Review c~/ Palaeobotany and Palynology, 63 (1990): 233-257
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam
233
Printed in The Netherlands
Early and middle Holocene vegetational development in
Kurarp (Scania, South Sweden)
Else Kolstrup
Mosevej 12, Blans, DK-6400 Sonderborg (Denmark)
(Received October 24, 1989; revised and accepted January 23, 1990)
ABSTRACT
Kolstrup, E., 1990. Early and middle Holocene vegetational development in Kurarp (Scania, South Sweden). Rev. Palaeobot.
Palynol., 63:233 257.
A 9 m core from Kurarp, northwest of Ystad, is investigated palynologically. It covers the early and middle part of the
Holocene and has high resolution for the Atlantic and Early Subboreal allowing a detailed investigation of" the vegetational
development for that period. During the early Holocene the various trees of the mixed deciduous forest immigrated and during
the Early Atlantic there was forest around the lake at Kurarp. During the Late Atlantic and Early Subboreal there are changes
in the pollen values of various trees together with the occurrence of various herbs and it is suggested that there was a gradually
increasing stress on the forest, induced, at least partly, by people's use of the area. Some aspects of mutual relationships between
human activity and vegetational development are outlined. Based on theoretical considerations possible reasons for subtle
vegetational changes are put forward and brief discussions are given on early cultivation of cereals in Europe, fodder for
domestic animals and the cause of the elm decline.
Introduction
Work on the project "The human landscape
during the last 6000 years", in short also called
"The Ystad project", has been going on at the
University of Lund between 1982 and 1988. The
project, headed by Bjorn B. Berglund, aims to
collect and integrate data from various scientific
disciplines, including palaeobotany and archaeology, in order to attempt a coherent reconstruction
of changes in society and landscape in southern
Sweden during the last 6000 years. Unraveling of
these changes also implies an analysis and discussion of the possible reasons for the inferred
changes in the individual localities as well as in
general (Berglund, 1983; Berglund and Stjernquist,
19813.
The period under investigation thus includes the
time of early farming and husbandry which is still
being debated in northwestern Europe. In southern
Sweden G6ransson (1983, 1988) in particular, has
0034-6667/90/$03.50
~(~ 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
recently contributed new, interesting ideas. Much
of the discussion has focused on the presence of the
earliest finds of cereal pollen and indicators of
possible cultivation, but also other human activities may have made their imprints on the vegetation although they could be expected to be less
clearly expressed in the palynological records.
In order to approach some of the palynologically more subtly expressed changes in the past
vegetation, a core with a high degree of resolution
is needed from a deposit with a minimum of
inwashed (rebedded?) pollen. Both local and
regional vegetation should be represented. This
might, for example, be the case in a relatively highlying site with a small catchment area.
In this paper a palynological record from
Kurarp Mosse on Romele~sen is presented. The
record covers the Late Atlantic and Early Subboreal and has a high degree of resolution for these
periods. The possible vegetational development in
the Kurarp area is outlined, followed by a more
234
E. KOLSTRUP
general outline on some topics of relevance for the
debate about the time around the elm decline in
northwestern Europe.
Geographical setting
The Ystad area is subdivided into three areas
according to their distance from the Baltic coast:
the coastal area is to the south, then follows the
outer hill area and the inner hill area forms the
northern part (Fig.2 in Berglund, 1985). The
southeastern top of RomeleAsen extends into the
northwestern part of the Ystad area.
RomeleAsen is the most southern horst in
Sweden. Its northwestern part is located ca. 10 km
east of Lund and from there it extends southeastward to approximately 10 km N W of Ystad
(Fig. 1). Most of the horst is at an altitude of about
100 m or slightly more and it is thus a marked
feature within the surrounding, relatively low-lying
landscape.
Kurarps Mosse is located 17 km N W of Ystad in
a shallow depression on RomeleAsen at an altitude
of ca. 100 metres above sea level. The depression is
approximately 7000 m 2. Today the area is drained
and is overgrown with a mosaic of different
vegetation types (Nilsson and Pr6jts, 1986), in
which shrubs are dominant in the southern part
where the locality discussed here was found.
Methods
A series of borings was made at intervals
through the bog in a west-east direction, and the
sediment was described in the field according to the
system of Troels-Smith (1955). The stratigraphic
N
COPENHAGE~
s ~, ,!5~,,
YSTA
0
5
Fig.l, Outline of southwestern Sweden and Sealand. The Kurarp locality is indicated on the insert map.
1Okra
235
H O L O C E N E V E G E T A T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T IN K U R A R P
0
l
w
\
[
\
pE.
,'0
[]
ROOTS,ROOTlETS
,10
Fig.2. Profile through Kurarp bog. The arrow indicates the location of the core for the diagram.
outline is shown in Fig.2. T h e site at 75 m was
chosen for the p r e s e n t s t u d y b e c a u s e it c o n t a i n s the
thickest o r g a n i c layer. S a m p l e s were collected with
a modified L i v i n g s t o n e c o r e r with a d i a m e t e r o f
10 cm. Since each core was two metres long, two
o v e r l a p p i n g series were m a d e next to each o t h e r
a n d were later i n t e g r a t e d into a " c o n t i n u o u s " 9
metres d e e p record.
In the l a b o r a t o r y the core was d e s c r i b e d a n d
s a m p l e s t a k e n for further investigations.
