CHAPTER
V
METAPHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF GANDHI'S WORLD-VIEW - I11
THE ULTIMATE GOAL
The
upshot
considered
His
:
SELF-REALIZATION
of the preceding discussion shows
that
the human individual to be the manifestation of
concept
dual
with the Ultimate Reality i.e., Truth
1s apparently
immersed
in
God.
of self identifies a lower and a Higher Self.
Self which according to Gandhi is the Real Self
Higher
Gandhi
or avidya as it
is
is
the
called
there
soul
in
1
non-
or God. Yet
a gulf between man and God because
ignorance
The
i
I
is
Vedanta
philosophy ( 1 ) . Getting rid of this gulf and realization of
the
Ultimate Reality is the purpose and goal of life and Gandhi calls
this Self-realization, the Sunnnwn Bonum of life.
V. 0 . 1.
In
Self-realization, a comprehansive concept
the introduction
to his Autobiography Gandhi
writes
\
:
What
I want to achieve and what I have been striving
and pining to achieve these thirty years is selfrealization, to see God face to face to attain Moksha
(literally freedom from birth and death. The nearest
English equivalent is Salvation). I live and move and
have my being in pursuit of this goal. All that I do
by way of speaking and writing, and all my ventures in
the political field are directed to this same end ( 2 ) .
He further
i
1
says: "Man's ultimate alm is the realization of
God and all his activities, social, political, religious have
be guided by the
Gandhi
ultimate aim of the vision of God" ( 3 ) . Thus as
postulates self-realization as the ultimate goal of
towards which
indisputable
to
all
that
his
activities should
it is the central and
lead
it
man,
seminal point
life
of
world-view. Therefore, a brief discussion of his ideas of
is
his
self-
realization is called for here.
It
is necessary
to point out
at the outset
itself
Gandhi uses the terms self-realization. God-realization,
that
moksha,
salvation, liberation and freedom synonymously and alternatively
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I
.
As is well-known, in the choice and use of words. as in all other
matters relatlng to life, Gandhi was meticulous to the core.
it
is
So
clear that Gandhi used these words alternatively with
purpose.
The
word
salvation
is
more
religious
a
than
philosophical, the philosophical terminology being liberation or
freedom.
In the Western or Semitic context the
the word
salvation
is
theological.
All
connotation
these
nuances
of
are
incorporated in the Sanskrit term Moksha ( 4 ) .
Thus we can infer
with
to
a
fair
degree of accuracy that it was
comprehenslve and
complex
nature
of
the
the
highlight
concept
of
self-
all
great
realization that Gandhi used these words alternatively.
Self-realization or
salvation is the ideal
of
re1 igions
The
divinizing of the life of man in the individual
and the races is the dream of the great religions. It
is
the moksha of the Hindus, the nirvana of the
Buddhists, the Kingdom of Heaven of the Christians . .
. It is the realization of one's native form, the
restoration of one'e integrity of being ( 5 ) .
As
Gandhl's indebtedness to Hindu thought in
a short exposition of the Hindu
thls
respect
quite
obvious
idea
of
would
facilitate a better understanding of Gandhi's vision
is
moksha
of
self-realization.
V. 0. 2.
The Hindu view of mokeha
a) The
purusharthas
In Hindu
purusharthas
moksha.
supreme
:
the Hindu goals of life.
social philosophy human values
-
are classified into
Moksha is referred to as
hwnan value or goal.
dharma,
and
purushartha.
the
the highest ideal and
thus
it occupies a cardinal place in the scheme.
end
aspirationskama
the parama
It is
or
artha,
It is considered the
(intrinsic) value where as dhurmu. artha and kamu are means
(instrumental) values ( 6 ) . For the realization
value.
economic
of the
ultimate
the empirical values of artha which connotes the
and material necessities and activities of
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human
normal
life
and
kama which
instinctive
includes
desires,
all normal human desires ranging
sentiments and emotions to
yearning of the spirit for beauty have to
wlth
the
role
on
the
aesthetic
be properly
nourished
value of dharma playing a regulative
the
realization
exercise
of the other
from
two
and
means
restrictive
values.
