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December 1993
LATENDisseminationNote # 9
Prospects for Improved
Managementof Natural Forests
in Latin America
December1993
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
74~~~~7.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'A
Robert D. Kirmse
Luis F. Constantino
GeorgeM. Guess
The WorldBank
Latin America Technical Department
EnvironmentDivision
I
I
LATEN Dissemination Note # 9
Prospects for Improved
Management of Natural Forests
in Latin America
Deember 1993
Robert D. Kirmse
Luis F. Constantino
George M. Guess
The World Bank
Latin America Technical Department
Environment Division
FOREWORD
The "DisseminationNote' Series of the Latin America& CaribbeanRegion's
EnvironmentDivision (LATEN) seeks to share the results of our analyticaland operational
work, both completedor in progress. Through this Series, we present the preliminary
findingsof larger studiesin an abbreviatedform, as well as describe "best practices" with
regard to major environmentalissues currently confrontingLAC countries. Commentsare
welcome.
In most cases, these notes represent "work in progress" and as such have not been
subject to either substantialinternal review or editing. Therefore the findings,
interpretations,and conclusionsexpressed in these notes are entirely those of the author(s)
and shouldnot be attributedto the World Bank, membersof its Board of Executive
Directors, or the countriesthey represent.
This DisseminationNote, by Robert Kirmse, Luis Constantinoand George Guess, is
part of a study managedby LATEN on "Policies AffectingForests in LAC" and is based on
their sector and project work throughoutLatin America. This note conciselysurveys the
experience with natural forest management(NFM) projects in Latin America, draws the
lessons from experience, highlightsbest practices and constraints to their implementation,
and concludesthat the conservativemanagementof secondaryforests representsa technically
sustainablealternative to either monocyclicloggingor conversionof the forest to ranching
and farming activities.
Dennis Mahar
DivisionChief
EnvironmentDivision
Latin America and the CaribbeanRegion
The World Bank
PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVED
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS
IN LATIN AMERICA
Robert D. Kirmse
Luis F. Constantino
George M. Guess'
Abstract. Natural forest managementcan help preserve forest ecosystems in LAC against encroachment by the
well-known forces of agriculture, pasture development, road construction and migration. Because this form of land
use conserves the natural capital, it can help sustain important environmental services, such as carbon sequestration,
water and soil conservation, and even biodiversity. A review of LAC project experience (1930-1993) reveals the
technical feasibility of improved natural forest management. It also, however, exposes the major constraints to its
implementation, namely: (a) weak baseline and research information for decision-making, (b) unprofitability, (c)
contradictory policies that encourage legal high-grading and forest destruction rather than good forest management,
and (d) an overcentralized and weak set of public forestry institutions. The paper highlights the conditions that could
help increase the chances for successful natural forest management in the region. Since there are risks of failure,
natural forest management should be promoted primarily in already logged forests or in threatened forests made
accessible through the advanceof the agricultural frontier. And because public institutions need to actively support
natural forest management, its economic niche are lands where environmental and social values are important.
WHY FOREST MANAGEMENT?
1.
With a total tropical forest area of about 840,000 million hectares (FAO, 1992a)2,
which includes more than 60 percent of the world's remainingmoist tropical forests, Latin
Americais the most important tropical forest area in the world. Because of the generally
known public and economicbenefits provided by natural forests--suchas habitat of biological
diversity, regulator of hydrologicalsystems, producer of timber and other commercialand
non-commercialforest products--thesehighly diverse forests are important for the present
and future economicand environmentalwelfare of the region and even for the world. But
because of a complexarray of economic and policy factors, these resources are being
squanderedin what amounts to be one of the fastest rates of deforestationin the world. With
an average forest loss of 83,000 km2 /yr during the 1980s (FAO, 1988), almost 50 percent of
the worlds total tropicaldeforestationtakes place in Latin America.
Respectively Senior Forestry Specialist, Agriculture and Rural Poverty Division, Country Department IV,
Natural Resource Economist, and Public Finance Consultant, Environment Division, Technical Department, Latin
America and Caribbean Region, The World Banlc. The authors are grateful to Nalin Kishor, Richard Huber, Andres
Liebenthal, Michael McGarry and Francois Wencelius, all Bank staff, for their reviews of earlier drafts of this
paper. The authors also wish to acknowledgethe contribution of Johan Zweede, forest consultant with the Pilot
Program to Save the Brazilian Rain Forest, who helped write the section on Brazil.
2 This includes the main tropical forest zones, namely: Tropical Rain Forest Zone, Moist Deciduous Forest Zone,
Dry Deciduous Forest Zone, Very Dry Forest Zone, Desert Zone, and Hill & Montane Forest Zone.
2
2.
