that
which
(3) They promise peace of mind.
Many
of
the
New
Religions
advocate the adoption of certain
modern hospitals staffed with re­
formulae and other techniques for
putable medical doctors who usually
overcoming worry or fear or for
are not devotees of the sponsoring
relieving interpersonal tensions. It
sect.
Apparently such a policy is
is an impressive fact that the de­
motivated in part by a desire to
votees of these sects seem almost
overcome unfavorable publicity and
invariably to be joyful and optimis­
to achieve a degree of sophistica­
tic and in most cases, excepting
— 58 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
the occasional
fanatics,
to
live
elements of diverse origin, some
harmoniously within their social
native and some imported. Indeed,
groups.
That their religion may
the admixture of religions is one
be an artificial or superficial utran-
of the signal features of Japanese
quilizer” of sorts must be acknow­
cultural history. Second, most of
ledged, but its apparent benefits
the New Religions receive their
are, nevertheless, considerable.
distinctive character from historic
(4) They offer a sense of com­
munity identification.
founders, but in the elaboration of
key ideas the founders, or their
Social solidarity traditionally has
successors, are likely to draw quite
been a part of the Japanese ideal,
generously
but in its realization the masses
sources. Particularly in their effort
of the people sometimes have been
to achieve doctrinal sophistication,
reduced to the position of func­
the leaders oi many of the sects
from
widely
varied
tioning parts in a great machine.
have utilized some of the doctrines
The New Religions, through policies
of Buddhism and Christianity.
of friendliness and sympathy，have
is somewhat ironical that these
helped their believers to become
two great universal religions, now
aware of themselves as persons
seemingly
working in
concert
persons toward
with
the
It
unable on their own
other
terms to challenge the Japanese
accomplish­
people, unwittingly have become
ment of desirable and seemingly
the
attainable goals.
spoken in the name of gods other
2.
source
of
‘‘ saving ” words
Dodrinally the New Religions than their own.
are syncretistic. This fact is mani­
Analysis by Analogy
fested in two forms. First in most
instances the great mass of Japa­
The more I consider the New
nese folk religion provides the basic
Religions of Japan the more I am
materials from which these various
persuaded that a comprehension of
sects have been compounded. This
this phenomenon is essential to any
is a source which in itself repre­
profound understanding of the total
sents the
complex of contemporary Japanese
coalescence
of many
— 59 —
THE NEW RELICIONS OF JAPAN
life and culture. Therefore, I have
wherever
been moved to inquire whether
covered,
they
there might be available to me
remarkably
some additional method of analysis
development in wmch at least five
by which I could push on to a
factors are recurrent: ( 1 ) social
degree of understanding relatively
crisis intensified by an intrusive
more advanced than that which is
culture, (2) a charismatic leader,
reflected in the recording of my
(3) apocalyptic signs and wonders,
there
ecstatic
have been
dis­
is discernible
standard
pattern
behavior,
and
a
of
impressions. It has occurred to me
(4)
that some increase in understaning
syncretic doctrine. The milieu from
(5)
might be afforded by relating the
which they arise, described in the
New Religions to certain functional
words of anthropologist Margaret
analogues for which more adequate
Mead, is the “ ferment of half­
data are available.
Analogically, the New Religions
abandoned old and half-understood
new.”13
invite comparison with the “ mes­
It is quite clear that these primi­
sianic ” cults of primitive societies,
tive “ messianic ” cults are to be
such as the ‘‘Ghost-Dance Religion”
understood
of the American Indians and the
various in-groups to certain overt
“ Cargo Cults ” of New Guinea.
threats
as the
to their
reactions
traditional
of
ex­
These cults
are examples of a istence at times when radical
socio-religious phenomenon which， transition has already begun. In
for over a half century, has been
such a situation the integrity of a
reasonably well understood by an­
group thus threatened is doomed
thropologists.^ Among such cults， ii it chooses either to retreat into
12 The literature on the subject includes the following : Paul Bailey, Wovoka,
the Indian Messiah, (Los Angeles : Westernlore Press, 1957) ; Alexander F.