A t intervals, 10 cm 3 samples were t a k e n the d a y
following the c o r i n g for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r
c o n t e n t a n d d r y weight (dried d u r i n g the night at
105°C), loss on ignition by igniting at 550°C for
three h o u r s a n d further loss on ignition at 925°C
for a n o t h e r three h o u r s (Fig.3).
S a m p l e s o f l c m 3 were collected for pollen
analysis a n d selected levels were s a m p l e d for
radiocarbon-dating.
Before p r e p a r a t i o n o f the pollen samples, 7 o r 10
Lycopodium tablets, each with a m e a n c o n t e n t o f
12,100 Lycopodium clavatum spores, were a d d e d to
each s a m p l e to p e r m i t e s t i m a t i o n o f the pollen
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( S t o c k m a r r , 1971). T h e s a m p l e s
were treated with HCI, K O H , E r d t m a n acetolysis
followed by Z n B r / s e p a r a t i o n at a specific gravity
o f 2.0. F i n a l l y the s a m p l e s were w a s h e d in K O H
a n d stained with basin fuchsin. G l y c e r i n e was used
as e m b e d d i n g m e d i u m . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1000 pollen
o f terrestic s p e r m a t o p h y t e s (cf. Berglund a n d
R a l s k a - J a s i e w i e z o w a , 1986) were c o u n t e d in each
sample.
Sediments
T h e sediments in the core are f r o m t o p to
b o t t o m a c c o r d i n g to the system o f T r o e l s - S m i t h
(1955):
0.00-0.10m Th 3 4 Tll+, Nig. 4, Strf. 0, Elas 2-3, Sicc. 2,
fibrous, Lim. 0.
0.10-0.24 m Th z-3 4 T12+, Nig. 4, Strf. 0, Elas. 2-3, Sicc. 2.
fibrous, Lim. 0.
0.24-0.50 m T 1-2 Phragmites3 Ld ~TI ~+, Nig. 3, Strf. 0, Elas.
2, Sicc. 2, fibrous to slightly felted. Lim. 0.
0.50-0.70m T 1 2 Phragmites 1 Ld ° 3 Tll+, Nig. 2, Strf. 0,
Elas. 2 3, Sicc. 2, fibrous, Lim. 0.
0.70-0.83 m Ld ° 4 Dg+ +, Nig. 2, Strf. 0, Elas. 3, Sicc. 2,
homogeneous, Lim. 1.
236
E. KOLSTRUP
8.10-8.31 m
~-
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Ld ° 4 A g + A s + + , Nig. 3, StrL 0, Elas. 3, Sicc
2, homogeneous, Lim. 0.
8.31-8.57 m Ld ° 3 As 1 A g + , Nig. 2 3, Slrf. 0, Elas. 2 3,
Sicc. 2, homogenous, Lira. 0.
8.57 8.81
Ld ° 3 A s 1 A g + + G g + , N i g . 2 3, Strf. 0, Elas.
2-3, Sicc. 2, homogenous, Lim. 0.
8.81 9.03 m Ld ° 3 As 1 A g + , Nig. 3, Strf. 1, Elas. 2-3, Sicc. 2,
homogenous, Lim. 0.
9.03-9.12 m Ld 2 As 1 Ag 1 part. test. + , Nig. 2-3, Strf. 0-1,
Elas. 2 3, Sicc. 2, homogenous, Lira. 0 1.
Radiocarbon datings
<
<
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500
.
.
.
.
Io00%
o
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'
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'
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Fig.3. Water content, loss on ignition at 550°C and 9 2 5 C and
the 9 2 5 C remains expressed in percent of dry weight.
0.83-1.03 m
Ld ° 4 D g + + , Nig. 2 3, Strf. 0, Elas. 3, Sicc. 2,
homogeneous, Lim. I.
1.03-1.19 m Like 0.70-0.83 m.
1.19 1.46m Like 0.83-1.03 m.
1 . 4 6 - 1 . 7 0 m Ld ° 4 D g + , Nig. 3, Strf. 0, Elas. 3, Sicc. 2,
homogeneous, Lim. 0.
1.70-7.60 m Ld I 4, Nig. 3, Strf. 0, Elas. 3, Sicc. 2, homogeneous, Lim. 0.
7.60-8. l0 m Ld ° 4 A g + , Nig. 3, Strf. 0, Elas. 3, Sicc. 2,
homogeneous, Lira. 0.
A series of samples for radiocarbon dating were
collected at various levels. Since the sediment is
gyttja which is often contaminated by old carbon
and may therefore give deviating ages (Olsson,
1986) two test samples were selected. The lower of
these was from between 3.45 and 3.48 m: Lu2587A: 5780_+70 B.P., the upper originates from
between 0.96 and 0.99 m: Lu-2620:3140_+50 B.P.
The elm decline is dated to 5150 B.P. in Ager6ds
Mosse in central SkSne (Nilsson, 1964) and since
the decline is supposed to be synchronous over a
large area the datings were transferred to the Ystad
area by means of palynological correlations (Gaillard, 1984). The sample at 3.45 3.48m was
expected to be some decades or maybe a few
hundred years older than the elm decline, instead
of the radiocarbon date of 5780 yr B.P. Contamination of the sample therefore seems likely.