The factors affecting deforestationin the
tropics are well documentedand will not be
Sntainae uralf
mne
nt:
reviewedhere. Rather, this paper attempts to - icntolei
of
d30 waddress one of the most controversialissues in the
to6 o.....d..d..
d bneIt ..
..
debate over deforestation:natural forest
i-t
Iey w_h b
e
..
..
m......offrest
.....
management.Althoughthe Banknow has an official appropiiaite
r..of
eas
.. for........
definition (see box) of sustainablenatural forest
-srsziSi-i-Eanxd:
prote'toii
tht
''"
_.r*r
management (SNFM), there is still no
internationally acceptable definition that meets all
the economic, technical, environmental and social
eco..g.cp
Policies4.3..
-.
...
po (peratOnal
re
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..
._.._--_-E_........
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criteria. The main controversyis over the intensity
of intervention.Those opposed to 'utilization" of forests believe that any timber harvesting,
whether well managedor not, is a main cause of deforestation. The preservationistview,
however, tends to ignore the everyday need for forest generated incomes in Latin America
and the fact these forests would simply not be left alone if logging were officiallybanned.
3.
In this paper, we argue the position that the only practical way of conservingnatural
forest ecosystems in the tropics is to make these forests more valuable to the forest owners as
a forest than as crop or pasture land. A strategy of careful utilizationof the natural capital
may have higher chances of success than strict preservation, mainly because local economies
will benefit. And because timber is, after all, the forest product of highest market value,
sustained-yieldnatural forest management(SYNFM)will probably prove to be a principal
factor in convincingpeople that forests are worth preserving. Moreover, sustainedyield, if
based on the natural capital as opposed to a monocultureof exotic species, will ensure that
the natural forest is not depleted, which in turn would help to sustain many of the
environmentalservices that forests provide. Pursuit of sustained yield timber production
therefore leads to sustainablenatural forest management(SNFM), which is interpreted as a
system where environmentalvalues are conservedwith minimal alteration.
4.
Skeptics, however, point to the lack of basic research on natural forests in LAC and
claim that policy-makersstill lack technicalknowledgeto implementSNFM. They argue that
ecosystemsand soils could be destroyedthrough projects designed and operated by misguided
techniciansto the ruin of indigenouspeoplesand their forest habitats. Because few forests in
this region have been managedfor more than a few decades, growth and yield information
needed to specify the precise length and intensityof cutting cycles is not available. In fact,
they go on to reason that because of the lack of proof of sustainabilityin managed tropical
forests and because the effort is so complicatedand the yields are so low SNFM in the
tropics is not viable.
5.
The paradox is that withouteconomicvalue and institutionalincentivesto enforce
regulationsthe forests will not simply be left to nature. Forests are disappearingrapidly and
there is urgency to introducingmanagementsystemsthat can sustain critical environmental
services while also providing income to local communities. There is simply no time to wait
for the long term basic research needed to design the perfect managementscheme. This is
3
because the alternativeto SNFM is often the destructionof forests, mainly due to the post
logging invasion by landless farmers.
6.
Most forest managementspecialistswould agree that we now have sufficient
knowledgeof forest dynamicsthat with expert opinion and prudent design, workable, yet
imperfect, managementsystems can be fashionedfor most forests of the region. But a
learning by doing approach would be required. Risk averse strategiescan be designedand
feed-back mechanismsput in place so that managementbecomes adaptiveand continuously
adjusts to new information. As suggestedby Cassellsand Muttulingam(1993), what is
needed is "an operationaldefinition of sustainableforest managementin terns that are
specificallyusefulforforest managementplanning and the evaluationofforest sector
developmentprojects. Such a definitionwould in essence be a workinghypothesisabout the
nature of sustainableforest management. Like other hypotheses, it would not be able to be
proven in absoluteterms. However, like other hypothesesit would be subject to refutation
and could be accepted in provisional operationalterms until such refutationoccurs."
7.
Since most forest managementsystemswould involve selectivelogging (i.e.,
generally in LAC's heterogeneousforests, only one or two trees are removed per ha), the
canopy is maintainedand therefore there is arguably little loss of biodiversity. Under
carefully planned interventions,carbon sequestrationand water and soil conservation
functions would resemble those of a primary forest. Hence, the economicniche for SNFM
are forests where these environmentalvalues are important but where irreversible loss is not
an issue, such as those forests on high slopes, along watercourses, in buffer zones needed to
increase the viability of protected areas, and in coastal areas. In already accessible
secondaryforest areas, or in forests that are near the agriculturalfrontiers and where there is
a high immigrationrate, SNFM can be relativelybenign environmentally,with minimal
impact on ecosystemstructure and function. In these areas, finding an economicuse for the
forest resources may in fact be the only realistic approach to preserving the forest, even
though the forest managementsystem may initially not be strictly sustainable.