Chamberlain, t?New Religions/' Journal o f Religious Psychology, V I (1913),
1—49 ; Margaret Mead，New Lives for Old (New York : Morrow & Co.,
1956) ; James Mooney，The Ghost Dance Religion ，14th Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology for 1892—93 (Washingt9n : Government Printing
Office, 1896).
13 Margaret Mead, New Lives for Old (New York : Morrow & Co” 1956)，pp.
214 — 15 .
— 60 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
the old or to dash precipitately
“primitives” ; it is rather to invoke
into the new. Its only defense lies
a familiar principle of anthropology
in a paradoxical commitment to
that the careful analysis of a re­
reaffirm the old and at the same
current phenomenon in relatively
time to reform it, to repudiate the
homogeneous
new and simultaneously to adopt
primitive societies may reveal cer­
and
circumscribed
it. Such a paradox cannot possibly
tain principles of social behavior
be directly converted into polity,
that are equally prevalent, though
but it can be resolved in a religious
less readily discernible, in more
experience and thus become the
sophisticated cultures.
means of reaffirming an impression
of
in-group solidarity
and
Japanese Reaction to the
the
New Religions
motivation for developing new pat­
While the New Religions have
terns of group behavior.
It appears that in general these
attracted millions of followers from
same conditions figure importantly
among the Japanese masses, with
in the rise of the New Religions
the possible exception of Seicho-no-
in Japan and that, in the two in­
Ie
stances,
devotees among the intelligentsia,
the
functional roles of
these sects are analogous.
If we
they
have
not
won
many
nor have they sparked any con­
had available to us more complete
siderable
data, perhaps by spelling out the
among students on the university
spiritual
awakenings
character of this parallelism in still
campuses. Indeed, although some
more precise detail, we should be
of the best minds in Japan are still
enabled to see more clearly the
dedicated to struggling with religi­
generic relationship of the New
ous issues, the trend of interest
Religions and to understand more
among
adequately their significance as a
away from religious concerns. Even
cumulative
move­
so, the phenomenal growth of the
ment in modern Japan. To propose
New Religions, particularly within
such a thesis, however, is not to
the last decade, has not failed to
suggest
attract attention within the ranks
socio-religious
that
the Japanese
are
— 61—
intellectuals is definitely
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
of the intelligentsia.
The various
from the data which I had collected,
types of reaction from this quarter
I turned to one of my close friends,
are quite instructive concerning
a lay Buddhist scholar and author
certain details of the
of a book criticizing the New Re­
confronting
modern
quandary
Japan.
In
ligions,14 and asked him to set
general, reaction is critical
and
down for me an outline of his
hostile, but its harshness usually
reactions to these cults. His state­
is tempered somewhat by sympathy
ments tend to corroborate my im­
for the frustrated and by a feeling
pression.
First he belabored the
perhaps of nostalgia for “the days
New Religions severely for their
when Japan had a soul.’，
bold eclecticism, for the unprinci­
1. Reaction of Religious Leaders.
pled opportunism of their leaders
In conversing with various head
who prey upon the ignorant and
priests and educators representing
suffering, and for their fanatical
the old
and misleading exaggerations of
traditional
religions
of
Japan, I gained the impression that
the benefits
as a group they 】
ook upon the New
However, he turned next to ex­
of their
religions.
Religions as perversions of true
amine the conditions which had
religion perpetrated by greedy im­
fostered the rise of the New Re­
postors. Still, it seemed also that
ligions and proceeded to list thirty-
the presence of the New Religions
two points detailing the failure of
had so engendered within
these
Buddhism to minister to the Japa­
leaders a sense of their own need
nese people in this period of their
for repentance that they were in­
greatest
clined to look upon the intrusive
deplores the rise of the New Re­
sects with a certain
social crisis.
While he
degree of
ligions, he recognizes that the state
Since this impres­
of the traditional religions is per­
sion proved difficult to document
missive of their rise. Said he : “The
magnanimity.