The sample at 0.96 0.99 m is from the upper
part of the gyttja at a level close to the palynological transition from Early to Late Subboreal which
is dated to 3600 B.P. elsewhere within the area. In
this case the sample provided a younger age than
expected and possibly fine roots from younger
vegetation have been included in the sample. It
seems as if reliable dates are difficult to obtain from
the K u r a r p core. It was thus decided not to
attempt further datings from the site but rather to
rely on palynological correlations with cores from
other parts of the Ystad area, keeping in mind that
this way of dating can easily lead to circle
arguments and potentially erroneous conclusions.
Pollen diagrams
In Figs.4 and 5 pollen percentage and pollen
concentration diagrams respectively are given.
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KU R ARP
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15
H O L O C E N E V E G E T A T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T IN K U R A R P
Between 1.6 m and 4.65 m there is 5 cm between
consecutive analysed samples. The lower part of
the diagram was investigated at 20 cm intervals
and the upper part with 10 cm intervals. The pollen
in the samples at 0.1 and 0.5 m was very corroded
and in the sample at 0.2 m it was too damaged for
counting.
The diagrams are made with the P O L L D A TA.MK5 program (Birks and Huntley, 1978) with
modifications by T. Persson, Lund.
Pollen percentage diagram
The main diagram is arranged into a number of
groups, A, B . . . . G included in the sum. These
groups follow an unpublished proposal by Gaillard, G6ransson and Berglund: A-trees, B-shrubs,
C - d w a r f shrubs, D-forest herbs and ferns, E
herbs and graminids of open land, F mire plants
and wet meadow plants and G indifferent. Group
E is subdivided into El-apophytes, E2-possible
anthropochors and E3-anthropochors. The various
pollen types are given separately in the resolved
diagram followed by the pollen sum and the number
of taxa. In the right hand part of the diagram other
Pteridophytes, Limno- and Telmatophytes and
other microscopical components are shown.
Nilsson's study of Agerods Mosse (1964) serves
as a standard for zonation in the Ystad area. In
addition, Nilsson (1935), Berglund (1966), Gaillard
(1984), G6ransson (1986) and Hfikansson and
Kolstrup (1987) have also been consulted for the
present work.
Since the zonation of the diagram is primarily
based on the tree pollen curves, only these will be
used in this part. The other curves of the diagram
are used in the interpretation and discussions.
8.90 m
In the spectrum at 8.90m there are high
percentages of Betula. Populus and Pinus are fairly
well represented whereas pollen deriving from
other trees is very scarce. This composition
suggests a late Preboreal (PB) age. Between 8.90 m
and 8.70 m there is a decrease of Betula and Pinus
and a very marked increase in Corylus. Accordingly the transition between Preboreal and Boreal
is placed here.
247
8.70-8.30 m
This part of the diagram is characterised by a
Corylus maximum. The percentages of Populus
decrease upward, whereas Ulmus, Quercus and
Alnus are present. Between 8.30 m and 8.10 m the
Alnus values increase from ca. 5% to ca. 20% and
Tilia pollen increases from 0.1% to ca. 4%. Ulmus
is fairly well represented already at 8.5 m. Traditionally the transition between the Early and Late
Boreal is placed at a marked AInus increase and the
transition from Late Boreal to Early Atlantic is
placed at a rise in Tilia. As the two criteria are
found at the same level and Ulmus is rather early in
the Kurarp diagram it is possible that there is a
hiatus somewhere between 8.3 and 8.1 m or,
alternatively, that the resolution of the diagram
does not allow a distinction between the Early and
the Late Boreal. It is therefore not possible to
subdivide the Boreal in the Kurarp diagram.
8.10-5.70 m
From 8.10 m upward the pollen composition
represents forest which, apart from Cor~'lus, Betula
and Pinus, also contained Ulmus, Quercus, Tilia
and Hedera. As it is the case in the lower part of
the diagram also this part contains rblatively few
herbs and ferns. Between 5.50m and 5.70m
Fraxinus has become abundant. Consequently the
transition between Early and Late Atlantic
(AT1/AT2) is placed here.
5.50-3.25 m
In this part of the diagram there is continued
representation of the tree types found in AT1.
Fraxinus is more abundant and Prunus type, Acer,
Taxus and Picea are additional to the list of minor
tree pollen types. From 3.60 m to 3.25 m there is a
gradual decrease of Ulmus followed by a slight
decrease between 3.25 m and 3.20 m. It is chosen to
let this represent the transition between Late
Atlantic and Early Subboreal.
3.20-0.60 m
Low percentages of Uhnus and Fraxinus are
found together with a maximum of Betula between
ca. 3.15 m and ca. 2.35 m. Also Tilia has a minimum here although less pronounced than that of
Ulmus and Fraxinus. The accessory tree pollen
248
components from the previous zone continue into
this zone where Fagus and Carpinus form discontinuous curves in the lower half and continuous
curves in the upper half.
In southern Sweden the transition from Early to
Late Subboreal is placed where the Fagus pollen
curve increases to more than 1% (based upon a
tree pollen sum without Corylus). In Kurarp the
Fagus curve reaches 1% at 0.90 m (based on a
different sum) but at a higher level it remains
around 0.3%. Also Carpinus is used as a marker
for this transition with almost the same criteria as
Fagus. Also this curve reaches 1% around the level
at 1 m but above 0.90 m the percentage decreases
to remain lower during the upper part of the
diagram.
Accordingly the transition from Early to Late
Subboreal is not clearly reflected in the Kurarp
diagram. It can be argued that it is present
somewhere between 1.2 m and 1.0 m but it can
equally well be suggested that the transition
SB1/SB2 is lacking.