8.
This is probablynot the case in pristine forest areas, however, because exploitation
could make access easier for illegal loggers and squatters through the roads that would have
to be opened. Therefore, SNFM is probably best argued for already endangeredforests with
environmentalvalue, while primary forests, far from human access, should not be targeted.
Rather, primary forests, along with forests of high environmentalvalue, shouldbe protected
under the nationalprotected area program, which, however weak, exists in most LAC
countries.
9.
Througha review of selected natural forest managementprojects, this paper
demonstratesthat, over the last 25 years, professionalinterest in Latin American forests has
shifted from exclusiveinterest in revenue-yieldingtimber products to the view that forest
lands are a resource capableof being managed for multiple outputs, includingenvironmental
services. Althoughthe well-knownobstaclesthat have impededSNIFMin LAC--weakpublic
4
institutions, forestry unprofitability,insecureland tenure and lack of information--arestill
there, we now have a clearer understandingof the conditionsfor success.
Table 1. NFM Projects in LAC: 1930-1993
COtfr4lkkl/ ''''
Bolivia
-Chimanes Project
-CICOIJCIDOB Project
-MACA-IDB Project
Brazil
-Tapajos Research Project
-Minas Gerais Cerrado Research
-Florestas Rio Doce/Mata Atlantica
-Jari/pulpwood mgnt
-Curua Experiment Station
-INPA Manaus
-IMAZON experimental management
-FUNTAC/ITTO-Antimari Project
-Ceara/CNPC Caatinga Research
rystm
YEAR
' TAR
T
D
'
Whyeded
Spso
1988
1984
1989
ongoing
ongoing
ongoing
NGOs
1978-1985
1993
NA
1985
1956
1987
Recent
1989
1980-1987
economic constraints
ongoing
NA
ongoing
ongoing
funding constraints
ongoing
ongoing
institutional constraints
FAO
IBRD
Private
Private
FAO/SUDAM
IDB
Donors
iTTO
USA1)
Chile
-Nothofagus chip production
Recent
Colombia
-Carton de Colombia
1974-?
social pressures
Private
Costa Rica
-Portico polycyclic
-BOSCOSA Project
-FORESTA Project
1987
1988
1991
ongoing
ongoing
ongoing
Private
USAID
USAID
French Guiana
-Risquetout/Organabo
1983
ongoing
CTFT
Mexico
-Quintana Roo-Polycyclic
-Sierra Madre (MMOM-MIF)
1983
1940
ongoing
ongoing
GTZ
IBRD
Peru
-Yanesha Strip Shelterwood
1980
ongoing
USAID
Surinam
-CELOS-Polycyclic
1976-1983
political conflict
Wageningen
Trinidad & Tobago
-Tropical Shelterwood System
-Periodic Block System
1930-1978
1954
institutional constraints
UK
State
Private
5
LAC'S EXPERIENCEWITH SUSTAINABLENATURALFORESTMANAGEMENT
10. Well planned and implementedSNFM programs are scarce in Latin America.
Nevertheless, Bank sector work and a review of the literature have confirmedthat some
efforts at SNFM have been made in most countriesin the Region. Except for projects in
Peru, Mexico and Surinam, however, these efforts are poorly documented,or if conducted
by private enterprises, are not made public. Table 1 summarizessome of the more notable
natural forest managementefforts in LAC. This is followedby a more detailed description
of some of these projects, as well as some of the factors that have precludedSNFM.
Trinidad & Tobago: The First Experience
11. The earliest work on natural forest managementin LAC was initiatedin Trinidad &
Tobago, Belize, Jamaica and Guyana. However, most of the work was never publishedand
disseminatedand much of the data may now be consideredlost. One such exampleis the
Tropical ShelterwoodSystem (TSS), establishedin the 1930s on about 2,500 ha in the Arena
Forest Reserve in Trinidad. The TSS system was abandonedin 1978 because of high labor
costs and because of a decline in charcoal demand (FAO/CP, 1993). By the time this system
was discontinued,it was thought to be successful,but no formal research or measurements
were carried out (Poore, 1989).
12. Today in Trinidad, natural forests are managedunder an Open Range System (ORS)
or the Periodic Block System (PBS). The ORS, which covers some 40,000 ha of state land,
is essentiallya "first-come-first-serve"system whereby a registered logger locates trees
above the minimumdiameter limit of 50 cms and then applies to the forest service for a
license to fell (FAO/CP, 1993). This system has been found to be difficult to control and it
results in overcutting and stand depletion. An improved system, the PBS, based on stricter
area control, has been evolving since about 1954and now covers about 10,000ha of State
forest land. Under this system, trees (mainlyMora excelsa), within permanentlydesignated
forest blocks of 200-300 ha, and above a specifiedgirth, are selectedand marked by the
forest service and sold to loggers. Areas logged using this system are showinghealthy
natural regeneration, with the prospect of providing subsequentharvests at 30 year intervals.