H Inagaki Saizo. Principal of Seitoku Gakuin，a high school of the Jodo Shin
sect of Buddhism in Kobe. Since then I have found further corroboration
from another source : Ariga Tetsutaro, ”The So-Called ‘Newly-Arisen Sects’
in Japan，
” Occational Bulletin, Volume V ，Number 4，March 29，1954 (New
York: Missionary Research Library).
— 62 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
old religions have given room for
the prevailing sophisticated judg­
the activities of the New Religions.
ment regarding the New Religions.
......It is lamentable that almost all
It seems likely that the order in
the sects of Buddhism have lost
which these are set forth here
their power and their truth.” The
represents
masses just will have the solace
sequence in the intellectual’s ap­
of religion，and if the old forms
praisal of these sects.
no longer are productive, new forms
a
fairly
common
( 1 ) The New Religions are amus­
will arise to fill the breach.
ing, Almost anyone, no matter
2. Judgment of the Secular-minded what his origin or experience, can
become the prophet of a god and
Intelligentsia.
Because of the traditionally close
amass a group of followers with
relationship between the Buddhist
relative ease.
and Shinto religions and family
ridiculously superficial and illogical,
and
many
and oftentimes they are made to
community
loyalty,
The teachings are
participate
appear even more ludicrous by the
formally and occasionally in the
nature of the problems to which
rites of one or both of these re­
they are directed.15 One college
ligions. However, for the most part,
professor writes : ‘‘I even burst out
Japanese intellectuals
such participation cannot be con­
laughing sometimes when I am
strued as evidence of real personal
faith. The intelligentsia of Japan
reading the doctrines of some New
Religions.，
’w
is rather thoroughly, if uneasily,
(2) The New Religions are un­
secularized. The nature of
that
savory and dangerous. Many Japa­
secularization, as well as the un­
nese
easiness with which it is sported,
Religions to be not only laughably
is manifested in various aspects of
ridiculous but also disquietingly so.
intellectuals find the New
16 For example, Taniguchi, the founder of Seicho-nole，begins one of his books
(Divine Education and Spritual Training o f M ankind) with a series of case
histories relating how parents’ acceptance of his teaching had resulted in
curing their children of the habit of bed-wetting.
16 Naramoto Tatsuya, ''Birth of Gods” (Kamigami no Tanjo), Asahi Shimbun ，
October 16，1955. Translated by Miss Chieko Miyazaki.
— 63 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
Rather generally they are repulsed
patients will be glad being restored
and alarmed by much that they
their health, but we must know
see and hear.
For example, the
how many innocent people hurry
following reaction, recently pub­
to the grave untimely because of
lished, appears to be a fairly typical
their not consulting the doctors.”18
In another instance, a foreign re­
one ;
I once glanced at a propaganda
pamphlet issued by one of these new
religions, and found myself more
struck by something nasty in the
general tone than by any merits or
demerits in the actual ideas it pro­
pounded. The religions of the past
which are worthy of the name some­
how give an impression of clean­
liness, but about certain of the new
religions there clings an odour that
is distinctly unsavoury.17
Such feelings of disgust are in­
sident of Japan wrote to the editor
of The English Mainichi citing the
studies of a prominent Japanese
psychiatrist to allege that there is
an ‘‘ increasing wave of insanity
produced by the present popular
religions
attracting
followers
through raith healing and promises
of material success.”19
(3)
Still, the New Religions are
tensified still further by the re­
timely, while the old religions have
cognition
failed.
that
the
activities of
Since antiquity one of the
many of these sects are a cover-
marks of erudition in the Far East
up for extortion and quackery of
often has been a recognition of the
many sorts.
social function of religion,
Weak and ignorant
Man
people regularly are the pray of
has
the greedy; the ill and confused
seeking help in religion. This is a
frequently are brought to a still
fact which may be deplored but
greater harm.
an
incurable
penchant
for
Thus, a Buddhist
which must be faced, and the pos­
scholar, in awkward but expressive
sibility should always be considered
English，voiced his concern in this
that even naive and gross forms
statement:
of religion may be utilized to pro-
“ Of
course,
some
17 Masumune Hakucho, Thoughts on the New Religions/" Japan Quarterly ，
IV (1957)，66.