0.50-0.00 m
The pollen from the upper 50 cm of the sediment
was damaged to various degrees and in the sample
at 0.20m the material was not suitable for
counting. In this part there are high Poaceae
values, most trees have low percentages and the
pollen of Fagus and Carpinus are as scarce as at
deeper levels. This composition does not readily fit
into a standard for the Ystad area and since there
is probably a gap in the sediment column around
0.6 m no attempt is made to present tentative
correlation for this part.
Pollen concentration diagram
Concentration values of a number of pollen
types are indicated in Fig.5.
The curve of the total pollen sum shows that a
high concentration of 840 000 pollen (p)/cm 3 is
found in the lowest sample, the highest concentration (1 480000 p/cm 3) is found at 8.3m and,
generally speaking, from that level the values
decrease upward with some fluctuations.
The high concentration in the Preboreal is
primarily made up of Betula pollen and possibly
E.
KOLSTRUP
the non-pollen sedimentation rate was very low in
this part. Also in the Boreal the concentration
values are high and there is only about 75 cm of
sediment covering the period, so, even if there
might be a gap in the record the accumulation of
non-pollen material may have been relatively slow.
Several metres of material were deposited during
the Atlantic and the Early Subboreal, giving a high
resolution for that part of the diagram. In Fig.6 a
tentative chronology is indicated against sediment
thickness. The chronology is based on Nilsson's
(1964) investigation according to which the Atlantic lasted from 7900 to 5100 14-C years, i.e., 2800
years and the Early Subboreal lasted until 3600
years B.P., i.e., 1500 years. From the tentative
chronological interpretation of Fig.6. it seems as if
there were no major changes in the sedimentation
rate throughout Atlantic time. In Fig.6 two
alternatives are suggested for the Early Subboreal
according to the interpretation of the transition
SB1/SB2. One line suggests that the transition is
present in the diagram, the other that the diagram
includes the late part of the Early Subboreal
without the transition SB1/SB2.
The content of Betula and Pinus pollen is
gradually decreasing upward through the Atlantic
but even in the late part of that period their values
remain fairly high: During the early part of the
Subboreal there is a pronounced maximum of
Betula. Tilia and Ulmus both reach their highest
values in the lower half of the Atlantic. In the last
half of that period the trend of these curves
oscillates somewhat and small maxima and minima
spanning single samples only, are found, in
particular between 4.55m and 4.15m. Also the
values of Fraxinus and Quercus rapidly fluctuate
here.
If a very general trend is outlined for this part
one could propose that there are feebly expressed,
parallel minima in the curves of l)lmus, Fraxinus
and Tilia between 4.15 m and 3.40 m. Among the
less frequent tree pollen types it may be noted that
Populus is fairly well represented from 4.7m
upwards.
In the lower part of the Subboreal there are
clearly distinguishable, parallel minima of Ulmus,
Fraxinus and to a lesser extent, also of Tilia
between 3.35 m and 2.15 m.
249
HOLOCENE VEGETATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN K U R A R P
\
\
• SB I f
e~AT 2 / SB 1
\
\
\
eBO/AT
4
5
6
7 xlOOOy
lap
I
8
Fig.6. Tentative time/depth curve for the Kurarp core.
Between 1.5 m and 0.75 m there are relatively
low amounts of pollen in the samples. It is not
known whether this is caused by increased nonpollen sedimentation rates, decreased pollen
influx or decreasing compaction of the sediment.
In the upper 0.7 m, which consists of peat, it was
difficult to obtain reliable volumetric samples and
this may be part of the explanation for the
fluctuations in concentration values. But added to
this there is a gap in the sedimentation record and
a somewhat damaged pollen content in the
samples, making this part of the diagram of little
general use, except for telling that there must have
been a relatively high abundance of grasses some
time between the Early Subboreal and the
present.
250
Vegetation history
Since the Kurarp locality is found on top of the
Romelegts horst, specific environmental conditions
could be expected to be reflected in the pollen
diagram. Its altitude would imply that the site was
more windblown than the surrounding lower lying
areas. Yet, possible differences in the former air
temperatures are probably not clearly different
from that deduced from the pollen records in the
surroundings but the hydrological conditions and
the changes hereof might, due to the limited,
isolated catchment area reflect rapid changes in the
local water balance.
Due to the relatively small size of the lake and
the limited catchment area in this isolated high
lying area, the pollen in the record is thought to
reflect the local vegetation around the lake (cf.
Tauber, 1977) with an additional component of
air-borne pollen from the surrounding south
Swedish landscape.
In the following the outline of the vegetational
development (and the human impact on the
environment through time) is deduced from pollen
percentages, pollen concentration values and sedimentation data as well as from inferred datings of
the changes.
Preboreal and Boreal
Through Preboreal and Boreal time the initial
forest vegetation of Pinus, Betula, Populus, Salix
and some Juniperus gradually became partly
replaced by Alnus and Quercus and in particular by
Corylus and Ulmus. The concentration diagram
suggests that Populus remained more abundant
than the percentage diagram indicates during most
of the Boreal and in places an open canopy may
have existed.
From the presence of Nymphaea, Potamogeton,
Sparganium and various algae, it is concluded that
open water was present and furthermore there may
have been a zone of swampy ground around the
lake as suggested by the presence of pollen of
Cladium and possibly also Filipendula and Cyperaceae.