But then, Mora, the dominantcommercialspecies, regenerates easily under these conditions.
Although data on some 170, one-ha permanentsampleplots have been collectedsince 1980,
little data analysis has been done. Of the analysis that has been done, results indicate that
PBS may in fact be an improved system because 30 years after logging the basal area was
found to be 2.3 times higher under the PBS than under ORS (FAO/CP, 1993).
Surinam: The Best Documented Silvicultural System
13. The Celos managementsystem in Surinamwas probably the best planned and well
documented forest managementsystem in all of Latin America. Building upon some 25
years of research on forest dynamics, this system was conceivedand implementedin 1976 by
the Agricultural Universityof Wageningen,together with the Anton de Kom Universityof
6
Surinam. The principal silviculturalaim of this polycyclicsystem was to stimulate growth
of the mid- and large-sized marketabletrees to allow for 20-25 year cutting cycles. Between
each cutting cycle, two "refinements"were planned (at two and eight years after harvesting)
to eliminatecompetitionfrom the commercialstems by poison-girdlingthe non-commercial
trees above a diameter limit of 20 cm. Climbercutting (all lianas above 3 cm) was
prescribed to take place shortly before a harvestingcycle.
14. This silviculturalsystem was complementedby an improved harvesting system aimed
at reducing logging damage and costs. This involved mappingthe trees to be felled, careful
planning of skid trails, directionalfelling to facilitate skidding,winch extractionand log flow
registration.
15. The improved silviculturaltreatmentswere found to increase annual diameter growth
by more than two-fold(4mm to about 10mm;Boxman, et. al. 1985) and volume production
by about ten-fold (0.2 m3/ha to 2 m3/halyr; De Graaf and Rompaey, 1990). The improved
harvestingmethods reduced skiddingdamageby about 50 percent. Although the additional
surveys, planning and pre-harvestingpreparationsof the improved harvesting method
increased costs by about 5 percent over conventionalmethods, this was more than
compensatedby a 10-20percent reductionin skiddingcosts (Boxman et. al. 1985).
16. This project has gone a long way towards showingthat silviculturalproblems in the
moist tropical forests (MTF) of Latin Americaare manageable. Unfortunately, as indicated
in Table 1, the project was abandonedin 1983because of politicalconflict and insecurity in
the project area.
FlrenchGuiana: One of the LargestPrograms
17. In 1983, the OfficeNational de Forets (ONF), with funding from the Conseile
Regional de Guyane, initiateda pilot forest managementproject in two forests (Risquetout
and Organabo),covering a total area of 17,500ha (FAO, 1992). The project employed a
polycyclicsilviculturalsystem, with an expected cuttingcycle of 30-50 years. Based on
earlier research conductedby the Centre TechniqueForestier Tropical (CTFT) in Cote
d'Ivoire as well as on parallel research conductedby CTFT in Paracou, French Guiana
(Schmitt, 1989), the system involves selectivelogging followedby a thinning treatment that
reduces competitionof the valuable commercialspecies by poison-girdlingthe large
individualsof the non-commercialspecies. The managementproject is being supported by a
cooperativeresearch program sponsoredby CTFT, which has establishedpermanent plots to
evaluate the effects and costs of the silviculturaltreatments.
18. Based on the informationalready availablefrom this pilot project, and research
findingsthat selectivelogging of up to 10 trees per ha causes little damage to the forest
(Schmitt, 1989), the ONF has planned to phase in a program of forest managementon a total
of 105,000 ha over the period 1992-1994. The managementplan for these 21 coastal forest
areas involvesmapping, inventory, road building, and silviculturaltreatments, which will be
7
adjusted as regenerationand growth dynamicsare better understood. Once implemented,this
will be one of the largest moist tropicalforest (MTF) managementprograms in LAC.
Mexico: The Social Model
19. There are two notable natural forest managementsystems being applied in Mexico.
One is in the tropical forests in QuintanaRoo and the other is in the temperatepine forest of
the Sierra Madre.
20.