The
of the ultimate requires .the instrumentality of
lower ones and thus
they are integrated
the
into a unified system.
b) The nature of self-realization : an overview
Although
there
is
near
unanimity
among
different
religions that the ideal of self-realization is the Summum
of
life, there are divergent views regarding the nature
ideal and the means to achieve it (7). Is it possible to
Bonum
of
the
achieve
self-realization in this life itself? Is it not an eschatological
idea1
which rests on mere speculation and dogma and.
unacceptable
on
investigation
of
present
philosophical
such
discussion, we
grounds
questions is beyond
7
As
the
will restrict ourselves
therefore.
a
detailed
scope
of
to
concise
a
the
statement of the general conception of moksha in Hindu thought
According to the Upanishads man is caught in the trammels of
mundane
of
existence
plurality
and
in which
he is beset with the
individuality ( 8 ) . But
from
consciousness
the
absolute
point of view,
Soul is identical with God. There is in us
something uncreated. aomething higher than all our
highest faculties, something untouched by sin
or
suffering. The real "I" is "That". But in actuality
upadhis
(natural
we
find
the soul subject to
limitations) which prevent it from realising
its
identity. All our sin and suffering are due to the
Therefore, our
false notlon of a separate self.
salvation consists in overcoming this separateness by
righteousness, by love and spiritual insight.
A man
has to go out of himself and feel the oneness of all
being in God. And this feeling should become not a
mere paselng emotion, but an abiding passion. Then the
scales fall from his eyes, the vision of God comes to
him and he realises the truth of the mahavakyas of the
sruti. Thls is his moksha or liberation. As it is an
eternal state, it is not something that is strictly
speaking, attained, but something that is only realized.
It is the awakening of the soul into the divine life
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and coming into its own. The Upanishad says : he who
knows the truly Supreme Brahman becomes Brahman ( 9 ) .
Dr. Radhakrishnan
elegantly
summarises
the
Hindu
position on mokshu thus:
Moksha is spiritual realization. The Hlndu Dhurma
says, man doesnot live by bread alone, nor by his
works, capital, ambition or power or relations to
external nature. He lives or must live by his life of
spirit. Moksha is self-emancipat'ion. the fulfilment of
the spirit in us in the heart of the eternal. This is
what
gives ultimate
satisfaction and all
other
activities are directed to the realization of this end
(10).
Concerning
the
self-realization
in
question of the
possibility
of
this life itself, it has been
achieving
pointed
out
that thanks to the presence of positive approach in Hindu thought
the moksha ideal is brought within the sphere of
experience
and
empirical verification as jivan mukti or deliverance during
(11). There
is nothing to prevent a man from reaching this state
even
in
this life. A man who has
life
ie
called
world . . .
concept
position
above
~ i v u nmukta. .
.
reached this state
in
this
. A jivun mukta acts
in
this
but he is absolutely free (12). There
is also
of videharnukti i.e.. liberation from the body
consiaered
life
which
by the Jains to be actual liberation (13).
vis-a-vis
views.
He
moksha
is held to be different
conceives salvation as
the
is
Sankara's
from
the
sasvata-mukt3 which
means breaking the bondage of samsara i.e.,mundane existence and
release
from
the
chain
consciousness variously
But
that
he
Soul
and
death
through
view about
Sankara's hypothesis
does not say that absorption of the individual
is
in
the
possible only when release is attained. There
passages in Sankara "which indicate that while the
attains
unitary
called Brahmajnana. Brhama-sakshatkara,
there is a different
eternal Brahmum
are
of birth
at the very moment of release
a
released
universality
of
spirit. it yet retains its individuality as a centre of action as
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long
as
the
cosmic process
continues"
(15).
Comnenting
on
Sankara's posltlon Dr. Radhakrishnan continues:
The
freed soul. so long as the cosmlc
process
continues. participates in it and returns to embodied
existence not for its own sake but for the sake of the
whole.
He has the feeling of kinship with
all
(sarvatma bhava).
He identifies himself with the
universal movement and follows its course (16).
The
eternal
is
loss
of
individuality or
perfect
emancipation
salvation - sasvata mukt1 - happens only when the
redeemed, when the multiple values figured
out in
thought
a time "when all individuals will become sons of
.
be received into the glory of immortality. . .
and
are
Although
is difficult to conceive of such perfection, Hindu
visualises
world
it
achieved, when all individuals gain life eternal (17).
