Norbert K. Semmer
Universität Bern
Recognition and Respect
(or lack thereof)
as predictors of
occupational health and well-being"
WHO
Geneva
February 14, 2007
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
A positive self-evaluation
and
a positive evaluation by others
Constitute basic needs (e.g. Epstein, 1998)
Self-esteem can be regarded as an indicator of
well-being - people with low self-esteem tend to
be depressive;
Social isolation and lack of social support are
associated with
• higher morbidity (Visweswaran et al., 1999)
and
• lower life expectancy (e.g. House, 2001)
Epstein, S. (1998). Cognitive-experiential self-theory. In D.F. Barone, M. Hersen, & V. B. van Hasselt (Eds.), Advanced personality (pp. 211-238). New York: Plenum Press.
Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 314-334.
House, J.S. (2001). Social isolation kills, but how and why? Psychosomatic Medicine 63,273–274.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
We go to great pains to defend their
personal esteem and social self-esteem
E.g.,
a benevolent evaluation of ourselves
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Self-evaluation
Question: How good is your performance?
(in comparison to other people doing similar work)
I am among the
Poorest
20%
20%
Middle
Range
20%
Best
20%
20%
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Selbsteinschätzung
Question: How good is your performance?
about 80% say:
I am among the
Poorest
20%
20%
Middle
Range
20%
Best
20%
20%
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
„How important was your contribution to
the group‘s performance?“
Negative
feedback
Positive
feedback
6
7.73
Staw, B.E. (1975). Attribution of the ‚causes‘ of performance: A general alternative interpretation of crosssectional research in organizations. Orgaizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 414-432.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
We go to great pains to defend our personal and
social self-esteem...
e.g. Distancing ourselves from others
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Differences in earnings between groups
Which system does the Toolroom group
chose?
Toolroom
(„we“)
Production
(„the others “)
Difference
£69
£68
£67
£70
£68
£66
-1
0
+1
After Brown, R. (2000). Group processes. Dynamics within and between groups (2nd ed.). Oxford. Blackwell
Publishers (Table 8.2, p. 316, simplified
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
We go to great pains to defend our personal and
social self-esteem...
e.g., dealing with negative feedback
People who get good scores in intelligence
tests regard such tests as more valid than
people with lower values
People who assume their performance was
not very good tend to seek less feedback
(although feedback would be especially valuable for
poor performers...)
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Justice / Fairness
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Justice
Distributive Justice
• Do I get what I deserve?
Procedural Justice
• Are the rules / procedures fair?
• Are they applied in impartial way?
Interactional Justice
• Can I present my views?
• Am I listened to?
• Are my concerns taken serious?
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Fairness in Organisations
Two plants of of the same company
Similar conditions
Wages cut by 15% for 10 weeks
Two conditions:
a) Simple announcement
b) Extended, sensitive explanation
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Fairness in Organisations:
Quitting during pay cut period
30%
23%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
Greenberg, J. (1993). The social
side of fairness: Interpersonal and
informational classes of organizational justice. In R. Cropanzano
(Ed.), Justice in the workplace.
Approaching fairness in human
resource management (pp. 79-103.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2%
0%
Extended explanation
Simple announcement
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Fairness in Organisations:
Cutting wages and petty theft
9
Simple announcement
8
7
6
Extended explanation
5
4
3
2
vor Lohnkürzung
before
währendduring
Lohnkürzung
nach Lohnkürzung
after
Greenberg, J. (1990) Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden costs of pay cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 5, 561-568
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Human Ressources Policy
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Human Ressources-Policy and performance
5.4
5.22
5.3
5.2
5.1
5
4.88
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
UnderInvestment
Mutual
Investment
Tsui, A.S., Pearce, J.L., Porter, L.W., & Tripoli, A.M. (1997) Alternative approaches to the employee-organization
relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1089-1121.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Human Resources-Policy and absenteeism
2.5
2.05
2
1.07
1.5
1
0.5
0
UnderInvestment
Mutual
Investment
Tsui, A.S., Pearce, J.L., Porter, L.W., & Tripoli, A.M. (1997) Alternative approaches to the employee-organization
relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1089-1121.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Satisfaction with leadership-climate
and voluntary quitting
Turnover
after one year
50
46.2 %
40
30
26.2 %
20
10
17.7 %
10.0 %
++
+
-
Satisfaction with leadership climate
Semmer, N., Baillod, J., Stadler, R. & Gail, K. (1996). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten:
Eine follow-up Studie Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 40, 190-199
--
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Incentives for performance
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Pay by performance vs. Supervisors’ behavior:
Effects on performance (Meta-analysis)
Production
Pay by performance:
Service
Pay by performance:
39%
14%
Performance feedback Praise, Recognition:
41%
Nach Stajkovic, A.D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior
modification on task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 1122-1149.