Quintana Roo. In the LAC region, the Plan Piloto Forestal (PPF) project in
QuintanaRoo, Mexico is perhaps the best exampleof a forest managementproject welladapted to local socio-economicconditions. Initiated in 1983 by GTZ and the Instituto de
InvestigacionesForestales, the purpose of the project was to promote forest conservationand
local developmentthrough communityparticipationin natural forest management.The
project's first step for securingpopular participationwas to have logging rights assignedto
the ejidos, the local communities.The PPF then initiated activitiesaimed at helping local
forest communitiesorganize themselvesto manage timber harvesting in a way that would
ensure them of full economicvalue of forest products. One of the main marketinginitiatives
involved negotiatingnew contracts with log buyers, designed to provided higher prices and a
broader range of species sold.
21.
The applied silviculturalsystem consists of selective logging with minimumgirth
limits of 55 cm dbh (diameterbreast height). While such a polycyclic selective harvesting
system had been used for quite some time in these forests, it was not sustainablebecause of:
destructiveharvesting methods;lack of regenerationof the principal species (mahogany-Swieteniamacrophylla),and agriculturalencroachment. Essentially, the PPF applied: (i)
better planning of harvestingto reduce destructionof residual trees (e.g. directional felling);
(ii) enrichmentplantingof logged areas; (iii) efforts to harvest more of the available species;
and (iv) strict adherence to a permanentforest reserve whereby conversion to agriculture was
prohibited (i.e., area control). While some research has been supportedby the project, these
improvedtechniques were not dependentupon hard research data, except for the improved
planning, which required inventory data and maps of the forest reserves.
22.
Some interestingwork on mahoganyis coming out of the Plan Piloto project, much of
the silviculturalinformationbeing generatedabout the species (e.g., that they are light
demandingand regenerate best in large canopy openings) is corroboratingthe 1920's and
1930's work done in Belize. Thus, some useful lessons of general applicabilityare being
learned.
23.
Althoughthe PPF forest managementsystem, which includes the harvesting of nontimber forest products such as chicle3 and honey, has produced profitable results (Dickinson,
3
Tappingthe latex for chewinggum fromthe chicozapote(Manilkarazapota)tree providesabouthalf of the
total incomefrom the forestmanagementsystem.
8
et. al. 1991), sustained yield cannot yet be confirmed.This is because of the lack of growth
and stockingdata, which are needed to calculate yield tables. Growth and yield data require
long term research using permanent plots. Nevertheless,the total area of natural forests in
the Ejidos of QuintanaRoo is holding constant, while deforestationin other parts of Mexico
and the rest of LAC is proceedingapace. This can probably be attributedto the project's
successin demonstratingto the local people that good forest managementcan be at least as
lucrative as alternativeland uses. Profitabilityhere is mostly associatedwith the annual
incomesfrom chicle collection;in its absence sustainablemanagementwould not be
financiallyviable. Additionally,other factors contributingto the project's success include:
secure land and tree tenure, institutionsflexibleenough to try new approaches, strong
producer organizations,rapid capitalizationand an aggressivemarketingstrategy (Richards,
1991).
24. Sierra Madre. Since the early 1940s, most forests in Mexico's Sierra Madre Range
have been managedunder a very extensive system called the Methodo Mexicano de
Ordenacionde Montes (MMOM). It was based on a selection system, which, because of
poor implementation,led to high-grading(repeatedextraction of the best and most accessible
trees) and consequentdegradationof the forest. More recently, to improve the economics
and sustainabilityof forest harvesting, the Methodo de DesarrolloSilvicolo (MDS) was
introduced. This system, which operates on a seed tree reproductionmethod with a series of
thinnings,aims to obtain an even-aged stand structure to maintain sustainedyields. Rotations
are determinedby the age of maximummean annualincrement (MAI--50-100years) and
cuttingcycles are 10-16 years.
25.
The main principle of the methodis to extract those trees that are older or younger
than the average, then thinning them sufficientlyto give the remainingstems space to
develop, taking from 25 to 30 percent by volume at each thinning. When applied properly,
this methodhas the advantagesof providing a constant supplyof good quality logs, and the
release from competition improves the annual incrementof the remainingtrees. Therefore,
future stands are improved because only the best quality trees remain as seed trees.
26.
In a move to improve biodiversityprotection, 1986 legislationrequired that all new
managementplans include multiple-useand multiple resource criteria. The new forest
managementsystem, which is essentiallyan MDS system with protected areas, is called
Manejo Integral Forestal (MIF). In general, however, adoption of this regulationhas been
constrainedby the lack of appropriate technicalinformationand because of the real and
perceived economic risks. The Forest Service (UCODEFO)has indicatedthat allowable cuts
have been reduced by about 18 percent because of the new environmentalprotection
restrictions.
27.