~t
God
Earth
Heaven would be no more. the timeless and the transcendent
remains"
or
and
alone
(18).
c ) Paths to
As
liberation
to the methods of attaining freedom
or
salvation,
the Hindu thinker, according to Dr. Radhakrishnan, adopted a very
catholic
attitude
(19). Thus there are three different paths to
liberation vlz., path of action or service (karma yoga), path
devotion (bhaktl yoga), and path of knowledge (jnana yoga)
In
the path o r action the emphasis is on action, on
"All
(20).
work
action is karma", says Swami Vivekananda (22). By
of
(21).
action
is meant all the daily activities pertaining to one's state
of
life (23). Vinoba says that in karma yoga the emphasis is on the
performance
it
with
one
of 'svadhama' (one's own dharma or duties)
because
comes to us naturally, "as we ar born svadharma is also
us" (24). Vinoba
strong
support
explains svadharma thus
for man's life it
is
the
born
"if there
is
performance
of
:
svadharma. All the superstructure has to be built on
svadharma.
The strength of the superstructure depends on the strength of the
foundation "
(25). The
secret of karma yoga is that
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one
must
perform
one's dutles in a spirit of detachment, renouncing
it. puts it. This is the most easy
fruits of action, as the
the
three
paths
leading
to
salvation.
distinguishes karma yoga from sanyasa. .
.
"Ease
in
ot
practice
. for the seeker karma
is easy" (26).
yoga
Path
is
the
of devotion or bhakti yoga,.according to
"a real, genuine search after the lord, a
continuing and e n d ~ n gin love .
God"
(27).
unflinching
Because
of
.
. . Bhakti
this intense
Vivekananda
search
beginning
is intense love
love
born
faith in God, a devotee surrenders
out
of
of
himself
an
totally
before God. Depending upon the spiritual accomplishments of
devotee, there are various levels or degrees of devotion.
the
Vinoba
speaks of ( i ) sakama bhakta. i.e.. one who prays for some reward,
(2) the disinterested but partial bhakta, and ( 3 ) the jnani, the
or the perfect bhakta ( 2 8 ) .
seer
But Vinoba also
asserts
that
all the three types of devotion are the branches and twigs of the
tree of devotlon. and will certainly lead the concerned
realization
(29).
"Devotion to the Lord, b h a k t ~ ,is a
to
God-
wonderful
means for attalnlng him" ( 3 0 ) .
The third path is that of knowledge
it
consists in acquiring and following the
or jnana-yoga
greatest
knowledge
of the eternal reality, Brahma vidya
achieving
what
the Gita calls Brahma-nirvana
and
knowledge,
as the means
of
1.e.. liberation
into the Ultimate (31). And the core of this knowledge
is
'Tat
tvam asi'. 'you are indeed the Self' (32). This truth that you
are
not
the body. you are the Supreme Self is all one
need
to
know.
Generally the Sanskrit word jnana is taken to mean 'to know'
But in jnana yoga. its meaning is more complex and comprehensive.
Vinoba's words convey the ideas forcefully:
But to know with the mind is not j'nana, true
knowledge. To stuff one's mouth with food is not the
same as eating.
The food in the mouth should be
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musticated, passed through the gullet into the stomach.
digested,
converted
into blood,
and
circulated
throughout the body to nourish it. Only then will it
become real food. In the same way, mere knowledge of
That
knowledge
shou 1 d
the mind is unavailing.
pervade all one's life and flow through the hands and
feet, the
eyes and every other member. One
should
attain a state when all organs of perception and action
work from knowledge (33).
The
paths
path of knowledge is the rn0s.t difficult
because
setting
aside
beings.
As
of
the capacity to see everything in
the
its
the gross covering it is not given to
things
three
essence.
all
human
stand, it is, indeed, a gift of the few. But
i f humanity as a whole is to move towards the ultimate goal.
and all have to grow into this awareness. And
insists
heart
so Hindu
thought
on glving proper training to the eye, the mind
with thls end in view.
one
and
the
Dr. Radhakrishnan brings out
the
integral nature of the three ways to moksha thus:
The three are not exclusive, but emphasise the dominant
aspects. Wisdom (jnana) does not mean intellectual
realjzed
acumen
or dialectical power.