15%
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Stress, Well-being, and Health
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Stress as Offense to Self
(SOS)
Stress through
INsufficiency (SIN)
Stress As
Disrespect (SAD)
Failure / wrongdoing
„Ilegitimate“
behavior: unfair,
disrespectful
Semmer, N.K., McGrath, J.E., & Beehr, T.A. (2005). Conceptual issues in research on stress and health. In C.L. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Health (2nd ed., pp. 1-43). New York: CRC Press.
Semmer, N.K., & Jacobshagen, N. (2006). Illegitimate tasks assignments as a source of stress. Manuscript under revision, University of Bern, Switzerland.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Stress-Symptoms
Indicators of health / well-being
Blood pressure
Cardiovascular disease
Irritation
Resentments
Job satisfaction
Exhaustion
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... social stressors should be especially important
because they typically involve (the perception of)
•
•
•
a lack of fairness,
a lack of respect
open or indirect attacks, ridicule, derogation
This is supported by research:
•
•
•
Social stressors have consistent effects on well-being and
health
Bullying / mobbing as an extreme form of social stressors
has dramatic consequences
Social stressors have a special potential to carry over
from work to private life and to preoccupy people
(„rumination“)
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Social stressors and SBP-Recovery
Multilevel-analysis; 240 BP-readings, evening, 40 men
Stress As Disrespect (SAD)
SBP mmHg
122
120
119.6
119.1
118.2
118
116
113.6
114
112
110
Work Day
Day Off
high
Work Day
Social Stressors
Day Off
low
Grebner, S., Elfering, A., & Semmer, N. K. (2006, March). Social stressors at work predict well-being and health beyond negative affectivity,
social support, and job content. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on Occupational Stress and Health, Miami, Florida.
controlled for
task-related stressors (observer rating),
job control, age, bmi, nicotine, alcohol,
caffeine, number of critical life events,
stressful events at work and at home,
and wave
Interaction social stressors
x day: p < .05
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... the well-established positive effects of social
support
should be due to the communication of
esteem, appreciation, and care („emotional
support“)
even if the type of support provided is
instrumental (i.e. tangible help / information)
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Social Support: Behavior vs. Effect
„What was done“
„What was helpful“
Esteem /
Emotional
Inform. /
Instrum.
Total
Esteem/
Emotional
16
1
17
Inform. /
Instrum.
24
17
41
Total
40
18
58
Semmer, N.K., Elfering, A., Jacobshagen, N., Perrot, T., Beehr, T.A., & Boos, N. (2006). The emotional meaning of instrumental social support. Manuscript under review.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Stressors, social support by the supervisor,
and psychosomatic complaints
Percentage
of employees
with high
psychosomatic
complaints*
Str+
StrStrStr+
Support low
*upper third
Support high
Frese, M. & Semmer, N. (1991). Streßfolgen in Abhängigkeit von Modera-torvariablen: Der Einfluß von Kontrolle und sozialer Unterstützung (Stress-symptoms as depending on
moderator variables: The influence of control and social support). In S. Greif, E. Bamberg & N. Semmer (Hrsg.), Psychischer Streß am Ar-eitplatz (S. 135-153). Göttingen:
Hogrefe.
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... Unfair transactions in the sense of not being
properly rewarded for one‘s input should be
especially important
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Effort-Reward Balance
Demands
Obligations
Recognition, Support,
Salary, Job prospects,
Job security
Motivation
„(Over-) Engagement“
Rewards
Effort
Fair Balance
Siegrist, J. (2002). Effort-reward imbalance at work and health. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.),
Research in occupational stress and well being, vol. 2 (pp. 261-291). Amsterdam: JAI.
http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri/theorie.htm#keypublications1
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Effort-Reward Imbalance
Recognition, Support,
Salary, Job prospects,
Job security
Demands
Obligations
Motivation
„(Over-) Engagement“
Rewards
Effort
Imbalance
Imbalance: Higher risk for impaired health and well-being
e.g., Cardiovascular disease: 2 to 6 times higher risk
Siegrist, J. (2002). Effort-reward imbalance at work and health. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Research in
occupational stress and well being, vol. 2 (pp. 261-291). Amsterdam: JAI.
http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/MedicalSociology/eri/theorie.htm#keypublications1
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... task assignments that are perceived as illegitimate
because the are perceived as
unnecessary
unreasonable
should be especially important
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
„Illegitimate Tasks “
Bern Illegitimate Task Scale (BITS)
Sample Items
never (1) to frequently (5)
Unnecessary Tasks
Do you have to carry out tasks where you keep wondering if
... they make sense?
... they would not have to be done (or could be done with
less effort), if things were organized differently?
Unreasonable Tasks
Do you have to carry out tasks of which you believe …
... they should be done by someone else?
... they put you into an awkward position?
9 Items, α = .79 - .90 in several studies
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Illegitimate tasks
and
Ressentments towards the organization
Percentage of managers with relatively high ressentiments
Illegitimate tasks:
Task appraised as
• unreasonable
• unnecessary
Ressentiments:
Indignation
Anger
Unfairness
Disappointment
Hurt
etc.