A Bank project (Forestry DevelopmentProject--Loan3115-ME) was initiatedin 1989,
in part to help implementthis new managementsystem in a way that would minimizethe
economichardshipson the ejidos. The project also aims to improve definitionsof
environmentalguidelinesand skills needed to develop the MIF plans. Throughoutthe project
9
area, regenerationis good. However, there is clearly a need for more intensive
management,particularlyfor non-commercialthinnings which would prevent stand
stagnation. Such thinnings, which are required by managementplans, are not being
implemented,largely because of their high cost and the lack of any short-term returns.
28. In general, there is no growth or yield informationfor the forests of the Sierra
Madre, based on permanentplot data. In the southern region of Durango, where there are 15
pine species and some 150 oak species, estimatesfrom inventory (tree ring) data indicate that
the MAI of the forest is about 2.5 m31ha/yrwithout management. Preliminary results of an
inventory also indicate that standing timber stocks range from 35 m3/ha to 400 m3/ha, with
an average of 150 m3/ha. What are now needed are permanentgrowth and yield plots to
provide more precise calculationsof growth and yield under management.
29.
Meanwhile, the USDA-ForestService of the SouthwestUnited States, from which
much of the theory for Mexican forest managementsystemshave been adapted, is moving
back to a selective system for biodiversityprotectionconcerns. The US Forest Service found
that, while the MDS system had.improvedthe economicsof forest management,it produced
an even aged stand, considered to be less suitable for biodiversityconservation.The system
now being tested in the SouthwestUS extracts about 15 percent of the standingvolume, but,
unlike other selectionsystems, selectsthe best trees to remain as seed trees. Appliedto
Mexican socio-economicconditions, implementingsuch a system might be marginallybetter
for biodiversityconservation.But it could also prove to be a situationin which the 'best is
enemy of the good". That is, ejidos might agree to implementthe financially-viableMDS
system, but resist the new US system on economic grounds, despite the fact that it would
ensure a better habitat for wildlife.
Peru: A TechnicalInnovation.
30.
Palazcu Vahley. In 1980, an innovativeapproachto integratedforest management
was initiatedin the Palazcu Valley, located in the central forest area of Peru. This rural
developmentproject, funded by USAID, includeda componentaimed at providing
employmentto local people through the sustainablemanagementand commercializationof
the natural forest. The managementsystem was based on ecologicalobservationsof the gapphase dynamicsof MTFs and involves long narrow clearcuts designedto mimic natural forest
disturbances(Ocana-Vidal,1992). The harvest cycle is 40-50 years, which is estimatedto
be sufficientlylong to allow natural regenerationof the forest. The key management
considerationsinclude: appropriate site selection, proper size and orientation of the strips,
careful design of access roads to minimizeerosion and abstinencefrom harvestingnear the
strips for at least 15 years after the initial harvest.
31.
Criteria used for determiningthe size of the strip is based on the apparent biological
needs of the seedlings. The openingsmust be large enough to allow sufficientlight to
stimulategerminationand growth and, at the same time, narrow enough to allow good
reseedingby neighboringtrees. In the Palazcu project, the width of the strip is determined
10
by the height of the largest trees in the natural forest. The length of the strip is determined
by the predominantecologicalconditions; on flat ground, where there is little risk of
erosion, the strips can be long, while they would be shorter on sloping land. The area of the
strips generally does not exceed 0.5 ha. Normally, orientationis from northeast to southwest
or northwest to southeast, thus allowing for a uniformdistributionof light.
32.
Initial studies conductedon some of the early strips indicate that the system may be
well suited to the forest type. It was found that 48 of the fifty most important species had in
fact regeneratedon the two strips under study. Moreover, this system of strips, whereby the
neighboringnatural forest is left intact, also allows for the managementof non-woodforest
products and the conservationof biodiversity.
33.
This project is particularlyinterestingbecause it is based on collective managementby
the indigenouspeople, who own the land. The long term successof the activity will depend
on the continuedinterest of these people to undertakeall of the managementoperations,
includinglogging, processing and marketing. To maintaininterest, the people must perceive
direct and continuousbenefits from the managedresource. This will require fair distribution
of the project benefits among communitymembers. The project also uses animal traction, not
only as a means to minimizedisturbanceto the soil, but also because it requires the use of
more labor, thus permittingthe involvementof a relativelylarger number of community
members.
Brazil: Selected Efforts
34.
Despite the magnitudeof the natural forest ecosystemsin Brazil, there is an acute
shortage of the technologyneededfor SNFM. In the Amazonianforests, in particular, little
is known about the ecologicalresponse of tree species, about the silviculturalpractices
required to ensure sustained economicproductionfrom these forests, or about the
environmentalimpacts of such practices. However, efforts to developSNFM methods are in
progress in various regions.
35.