Jnana is
experience. We are saved from sin only when we live in
the presence of God. If we have true insight, right
action will take care of itself. Truth cannot but act
rightly. The way of devotion is the most popular one.
Sinners as well as saints,
ignorant as well as
learned, foolish as well as wise find it easy. Prayer
and petition. fasting and sacrifice, communion and
self-examination, all are included in the life of
devotion. In its highest flights bhakti coinc.ides with
jnana. and both these issue in right karma or virtuous
life 134).
V . 0. 3. Gandhi'e views on self-realization
As
the
complex
preceding
discussion shows self-realization
is
ideal and its metaphysical implications are not easy
comprehend. What worries philosophers chiefly is the final
of
Is it jivan mukti (liberation in this
salvation.
v l d e h a mukti
liberated
(liberation from the body)? What
soul
?
Soul, its source '7
Does
it return and merge with
the
to
form
life)
or
to
the
Universal
When does the soul get final deliverance from
the wheel of h ~ r t h sand deaths ?
complex
happens
a
metaphysical
Gandhl does not deal with
aspects of the ideal except to hint
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such
by
a
skillful
use of suggestive words that he is quite aware of these
complexities.
He does not take up such questions
Buddha, he is more concerned with the
the
that beset man in
because
existential
men.
salvation"
"tac~tlybelieves in the Hlndu Idea of
Gandhi
problems
his day-to-day living and their solutions than
metaphyslcal conundrums that delight the learned
with
like
So
(35):
but
he accepts them only mutatis mutandis.
The general trend of
his
comments on rnvksha concerns 'he quest of moksha' rather than
any
speculation as to what the attainment of it would
be
like
(36).
a) Self-realization. the ultimate goal.
Moksha occupies a pivotal place in Gandhi's world-view.
He
reiterated that the ultimate aim of mankind is moksha
and
has
what he wants to achieve is nothing short of this.
the
time, conscious of the difficulties in
same
is,
attaining
ideal and mentlons them whenever he speaks
grand
But he
about
sense
ideal.
of realism he reveals while
He
realization;
be
the
gap
between
the
"between the ideal and practice
an unbridgeable gulf.
becomes
of
emphasises
espousing
an
ideal
and
there must
the body, what man can do
1s
Bound by the
its
always
if
it
limitations
only to strive after the
ideal.
is why he says: "Being necessarily l~mitedby the bonds
That
of
absolute
The ideal will cease to be one
possible t-o realise it" ( 3 7 ) .
the
moksha.
So while studylng Gandhi'e ideal of mokshs, we must take note
the
at
of
flesh, we can attaln perfection only after the dissolution of the
body" ( 3 8 ) .
But he also reminds us, even at the risk of sounding
apparently contradictory, that "I am impatient to realise myself,
to attain Moksha, in this very existence" ( 3 9 ) .
clear
that
uncompromising
essence
is
single-minded
commitment
devotion
to
its
to
Thus, it becomes
the
realization
ideal
and
becomes
the
of spiritual aspiration in Gandhl's weltanschauung.
important to note here that what Gandhi considers
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It
impossible
of
achievement in this life is perfection which he
equates
with
self-realization.
"Life is
occasionally \
aspiration.
Its 1
an
mission is to strive after perfection which is
self-realization"
(40).
We
same
are
to Infer that what he
means by perfection
sasvata mukti that advaita thought
as
ultimate form of salvation. As this
in
Gandhl
what
believes that even in this llfe
thought is called
in Hindu
the
one
moksha
can
attain
.
most to have become fit for moksha. . .
fit
be
jivan-mukti, and thus
a mukta while he is still alive, one may be said
called
as
for
' I have come to the conclusion that no one
moksha.
the
impossible of realization
this life, Gandhi introduces the idea of fitness
(41).
for
ik
underlines
is
can
be
at
the
" (42).
Self-realization, a corporate goal
b).
Gandhi's next important postulate is that as we are all
children
of
fitness
for
God.
all individuals are
destined
to
life eternal in this life itself. For
gain
this
him,
self-
realization
is not the privilege or prerogative of a chosen
enlightened
few.
humanity'
he
possible
for
As he believed in 'the absolute
holds also that what
all
(43).
oneness
is possible for one
"The soul
is
one
and
in
of
man
is
all,
its
possibilities are. therefore, the same for every one" ( 4 4 ) .