The sediment in this lower part contains clay
and sand and there was consequently some
E. KOLSTRUP
inwashing of material into the lake and maybe
some sand was also wind-blown. The presence of
Nymphaea and Cladium together with the low
residue values resulting from ignition at 925°C
points to basic, lime-rich conditions in and
immediately around the lake.
Early Atlantic
During the Early Atlantic Alnus, Corylus, Betula, Pinus, Tilia, Ulmus, Populus and Quercus
grew round the lake. From the concentration
diagram it may be suggested that the vegetational
development was a little more dynamic than the
precentage diagram indicates. Many curves show
maxima and minima which are not contemporaneous for the various pollen types and which are
therefore thought to reflect changes in pollen
deposition rather than changes in the rate of nonpollen sedimentation. Considering the concentration values together with the pollen production of
the above mentioned trees (cf. e.g., Andersen,
1970) it may be suggested that the wind resistant
Ulmus was abundant from an early time and
remained important for some time during the
Early Atlantic.
Some herbs and shrubs are represented. Most
frequent are Poaceae and Cyperaceae but also
Rubus type, Salix, cf. Myrica, Urtica, Artemisia
and Filipendula are found throughout. The presence of these plants, together with the continued
presence and fair representation of Betula, Populus
and Pinus, point to a vegetation within which there
were still open patches allowing light-demanding
species to grow and flower. In the lake the presence
of Myriophyllum spicatum and M. verticillatum,
Nymphaea, Potamogeton and Sparganium types as
well as Ceratophyllum point to open, neutral to
basic water rich in nutrients. At times Typha
latifolia and Cladium grew around the lake.
Late Atlantic
Apart from an increasing frequency of Fraxinus,
little happens to the composition of the forest and
its mutual abundance of trees at the transition
from Early to Late Atlantic. Around the transition
there are relatively few herb species and water
HOLOCENE VEGETATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KURARP
plants but the values here are not markedly
different from those before or immediately
following.
From the percentage diagram it seems as if tree
growth was rather constant throughout the Late
Atlantic. The concentration diagram suggests that
this was only partly the case. Between 4.15 m and
4.65 m there are changes in the pollen concentrations of most tree types, most markedly of Alnus,
Ulmus, Fraxinus, Quercus and Corylus. The peaks
are not always at the same levels for the various
genera, some maxima/minima span one sample
and others two, and similar shifts are not matched
in the pollen concentrations of the herbs. This,
together with the fact that the fluctuations are only
found in part of the diagram, suggests that the
changes are probably not due to some error made
during the laboratory work. But for those reasons
and the fact that there is no change in sediment
composition to indicate increased wash-out from
the catchment area, it is unlikely that the changes
could be explained as a result of reworking of
bottom sediment or the surrounding soils during
that time either.
If sedimentation rates were constant during the
Late Atlantic, the deposition of the half metre
between 4.65 m and 4.15 m would have lasted for a
little less than 250 yr, and it may be deduced that
each maximum/minimum would represent a mean
length of time in the order of up to 80 years. This
means that the changes cannot be interpreted in
terms of good and bad flowering years for the
various tree types either.
If the changes were a result of hydrological
changes it would be expected that species with
similar moisture demands would react simultaneously. There are some moisture-demanding plants
that have maxima and minima at the same levels
but the picture is not consistent and it does not
show an indisputable correspondence to the water
plants and algae in the lake. There is, however, the
first presence, or reappearance after some time, of
Myriophyllum verticillatum, Nuphar, Sparganium
emersum t./Typha angustifolia and Ceratophyllum
and increased representation of Sparganium emersum type from 4.65 m upwards.
The conditions in the lake do not seem to have
been less basic than before and there is algal
251
growth suggesting a fair content of nutrients, as
also suggested by the presence of Ceratophyllum.
The presence of Nuphar could point to increased
water depth at times and its three levels of presence
partly coincide with maxima of Alnus, Fraxinus,
Ulmus and Quercus but only partly so and much is
open to interpretation for this part. Furthermore
the first pollen representation, or re-representation
after a long period without representation, or
increased representation, also occurs for various
other pollen and spore types around or shortly
after the level at 4.65 m: cf. Prunus type, cf. Taxus,
Crataegus type, Mercurialis, Gymnocarpium,
Sedum, Rumex types, Chenopodiaceae, Mentha
type, Filipendula, Galium type, Urtica and Populus,
types that include taxa which are regarded as light
demanding and some of which may be connected
to, or at least may benefit from, human activity (cf.
Behre, 1981).
It cannot therefore, be excluded that this part of
the pollen diagram represents some early link
between human influence on the surroundings of
the Kurarp lake and the hydrology of that area.
Yet, it can not be concluded whether the hydrological changes may have resulted from human
activity or were independent hereof.
Between 4.15m and 3.30m there are fairly
constant values of Pinus, Ulmus and Tilia yet with
gentle, feeble minima, spanning this whole interval,
of the two latter types. In the same part Fraxinus,
Corylus and Alnus have minima in their concentration values with somewhat fluctuating curves
superposed on the minima. The curve of Quercus is
fluctuating but around a rather constant value.
Apart from various pollen and spore types that
were also found in the underlying part of the
diagram a few others occur: Chamaenerion/Epilobium, Polypodium vulgare, Rhinanthus type and in
one sample Plantago lanceolata, P. major~media
and Mentha type. Also Juncaceae pollen is found
around this level. Representation of lso¢tes, cf.