Tapajos National Forest. The forest managementresearch project in the Tapajos
National Forest, near Santaremin the state of Para, was the first practical effort to exploit
the Amazonforest on a sustained-yieldbasis. This project, initially supportedby
UNDP/FAO (BRA/78/003),was the most comprehensiveattempt at large-scale management
of tropical moist forests in the Americas. The results of this research indicate that SYNFM
of the Amazon forest is technicallypossible at fairly attractive costs. Nevertheless, because
of the generally free supply of logs from land clearings for agriculture, Tapajos has been
able to sell stumpagefrom only 100 ha. This constrainthas effectively stopped the
EMBRAPAmanagementprogram at Tapajos. Now USAID, ODA, and the Bank through
the Pilot Program are beginningto revitalize some of those studies.
36.
Minas Gerais Cerrado and Caatinga. In March 1993 a forest managementresearch
program was initiatedin the semi-arid woodlands(Cerrado and Caatinga)of Northern Minas
11
Gerais under the auspicesof the Bank's "ForestryDevelopmentProject' (LN 2895-BR).
Two types of research were initiated, both on the property of, and in collaborationwith,
large landowners. One is based on a rigorous research design of permanentplots in which
six treatments (various levels of basal area removed)are replicated five times. The other
type of research is less rigorous statisticallyas it is designed to monitor the effects of
ongoingharvesting/managementactivitiesof three large companies--Interlagos,Siderpaand
Empresa Colonist--inCerrado and Caatinga sites. The managementinformationfrom the
monitoringof ongoingharvesting operationshas been enhancedby allowingthe companyto
clearcut a portion of the area, as a control, to comparewhether or not there is an
improvementin regenerationusing the Forest Service (IEF) recommendedmanagement(i.e,
leave 10 % of valuable species and 100 % of all species under 5cm diameter). The IEF has
taken other relevant initiatives, includingprotectionand managementof NationalParks,
making the large industrialpulp and steel companiesreforest through small farmers, and
control of deforestationand logging through remote sensing and GIS systems.
37.
Mata Atlantica. Florestas Rio Doce S.A., a subsidiaryof CompanhiaVale do Rio
Doce (a parastatal), is a forestry companyengaged in natural forest managementresearch in
the Atlantic forest type of the Linhares Forest Reserve in Espirito Santo. This research,
initiatedin 1980, comprised9 treatmentsof basal area reduction. Preliminaryresults
(Moraes et. al., 1992) quantify how basal area reduction stimulates greater growth of the
residual stock. Results on the environmentalimpacts of these interventionsare not yet
available.
38.
The Jari project. In collaborationwith EMBRAPA,the Jari project has conducted
research on SNFM along the northern side of the AmazonRiver. The first experimental
trials were set up in 1982 when a 500 ha block was clearcut for fuelwoodand native
pulpwoodtrials. The first data collectiontook place in 1985. Three sub-trialswere
conductedon a 144 ha plot: natural regenerationmanagement,managementfor pulpwood
species, and managementfor fuelwood species. Althoughten quarter ha plots were
establishedfor accurate data collection, EMBRAPAhas not implementedthis critical stage of
the research. Hence, there are no results to be reported. In the meantime, EMBRAPA
helped to establish yet another trial to study selectivelogging. But again, EMBRAPAfailed
to follow through with data collection(personal communication,Johan Zweede).
39. Curua Experiment Station. In 1956, FAO helped to establish and operate the Curua
forest experimentalstation. Early research focused on natural forest management,logging
methods, species trials and silviculturalstudies. IN 1970, SUDAMtook over management
of the station, with technicalhelp from the Universityof Para. Under this new management,
studies began to focus on inventories, natural regenerationand in-growth. The main
limitation with this research is the failure to continuetrials to maturity and the lack of
commercialscale operation.
40.
INPA-Manaus. In 1987, a 50 ha forest managementtrial was establishedsome
eighty km north of the Manaus INPA research center, in the dense forest. Researchincluded
12
inventories, controlled harvestingand natural regeneration. The MAI was found to be
4m3/halyr, four years after logging. Again, because of lack of funding and loss of
professional staff, the tails have been abandoned.
41.
IMAZON. Imazon, a research NGO, has recently initiatedan SNFM trial in
Paragominas, one of the main logging area of the Amazon. The research was designed to be
relevant for the conditionsunder which the local loggingindustry operates and compares
traditional harvesting methodswith plannedharvesting systems. Hardner and Barreto (1993)
analyze altemative systems of harvest selectionfrom a financial point of view and conclude
that long-terminvestment in low intensitytimber productionis unlikelyto be financially
justified. Similar results were obtainedby Kishor and Constantino(1993) for Costa Rica.
The implicationsare that governmentcannotrely on the private sector alone to bring about
sustainableuse of forest resources and that some degree of governmentintervention is likely
to be necessary.
42.