18 Inagaki Saizo in a personal note to the author.
19 Litsanidi，The English Mainichi, May 23，1957.
— 64 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
duce socially useful results. Thus,
testified that “after deep considera­
many of the intellectuals in Japan， tion you will have a feeling more
conscious of the broad base of naive
friendly toward the New Religions
piety in their land, know that in
than toward the so-called ‘existing
this period of social crisis the in­
religions•’ ”21 Certainly, he admit­
tegrative ministry of religion is
ted, they are simple and naive, but
needed. The people require i t ; the
they are dynamic.
old religions are static and unre­
scious of the problems and suf­
sponsive ; the way is open for the
ferings of people and are directed
They are con­
New Religions. This may be ac­
toward their alleviation.
knowledged somewhat resignedly,
more, he asks, “Which is it that
as in the following statement.
Religions，
even religions as powerful
the existing religions or the New
as Christianity once was, may wane;
yet human beings still need some
source of spiritual strength. These
are troubled times, and it is perhaps
inevitable that if the old religions
have lost their authority man should
be ready, if only his spiritual weak­
ness is played on，to entrust himself
body and soul to something such as
these new religions. It may be very
right and proper, from a practical
social point of view, to eradicate the
harmful effects on men’s minds of
these new religions, but come what
may，the pious soul doubtless will
still cling to his beliefs.20
Further­
has a stronger prayer for peace，
Religions ?” Perhaps it would be
generally acknowledged among the
intelligentsia
that the New Re­
ligions have the right concerns,
even though their motivations and
techniques may be questionable.
(4)
Time will tell which of the
New Religions are opiates and which
“true” religions. There is some dis­
position in Japan to say that the
new concept of freedom of religion
is too broad when it is permissive
On the other hand, this situation
of such a development as the rise
is faced more hopefully by certain
of the New Religions. However，it
•others. For example, the man who
is my impression that the preva­
laughed at the doctrines, as being
lent mood tends toward a laissez-
superficial
faire attitude, which holds that.
and
indiscreet,
later
20 Masamune, op. cit.，
pp. 67—68.
-1 Naramoto, op. cit.
— 65 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
while most of the New Religions
significance of these sects. In con­
are ill-conceived, they ought to be
clusion, therefore, I shall attempt
left alone; for each one will pro­
to anticipate three such queries and
gress only as far as it deserves to
supply tentative answers to them.
1. How lasting are the New Re­
go. This apparently was the view
of a noted Japanese historian when
ligions likely to be?
he said to me，“The New Religions
There is about most of the New
must speak to ignorant people at
Religions an apparent shallowness
first. As they mature they may
and transitoriness. It is very likely
become more profound. If they do
that the careers of most of the
not, others will arise to take their
individual sects will parallel that
place.”22 Furthermore, if certain
ones of the New Religions do sur­
of the seed which fell in the shal­
low ground.
Having germinated
vive indefinitely, they may bring
and sprung up rapidly, they will
contributions of lasting value to
just as quickly fade away.
Japanese society.
ever, given the broad base of naive
‘‘ Who knows，
”
How­
says another learned man，“ this
piety that exists in Japan and a
age of science may yet produce a
further prolonged period of social
new Christ or a new Buddha who
crisis,
will weave a new world of illusion
continue to rise and flourish. They
in a truly disinterested attempt to
are to be considered primarily as
save the masses of mankind.”23
the by-products of the efforts of a
such sects as these will
disturbed society to achieve integ­
Conclusion
rity and stability.
Even so, some
It might fairly be supposed that
among these sects may even now
this survey of the New Religions
be acquiring sufficient depth to be­
of Japan would give rise to several
come permanent factors in the
questions concerning the eventual
religious life of Japan; indeed, some
— iNakcimura Naokatsu, retired Professor of History， Kyoto University. The
comment was recorded by the author in a personal interview on June 14，
1957.
23 Masumune, op. cit” p. 69.
一
66 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
few of them may be playing a
tion within the structure of the
much more complex and portentous
classical
role than I have hitherto indicated.