As
a
to
corollary to this Gandhi adds that
no individual can hope
achieve complete salvation unless and until the rest of
humanity
also reach this level
Gandhian
of fitness. So
perspective is not individualistic but
salvation in the
"I urn a part
corporate.
and parcel of the whole and I cannot find Him apart from the rest
of
It follows. therefore,
humanity". says Gandhi ( 4 5 ) .
every
others
liberated individual has an added responsibility
to
attaln
fitness
for moksha.
complete agreement with the Hindu
not to
be moved from the world.
in
position that "to be saved
is
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Gandhi
help
is
Salvation
Thus
to
that
is not
escape
from
.
llfe.
cosmic
To
. If the saved individuals escape literally
.
process,
be
the world would be for ever
is to be more
liberated
cosmic
process
of
Involved
state
of
the
(46).
unredeemed"
creatively
moving towards the
from
in
the
spiritualised
harmony.
c) Self-realization as freedom from violence.
Another orlginal Idea in Gandhl's concept of moksha
is
that he conce~vesthe salvation of the i n d ~ v ~ d u aas
l freedom from
the
deadly coll of vlolence.
one
of
Gandhl ldentlfled vlolence
the major obstacles in the reallzatlon of the
salvation
and
therefore, considered the freedom
essential
for
realising Truth (47). That is why
"ahjmsa means
moksha and moksha is the
(48).Thus, the
ideas
of Truth,
from
be
ideal
of
violence
Gandhi
realization
non-violence
to
of
says:
Truth"
moksha
and
get
integrated in the Gandhian world-view.
V . 0. 4 .
Way to self-realization
Though
paths
one
to
of
traditional Hindu thought prescribes three major
salvation, the individuals are advised to
them
depending on their
capacity,
follow
any
accomplishments
or
inclination. One can follow the path of action while another can
follow
the
path
knowledge.
of
Properly
devotion and
yet
another
traversed. all paths lead
The
vision of self-realization and the means to
end,
of
actual
course,
practice
unhealthy
It
the
to
path
liberation.
that
ultimate
must have been originally
integral, but
split up
consequences
it
got
and
the
and detrimental to the achievement of
the
in
were
objective.
was in fact. a self-defeating exercise that each path
overlooked or bypassed the other paths.
of
either
While the pundit or
the
man of knowledge refused to perform any service. considering it a
bondage
to
llft even a I o t a (49). popular
b h a k t i became
chanting and slnging and telling of beads, disdaining to do
a
living
service
( 5 0 ) . and karma got lost
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in
the
mere
even
meshes
of
binding activities and works
a) The synthesis of the Gita
various
The
Gita
paths
to
. . .
Gita
is
a great attempt
moksha.
As
Sri.
at
synthesis
Aurobindo
puts
builds another harmorly at synthesis of
of
the
it, "The
the
three
great means and powers, Love, Knowledge, Works through which
the
soul
the
of
Eternal"
this
man
can directly approach and cast
(513.
Gandhi has also recorded his
great synthesis
achieved by the Gita.
itself
into
understanding
"The Gita
of
contains
the gospel of Karma or work, the gospel of Bhakti or devotion and
the
gospel of Jnana or knowledge.
whole
of
authority
these
of
three"
Life should be
(52). Thus it can
be
a
harmonious
said
Gandhi's own testimony that the way
to
on
the
salvation
that he prescribes for humanity is essentially the way propounded
by the Gita. "Self--realizationis the subject of the Gita.
The
object of the Gita appears to me to be that of
.
showing
.
the
most excellent way to attain self-realization" (53).
b) The anasakti yoga of Gandhi
Gandhi
says
that
it is only
"by
desireless
action, by
renouncing the fruits of action, by dedicating all activities
to
God i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him body and soul" (54) that
I
one can attaln self-realization. Gandhi continues:
But desirelessness or renunciation does not come
for
the mere talking about it. It is not
attained by
intellectual feat. It is attainable only by constant
heart-churn.
Right
knowledge is
necessary
for
knowledge
attaining renunciation. . . . In order that
may not run riot, the author of the Gita has insisted
on devotion accompanying it and has given it the first
place. Knowledge without devotion is like a misfire.