Lemna, Trapa natans and Alisma is found together
with pollen of a number of water plants previously
present.
The presence of Iso~tes and the lack of Ceratophyllum might give a hint toward conditions that
were somewhat poorer in nutrients than previously, but some other types that are still present
252
suggest that if such a change took place it was
probably not pronounced. And in the sediment the
content of lime is slightly higher between 3.95 m
and 3.35 m.
Early Subboreal
Between ca. 3.30 m and ca. 2.20 m Til&, Ulmus
and Fraxinus have very smooth minima, best seen
in the concentration diagram. A comparison of
this part with the part between 4.15 m and 3.30 m
to a certain extent shows an accentuated repetition
of the minimum value trends in the concentration
values of those curves. Quercus has a minimum
with some fluctuations between 3.20 m and 1.80 m.
In the same part of the diagram Betula and Alnus
have maxima. Where the values of Tilia, Ulmus,
Fraxinus and Quercus are lowest there are maxima
of Poaceae, Plantago lanceolata, Artemisia, Populus and Urtica. A few centimetres above the elm
decline a pollen grain of the Triticum type is
recorded and at higher levels other cereal type
pollen is found. Various algae have very high
values in this part.
In the concentration curves the trends of the
minima representing plants growing on land are so
gradual that it is tempting to interpret them as a
result of continued stress upon the plants. The algal
growth might suggest that the hydrological conditions could partly be the explanation for this, but
since the water plants do not show significant
changes it is difficult to substantiate this assumption.
Information from other parts of Scania on changes
of lake-water levels are contradictory for this time
(compare Krageholmsj6n: Gaillard, 1984, Bj/irsj6holmsj6n: Nilsson, 1961) and, generally speaking,
trees that have parallel representation trends in
Kurarp do not have similar hydrological demands.
Therefore the influence of people and their domestic
animals is regarded as a more likely explanation.
The presence of herbs including anthropochors
and other light-demanding species suggests that
the forest was relatively open around the lake
during the time of lowest pollen values of Tilia,
Ulmus, Quercus and Fraxinus. The forest gradually
became closed again after some time, or alternatively became transformed into a coppiced forest
(cf. G6ransson, 1988).
e KOLSTRUP
The changes in the composition of forest trees
are thus taken as an indication that the trees in the
forest were probably used to various extends for a
multitude of purposes, feeding of animals being
one.
The curve of the total pollen concentration
values does not show a minimum here. The reason
could be that Alnus and Betula, which may now
have flowered in more open forest and at forest
edges, produced high amounts of pollen and thus
make up for the decrease of other types so that,
even if the number of trees may have decreased, the
total pollen production did not.
Between 2.20 m and 0.70 m the pollen percentage
diagram points to a number of fluctuations with
regular intervals in the curve of Ulmus but the concentration diagram is less clear on this, first because
the maxima are less marked and second, because
there are also oscillations in the concentration
values of other tree curves. The number and amount
of herbs including anthropochors are not higher at
any level in this part compared to the section
between 3.30 m and 2.20 m and no systematic recurrent changes can be detected for these elements.
Water plants are better represented than before.
Myriophyllum spicatum, Nuphar, Nymphaea, Potamogeton are present and there is Trapa natans.
Also the pollen of Oenanthe fistulosa type and
Typha latifolia has increased representation, as has
the spines of Ceratophyllum. This vegetation
suggests a nutrient-rich environment.
Possibly the water depth decreased during a
gradual overgrowth of the lake. This might be
related to changes in the precipitation/evaporation
balance during that time, resulting in shifts of the
pollen representation of various trees, but the
presence of people may have been the main cause
of the changes.
Sedimentation in the lake ceased during the late
part of the Early Subboreal or at the transition
from that period to the Late Subboreal.
Some aspects of environmental developments
around the time of the elm-decline in Kurarp and
northwestern Europe
About a decade ago it was generally accepted
that around 5150 B.P. a change took place in the
H O L O C E N E V E G E T A T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T IN K U R A R P
way of living of prehistoric people throughout
Europe. In the pollen records the change was
recognized as the so-called elm decline which has
been taken as an indication of the first agriculture
(cf. e.g., Iversen, 1941).
During later years palaeobotanical studies have
provided an increasing amount of data supporting
the idea of a pre-elm decline opening up of the
forest as expressed by the presence of cereal type
pollen, various "weeds" and charcoal particles.
Furthermore there are fluctuations in some tree
pollen curves which might suggest some stress on
those trees.
From the pollen data representing the time from
the middle of Late Atlantic until the middle of
Early Subboreal in Kurarp a three-phase development of changes in the concentration values is
suggested. It starts with a series of "short term"
but marked shifts in the pollen values of Alnus,
Ulmus, Fraxinus and Quercus among others,
followed by a phase with feebly expressed longterm minima in the pollen values of, for example,
Ulmus and Tilia. This step is, in turn, succeeded by
a level with more clearly expressed minima of the
same curves as well as single others. Throughout
this part of the diagram there is some representation of light-demanding species. It may be noted
that the consecutive distance between samples in
this part is smaller than below and above, and it is
likely that closer samples may add more pollen and
spore types to the list. But it does seem as if there is
a real increase in the number of genera and besides,
some of those represented are encountered for the
first time, or they re-occur after a long period
without representation. The first types to appear
such as Mercurialis, Sedum, Rumex types, Chenopodiaceae and Polygonum may have arrived as a
result of changes in the environment, changes that
can not easily be explained from the pollen data as
representing natural phenomena, but they might
nevertheless be just that. No cereal type pollen is
found in this part, but that does not mean that
cereals were unknown to people in southern
Sweden at that time (see, e.g., the discussion in
G6ransson, 1988).