However, to follow this tack is to
The questions which follow will
beg
point this up further.
may be more instructive to focus
the
religions
themselves.
question somewhat.
It
2.
Are the New Religions in any this inquiry solely upon the ex­
way related to the current general ceptional movements which began
resurgence of traditional religions
as subsects of some branch of Bud­
throughout much of Asia ?
dhism. The history of the popula­
This is a difficult matter to as­
sess.
rization
of Buddhism
in
Japan
On the surface it would
suggests that, if there is to be a
appear that the New Religions are
revival of Buddhism, it may result
alternatives to the traditional re­
from such movements as these.
gions. Buddhism has been stagnant
In a sense, the history of Bud­
for several generations and suffered
dhism in Japan is the story of a
severe financial losses at the end
splintering-off
of the war through the confiscation
the most significant divisions have
of timber and farm land which had
occurred at those times when Bud­
belonged to
dhism was decadent and some great
the
large
temples.
process, in which
Shrine Shinto, because of its as­
charismatic
sociation with militarism, was dis­
to propound a radically new inter­
credited and restricted after the
pretation of the Buddhist message
personality
appeared
war, and has only recently re­
and its relevance to the human
covered its earlier popularity. Per­
situation. The men in whom these
haps it could be argued that, to
movements centered became the
the extent that they have caught
revivers, subsequently the saints,
up and further popularized certain
of Japanese Buddhism, even though
elements of Buddhism and Shinto,
their doctrines
the
resemblance to those of original
New
Religions
represent a
often bear little
resurgence of Japanese traditional
Buddhism. The movements them­
religion, even though, with only a
selves, the “ New Religions ” of
few exceptions, they do not func­
their day, became the dominant
— 67 —
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
bodies of Buddhism in that land.
worldly and opiate religions is like­
While
the current New
ly to be drastically diminished in
Religions there does not appear to
the new Japan. Third, it must be
be any leader of the stature of
a tolerant religion, capable of utiliz­
among
Shinran or Nichiren, for example,
ing
it is well to note that, in the past,
from seemingly diverse traditions.
creatively
various elements
the revival of Buddhism has been
If this is an accurate reading of
accomplished in this wise, and it
the omens, then there are certain
might happen again.
implications to be considered by
3.
What do the New Religions those who have an interest in the
portend for the future of religion in
cause of specific religions in the
Japan ?
future of Japan. These were sum­
There are too many variable,
marized so forcefully for me by a
even unknown, factors in the re­
Japanese
ligious situation in Japan for one
going to conclude by presenting,
to make a detailed prognostication
without commentary or endorse­
concerning what will happen. How­
ment, a digest of his statement.
historian,24 that I am
ever, it seems certain that any
He said, in effect, Buddhism cannot
religion which would enlist a large
speak to the new Japanese society ;
following in that land must give
Christianity does not speak to it.
an important place to certain em­
Japan needs a new religion which
phases current among the New
combines the good points of Bud­
Religions. First, it must emphasize
dhism, Shinto,
Christianity,
and
the possibilities of human nature.
Chinese ethical
teaching.
This
believe
must be, not a mere collection, but
that the Divine, however conceived,
a new religion coming through the
The
Japanese
generally
is ancestor to human nature, not
old ones.
another order of being. Second, it
bably will come more from Chris­
must undertake
to
This new religion pro­
resolve the
tianity than from Buddhism, but
ethical and social problems of this
it must be something other than
present world. The place for other­
present Christianity.
24 Nakamura Naokatsu in an interview on June 14，1957.
When Bud-
THE NEW RELIGIONS OF JAPAN
dhism came to Japan, it considered
see and accept the Japanese as
itself to be superior to the Japa­
their equals.
nese religions and, because of the
sionary who takes his stand on the
backward condition
The Western mis­
of Japanese
same level with the Japanese can
culture at that time, it could suc­
help to create a new religion in
ceed on that assumption. Now the
Japan based mainly on Christianity
situation has changed. The foreign
rather than Buddhism.
proponents of Christianity
must
— Concluded —