Therefore. says
the Gita,
'Have devotion, and
knowledge will follow'. This devotion is not mere lip
. . the devotion required by the Gita is
worship.
not soft hearted effusiveness . . . . He
is
a
devotee . . . who is a fount of mercy . . . who
is selfless . . . . whose resolutions are firm, who has
dedicated mind and soul to God . . . . who is pure, who
is versed in action and yet remains unaffected by it,
who renounces all fruit good and bad . . . . But such
knowledge and devotion, to be true have to stand the
Mere
test of renunciation of fruits of action.
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.
knowledge of right and wrong will not make one fit for
salvation . . . . the Qita says: No one has attained
his goal without action . . . . while on the one hand
it is beyond dispute that all action binds, on the
other hand it is equally true that all living beings
have to work,
whether they will or no.
Here all
activlty, whether mental or physical, is to be included
in the term action. Then how is one to be free from
the bondage of action, even though he may be acting?
The Gita says : Do your allotted work but renounce Its
fruits - be detached and work -, have no desire for
reward and work (55).
God in His creations
C)
is
It
clear
from
the long
quote
above
that
Gandhi's
position
is manifestly influenced by the Gita's partiality
the
of
man
action
"be
exhortations:
times
remember
called
who
is a
mystic
in
its
repeated
thou therefore a yogin", 'Therefore
That is why
me and fight on' ( 5 6 ) .
a karma-yogi par excellence.
excellence.
seen
"He was a
for
at
all
Gandhi
1s
karma-yogi
par
He was a bhakti-yogi more than a jnana yogi, but
he
was a karma-yogi more that either" (57).
And
(;andhi's karma yoga, utter
in
humility
and
selfless
servlce are the mainstay. "To see the universal and all pervading
I
1
splrit of Truth face to face one must be able to love the meanest \
of
His creatlon as oneself" (58). The idea is so vital that
recurs
zero.
"I must reduce myself
very often in his writings.
So long as man does not of hls own free will
last among hls fellow creatures. there is
(59).
the
to
himself
put
no salvation for
him"
Emphaslsing the aspect of service Gandhi says : " I had made
religion
reallzed
that
to see
God
is
."
everyone.
through
service my own. as I felt that
of
only through service" ( 6 0 ) .
endeavouring
know
it
incessant
therethrough
everything
of
God
through
He further
service
neither in heaven nor
"For me the
(61).
toil
in
humanity.
the
I want
to
could
be
adds
:
"I
am
for
I
of
humanity
down
below,
road
service
God
of
to
in
salvation
lies
country
and
myself
with
my
identify
that lives" ( 6 2 ) . A number of such passages
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but
can
be
\
I
II
\
\
quoted
lies
in
support of the fact that Gandhi's way
in reduclng oneself to a cypher through total
God
salvation
devotion
to
and ident~tyingoneself with all creation and surviving
all
the last, the lowest and the le3st. and serving
especially
~n
of
a splrit of self-dedlcatlon.
1711s. ~n
essence, is
them
Gandhlan
karma yoga, the Gandhlan path to self-.realization.
V. 0. 5 .
Self-realization, the pivot of Gandhl's world-vlew.
Truth
constitutes
1s
the
and its realization through anasaktl-yoga, thus
the core of Gandhl's weltanschauung.
plvot
on whlch the
whole
Gandhl's idea of self-realization
of
his
theory
system
revolves.
fact.
In
fact.
connects the theoretical
world-view with the practical.
and praxis.
Thls in
It is the
link
Gandhi sets self-realization or
part
between
as
moksha,
the ultimate alm of life and he postulates that all human actions
and
it
activities ( 6 3 ) should be directed towards this end.
is
light
clear that
it is this ideal that serves
in all spheres of Gandhi's life.
as
the
Thus
beacon
In order, therefore,
to
understand and appreciate fully the significance of his ideas and
activities in any field, social, religious, political or economic
we
must
bear this important
point in mind (64).
It
most
import.dnt. to remember that unless viewed in the
this
ultimate ideal, the significance of most of his
utterances
underlies
is likely to be missed and the unifying
is
also
light
ideas
of
and
thread
that
the entlre Gandhian thought corpus is sure to be
lost
sight of.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1.
B.S. Sharma. 0p. cit.. P. 2 8
2.
Autobiography. Introduction, p. X .