The first occurrence of Plantago lanceolata and
P. major~media before the elm decline in Kurarp is
worth noting. Much discussion has been put
253
forward in recent years in order to elucidate the
significance of these types in the context of early
use of the landscape for husbandry and agriculture
(Behre, 1981; Berglund et al., 1986; Groenman-van
Waateringe, 1986). It is suggested here that the
contemporaneous first occurrence of the two
Plantago types in the Kurarp diagram taken
together with the presence of other herbs around
the same level, very strongly points to grazing
and/or trampling and/or clearing of woods in the
vicinity of the Kurarp lake. Also, the trends of the
concentration curves of Ulmus, Tilia and Fraxinus
between 4.15 m and 3.35 m may be taken as a hint
that these trees were used during the Late Atlantic,
possibly in a manner rather similar to that in the
Early Subboreal, only the stress on the trees may
have been gentler during the first phase.
In the deposits from the Early Subboreal cereal
type pollen is found and there is no doubt about
the presence of crop cultivation at that time near
Kurarp. The trends of the tree pollen curves might
point to a rather extensive use of some trees. It is
known that there was coppice wood in southern
Sweden in Early Subboreal time (G6ransson,
1988).
After a new maximum in the pollen concentration values (around 2 m depth), there is a continued presence of cereal type pollen as well as of
pollen of "weeds" indicating that people continued
to use the area until (and maybe also after) the
lake was overgrown at the end of the Early
Subboreal.
There are, however, some uncertainties in relation to the tree pollen curves in the upper part. The
regular changes which were found in some tree
pollen frequencies at deeper levels have gone and
instead the development seems rather random. One
might wonder whether this reflects a change in the
composition of the animal stock and/or if it could
be taken as an indication for a change in the style
of farming.
When discussing the impact prehistoric people
may have had on the vegetation, the influences
resulting from domesticated animals and crop
cultivation are very often implied. But one may
wonder in how far people's daily activities could
have influenced an open forest like the one around
the lake in Kurarp. Wood was needed for fire and
254
shelter as well as for various tools and regular
collection of food, hunting and fishing could have
resulted in local stress on the environment creating
good living conditions for certain herbs (cf. e.g.,
Robinson, 1983).
It seems as if the first crop cultivation that is
generally accepted to have occurred is that of
wheat and barley but one may consider the
possibility that other species, local, or "imported"
from within reasonable distance, were grown, or
maybe merely protected at their natural growing
sites, as forerunners for truly foreign species. If a
new method, idea or crop has success it is likely
that people are ready for it.
Earl)' cultivation of cereals in Central and
Northern Europe
The number of pollen analytically demonstrated
pre-elm decline presence of cereals and "weeds" is
rapidly increasing. From the Bodensee-area in
Switzerland R6sch (1987, table 1) suggests that the
first presence of Triticum dicoccum, T. monococcum
and cattle may have been as early as the late middle
Atlantic, i.e., before 6000 B.P. An additional hint,
albeit without cereal finds is found in a diagram
from Tourbi~re du Lauza (Wegm/iller, 1977) at the
transition between Firbas' zones VI and VII, i.e.,
around 6000 B.P. Early cereal finds are also
reported in the German literature. From a locality
east of G6ttingen (Beug, 1986) there is convincing
evidence of an agricultural phase during Firbas'
zones VI and the early part of VII, more precisely
probably ranging between 6400 and 5900 B.P.
(Beug, 1986). Belgium (Beyens, 1984) also has
records and summaries of British and Irish findings
are given by Groenman-van Waateringe (1983)
and Edwards and Hirons (1984); and new evidence
keeps coming (e.g., Molloy and O'Connell, 1987;
Robinson and Dickson, 1988).
From closer quarters there are investigations
from southern Sweden (Nilsson, 1961; G6ransson,
1983, 1988; Hjelmroos, 1985) showing presence of
cereal type pollen including Triticum in deposits of
Late Atlantic age together with various herbs. In
Denmark similar occurrences are found (Stockmarr, 1966; Kolstrup, 1987, 1988)and Stockmarr's
series from Amosen is radiocarbon dated so the
E KOLSTRUP
Triticum finds there can be chronologically placed
to around 5350 B.P.
Fodder for domesticated animals
A general outline of finds of bones of domestic
animals from the continental part of northwest
Europe is given by Jennbert (1984) who concluded
that domestic animals were present within that area
in Late Atlantic time and thus before the elm decline.
Apart from Stockmarr's datings from Amosen
(1966) there are only few radiocarbon dates of preelm decline indications for domesticated animals
and agriculture in northern Europe, but it seems as
if it was fairly widespread already around 5300
B.P., i.e., a couple of hundred of years before the
date of 5150 B.P. which is generally agreed to date
the elm decline. Jennbert's (1984) survey further
suggests that the transition to husbandry happened
gradually rather than suddenly.