(upper third)
70%
60%
62%
50%
40%
30%
31%
20%
10%
0%
7%
Low
146 Senior Manager
Swiss Company
Intermediate
Illegitimate tasks
HigH
*
r = .48***
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... Stressful situation should have a stronger impact
when they are perceived as illegitimate
i.e. one blames others for having been exposed to
this situation
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Illegitimate stressors and
feelings of resentment
Resentments
felt in the
situation
4.5
4.1
4
3.5
3
2.6
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Low illegitimacy
Multilevel-analysis. Controlled for
„stressfulness“ of the situation, age,
sex, and a number of work-related
stressors and resources
High illegitimacy
Jacobshagen, N., Semmer, N.K. & Elfering, A. (2006). Legitimacy of stressors and well-being at work: A situational
analysis. Paper given at the 45. Congress of the German Psychological Society, Nuremberg, Sept. 17.-21.09.2006
N = 384 Stress-situations (daily hassles)
Low/high illegitimacy: +/- 1 SD
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... Social support that is not given in a way that
signals appreciation, understanding, and care
should be stressful rather than helpful
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
„Dysfunctional Social Support“
Items
How many people are in your work environment who do help you in a
difficult situation, but...
•
•
•
•
•
•
... combine this with reproaches
... support you reluctantly
... expect infinite thankfulness
... do not support in a way that is matter-of-factly
... do so with a reproachful tone or gaze
... indicate that you should have dealt with the problem
yourself
Predicts various stress-symptoms
Scale values: AM = 1.78; SD = .94; α = .93
Response from (1) very few to (7) very many
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Undermining of social support
by dysfunctional support
Dependent Variable: „Irritation“
Irritation
High
dysfunctional
support
3.34
2.94
2.89
Low
dysfunctional
support
-1 SD
2.14
+1 SD
Social support
Task-related and social stressors are controlled for
BetaInt = 0.98*
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
If recognition and respect are important
for health and well-being, then...
... Experiencing appreciation should increase job
satisfaction
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Stress As Disrespect (SAD)
Appreciation and Job Satisfaction:
Cumulative Effects
4 measurements between 1997 and 2002
7.0
Job Satisfaction
last year
(Mean)
4.64
4.53
4.5
423 young people entering
the work force
4.17
4.04
4.0
3.71
cf. Semmer, N.K., Tschan, F., Elfering, A.,
Kälin, W., & Grebner, S. (2005). Young
adults entering the workforce in Switzerland:
Working Conditions and Well-Being. In H.
Kriesi, P. Farago, M. Kohli, & M. ZarinNejadan (Eds.), Contemporary Switzerland:
Revisiting the special case (pp. 163-189).
Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
3.5
1.0
0 of 4
Controlling for
Job satisfaction t1,
Region, sex, occupation
1 of 4
2 of 4
3 of 4
4 of 4
No. of measurements with high appreciation (Median split)
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Conclusion
Respect and Recognition
are important
for the employee
for the organisation
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Consequences
Communicate appreciation and respect
through job design
through organizational policy
in daily interactions
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Appreciation and job design
Interesting and challenging tasks
Decision authority
Good ergonomic design, good
tools and machinery
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Appreciation and organizational policy
Fairness:
• Decisions,
• Procedures,
• Treatment
Information
Involvement of employees in decisions that
affect them
• «Voice» as element of interactional justice
Climate
• Support and trust
• Open communication
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Problems and Dilemmata
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Appreciation: Problems and dilemmata
It is not always useful to avoid a threat to
soneone‘s self-esteem
Protecting self-esteem sometimes has to be balanced against
other values
•
e.g., Self-esteem protection vs. Learning and development
•
•
using unambiguously negative feedback / exerting pressure in
order to stimulate learning
e.g. stopping people who cultivate their own self-esteem at the
costs of others
In such cases, a (temporary) threat to someone‘s self-esteem
may be necessary
•
•
Fine line
Has to be done as a result of careful deliberation
•
•
Not in order to protect one‘s own Ego
Not out of momentary emotional reactions
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Appreciation: Problems and dilemmata
It is not always possible to avoid a threat
to someone‘s self-esteem
Some people are extremely touchy
Some people clearly overestimate their own
competences
Some measures are a threat to Self for (almost)
everybody
(e.g. being laid off)
Fine line
Danger I: Avoiding necessary action (such as
negative feedback) in order not to hurt somebody
or to provoke conflict
Danger II: Attribute defensive Reactions
prematurely to the person (too touchy, too
grandiose self-image)
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Appreciation: Problems and dilemmata
It is not always possible nor useful to
avoid a threat to someone‘s self-esteem
Protecting people‘s self esteem is not
simply being nice and avoiding any conflict
or confrontation
Being tough is likely to be accepted if it
goes along with fairness and a basic
attitude of respect
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
Overall Conclusion
Appreciating people pays off
for the employees
for the organization
Informing managers and leaders about the
importance of appreciation
and
Training them in ways of communicating it
is an important aspect
of preventing stress and burnout
Psychology of Work and Organizations, N. K. Semmer
After all..
Stress is to a considerable degree
a matter
of Human Dignity
Thank you!