4.
R.B. Ramakr~shnaRao, "Salvation in Hlndulsm - A Releglous
Approach". In Indian Mieeiological Review. Shillong. Vo1.4.
No. 4, October 1982, p. 325.
5.
Dr. S. Rddhakrishnan, Op. cit., pp. 97-98
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S. Gopal. Hindu Social Philosophy. New Delhi. 1979. p . 6 3 .
This is not to forget that there is another school of
thinkers who reject the notion of parama purushartha and
consider all the purusharthas as complementary and of equal
value.
S. Chatterjee, The Fundamentals of Hunduism, Calcutta.
- 102.
See
1960, p p . 92
J.Kattacka1. Religion and Ethics in Advaita, Kottayam, p.21.
D.S. Sarma, Esaence of Hinduism, Op. cit.. p p . 102
Dr.
-
103.
S . Radhakrishnan, The Hindu View of Life, Op. cit.. p . 5 8 .
S. Gopal, Op. cit., p. 232.
D.S. Sarma. Op. cit., p. 1 0 3 .
J . Kattackal. Op. cit.. p. 23
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. An Indealist View of Life, Op. cit.,
p. 243. Also refer Sankara on Brahmasutra. 111. 3 - 3 2 .
Ibid.
Ibid
Ibid., p . 245.
Dr.S.Radhakrishnan, The Hindu View of Life, Op. cit.. p . 5 0
also the path of meditat,ion or concentration ( R a j a
is considered to be a part of
and included in the path of Knowledge, as true knowledge is
attained only through concentrated meditation - dhyana.
There
1s
yoga) But generally this path
The word Karma is
'to do'.
Vlvekananda.
The
Vol.1, p . 27.
derived from the Sanskrit Kri which rneans
Complete
Works
of
Swami
Vivekananda.
S. Chatterjee 0p. cit., P . 147
Vinoba,
Talks on the Qita.
Varanasi, (1987edn.). p. 11.
Ibid., p. 144.
Ibid., p . 5 4 .
Ibid..
p.
31.
.
Ibid. p . 7 4 .
Ibid
Ibid., p . 77.
The Bhagavat Gita, 11. 72. See also Vlvekanandd. Op.
Vol. 1 , pp. 405 - 416 and Vol. 1 1 , pp. 75 - 78.
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cit..
Vinoba. Op. cit.. p. 151.
Ibid., p . 158.
Dr.
S.
Radhakrishnan. Op. cit.. p. 59.
Benoy Gopal Ray, Gandhian Ethics, Ahmedabad,
p. 6.
Margaret Chatter~ee, Op. cit.. p. 169.
Harijan, October 14, 1939.
Ibid.. A p r ~ l 17. 1937.
Young India. April 3. 1924.
Harijan. June 26, 1935.
M. Chatterjee.
0p. cit.. p . 169.
Collected Works, Val. XXXII. P. 136.
Autobiography.
Harijan. May
p. X.
18, 1940.
Mahatma, Vol. 4, Bombay, 1952, p. 103.
Dr.S.Radhakrishnan, An
p. 98.
Idealiet View of
Life,
Op.
cit..
Mahatma, Val. 8 , p. 157
Young India, November 1925, 1:luoted in M . Chatterjee. Op.
cit.. p. 170. For a more detailed discussion of this point
see Surendra Verma. Op. clt.. p. 52 - 53.
Mahadev Desai, Op. cit., p. 130.
Ibid.. p . 131.
Sri. Auroblndo.
Eeeaye on the Gita.
Young India, November 3. 1927.
Mahadev Desai.
Op. cit., P . 7.
p. 71.
0p. cit.. p. 129.
Ibid.
Ibid.. pp. 129 - 131.
Ibid.. p
120.
R . R . D~wakar,Gandhi the Spiritual Seeker, Bomaby,
1964, p. 23.
Autobiography. p. 383.
Ibid.
Ibid.. p . 118.
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August
4 . 1927.
61.
Young India,
62.
Ibid.. Aprll 3 , 1924.
63.
For a lively and enlightening discussion on the difference
between actlon and acitivity see Vinobn's Talks on the Gita
Op. cit.. p. 222.
64.
B.S.
Sharrna, Op. cit.. p p . 30 - 31.
*********
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