The theory that elm was the main tree for fodder
with a supplementary diet of Tilia and Fraxinus
(Troels-Smith, 1960) is queried by Rasmussen
(1988) who, in an investigation of leave fragments
and twigs from manure near Weier in Switzerland,
demonstrates a different composition of the tree
types included in the diet: Fraxinus and Quercus
constitute by far the dominant remains followed by
pieces of Corylus, Salix, Tilia and single fragments
of Alnus. No twigs of Ulmus were recorded and
Rasmussen concludes that this result is contradictory to Troels-Smith's elm fodder hypothesis based
on pollen records from the same area. Rising elm
pollen values during anthropogenic influence in the
G6ttingen area in Germany lead Beug (1986)
conclude that the use of elm leaves as fodder for
cattle was not practiced in that area.
Groenman-van Waateringe (1986) has drawn
attention to another aspect of food for cattle and
sheep, namely the possible need for a certain
amount of grass in the diet of these animals in
order to fulfill their demand for nutrients. That
investigation, however, primarily shows the importance of grass in relation to Ericaceae. It has
not been possible to find investigations on the
relationship between grass/hay on the one hand
and leaves and twigs of various trees on the other
for sheep, cattle, goat and swine.
HOLOCENE VEGETATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KURARP
The cause of the elm decline
In northwestern Europe there is increasing
evidence that an important factor in the elm
decline could be the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi
carried primarily by elm bark beetles (e.g., the
discussion in Groenman-van Waateringe, 1988, see
also Girling and Greig, 1985; Stockmarr, 1966 and
Perry and Moore, 1987 on finds of Scolytus
species). This would explain the sudden decrease of
the elm pollen percentages over a large area (e.g.,
Birks, 1986). It may be pointed out that the elm
decline is rather sudden in some pollen diagrams
and more gradual in others and sometimes there
are small pre-elm decline minima in the percentages of elm. In some sites changes in non-pollen
sedimentation or a hiatus may be (part of) the
explanation, but there may be other reasons.
An investigation by Aas and Moe (1986) shows
that healthy elms may survive even repeated
attacks of elm disease. Alternatively, if the trees are
weakened for some reason, for example because
their branches were cut, they are less resistant to
attacks of disease (Girling and Greig, 1985). As a
consequence, it may be suggested that at some
sites, where people already used elm for fodder, the
elm disease would strike rather violently whereas in
others, the consequences might come more gradually and it can not be excluded that the elm decline
might even have been delayed in some sites
(compare the findings on recent elms by Moe,
1985). Aas and Moe's (1986) investigations show
that repeated attacks may have occurred within the
last hundred years in Norway. Maybe the situation
around the time of the elm decline was of a similar
nature, so that the fatal phase of the attacks
followed "upon the heels" of leaf cutting and
pollarding of elms over a period of time.
Not only use of elms by people but also
environmental factors, such as, for example, lack
or surplus of moisture might weaken the tree and
thus make it more prone to attack. Until more
evidence is available it is therefore reasonable to
suggest that a complex of factors interacted to
cause the elm decline but that the disease may have
caused the final decline.
In line with these thoughts it could be suggested,
as a possible explanation for the gradual elm
255
decline in Kurarp, that most elms there were
comparatively healthy and therefore relatively
resistant to an attack of elm disease. This may have
resulted in a gradual decline following utilisation
of new trees. Alternatively, it could be proposed
that the gradual decrease between 3.60 m and
3.25 m was caused solely by people using twigs and
leaves and that the small jump between 3.25 m and
3.20 m was caused by an attack of the elm disease,
whereafter people continued to use the elms as
before.
Questions and prospects
In order to evaluate the results from Kurarp
from the pre-elm decline period within a broader
context, various information that is not yet
available would have been a great help. It is not
known how long the transitional period lasted
between the time from the first cereal and
domesticated animal arrived and the time when a
more fully established stock was present, i.e.,
whether it was in the order of tens or hundreds of
years. Neither is the route of immigration known,
i.e., whether domestic animals and crops come
from the south, west or east. The elucidation of
these questions could be of importance when
comparing findings from Western Europe with
southern Sweden because the developments in two
different areas may have followed different lines
dependent on their geographic locations. Further,
it is not known how closely the holding of domestic
animals was related to crop cultivation, i.e.,
whether the two came together or developed
independently, spread and mingled during different
periods in different regions. A crucial question may
turn out to be in how far human activity without
animals and crop cultivation influenced the surrounding vegetation.
Acknowledgements
I want to express my deepest gratitude to B.E.
Berglund who invited me to join the Ystad-Project
and who was always most supportive during the
work on the cores. The never failing encouragement and support from M.-J. Gaillard is recognized with deep gratitude. I also want to express
256
my gratitude to the staff members of the Department of Quaternary Geology for their kindness
and help in various ways, in particular T. Persson
for his help with the computer and the work on the
ignition of the samples, K. Price for the administrative work, B.E. Berglund, M. Thelaeus, J.
Regnell and G. Almassy for help with the borings
and S. Hfikansson for the 14-C dates. B.E.
Berglund, H. G6ransson and W. Punt (Utrecht)
read a previous version of the manuscript critically
and gave useful suggestions to it. H.J.B. Birks
(Bergen), who was one of the reviewers of this
paper, also kindly corrected the English text. The
investigation was financed by the Bank of Sweden
Tercentenary Foundation through the Department
of Quaternary Geology at the University of Lund.
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