Caatinga. Researchin Caatingamanagementhas been conductedby EMBRAPAat
CPATSA(Centro de PesquisaAgropecuariado Trdpico Semi-Arido)in Pemambuco and at
CNPC (Centro Nacionalde Pesquisade Caprinos)in Ceara. The CPATSAresearch has
been limited mostly to the single-purposeconversionof woodlandsto pasture. A research
program initiated in 1980 by the CNPC with collaborationfrom USAID's "Small Ruminant
CollaborativeResearch Support Program (CRSP),aimed at developing "integrated" Caatinga
managementtechnology suitable for applicationby local farmers. This research was
"integrated" in the sense that the multiple managementobjectivesincluded the production of
other forest products (such as wood) and ecologicalstability, as well as livestock production.
Unfortunately,however, that research program was abandonedby CNPC in 1987, before
carrying out on-farm testing of the recommendedtechnology.
Chile: An Old Growth Controversy'
43.
The most contentiousissue in the Chileanforest sector today is the harvesting of
natural forests, which--sincethe installationof three large chip export facilities over the last
five years--has rapidly increased. Wood chips are being harvested from decadent old growth
forest, in which there is no net volume incrementand mortalitybalances outweighsgrowth.
Forest managers and local communitiesview the removal of a portion of the standing volume
as generatingeconomic value while it also stimulatesregenerationas well as growth of
residual trees. On the other hand, environmentalprotection groups argue that the natural
forest shouldbe left intact to maintain biodiversityand prevent soil erosion.
44.
Nothofagusmanagement. After 15 years of research by the University of Chile and
CONAF (the national Forest Service), a system of forest managementhas been developedfor
the Nothofagusforests of Region XII in SouthernChile, which may succeed in attaining both
4
Extracted from World Bank (1992).
13
productionand protectionvalues. Under a Shelterwoodsystem ("corta de proteccion"),
about 50 percent of the basal area (equivalentto an average extraction of about 100-150
m3 /ha) of the over-mature (200-400years old) lenga (Nothofaguspumilio) is removed the
first year, leaving sufficientcover to provide wind protectionand allow natural regeneration.
Regenerationhas been prolific, producing up to 50,000 seedlingper ha.
45.
Ten years later, once young trees are established,the remainingmature trees are
removed. Thirty years later (i.e., in year 40), commercialthinning takes place. The MAI of
this managementsystemis estimatedto be about 5-9 m3/ha/yr, comparedwith essentiallyno
net growth withoutmanagement. Although the 100-yearrotation managementsystem is
expectedto be both profitable and environmentallysustainable,it is still in an experimental
phase and has not yet proven to be financiallyviable. Nevertheless,the Magallanicade
Bosques companyin Punta Arenas is confidentenough in the system that annually it is
bringing an average of 3,500 ha under management,out of a total productive forest of
483,000 ha.
Costa Rica: Three Initiatives'
46.
Most loggingin Costa Rica is conducted by independentoperators who purchase
standingtimber from landownersand sell the logs to sawmills. Extraction practices tend to
be careless and highly destructive to non-harvestedtrees and to the forest floor as well. The
DGF (Forest Service) is the governmentagency responsiblefor controllinglogging on all
forests of Costa Rica, but in practice, it does not have the staff or the budget to effectively
implementits mandate. In particular, it does not monitorthe managementplans which must
be submittedby loggers for a permit. Loggers, therefore, view these plans as nothing more
than a bureaucratichurdle for obtaininga fellingpermit, and do not use them for their
intendedpurposes. Illegal harvesting and wastageare the norm. Neverthelessthere are some
recent and interestinginitiativeson SNFM.
47.
Forest companymanagement. PORTICO, a verticallyintegrated timber
corporation, is the examplemost often cited for commercialforest managementin Costa
Rica. This companyowns and manages most of the forest area from which it harvests
timber, mostly Carapaguianensis, for the productionand export of fine wood doors. Its
forest managementprogram involves selective loggingand area control, with 15-yearcutting
cycles. Improved harvestingand extractiontechniquesare also used to minimizedamage to
the forest canopy and floor. Althoughit is not yet known whether the level of harvestingor
the regenerationperiod (i.e., 15 years) can support sustainableproduction, this management
approachis certainly superior to no managementat all, which usually ends in total forest
conversion.
S
Extracted from Kirmse, 1991.
14
48.
CATIE. With funding and technicalassistancefrom ODA (UnitedKingdom) and
DDA (Switzerland),the Tropical AgriculturalCenter for Research and Education (CATIE)
has initiatedforest managementresearch in the tropical moist forest of the lowlands (Atlantic
Zone) and in the highlands. The main aim of the research is to develop harvesting
techniques that do not threaten biodiversity.
49.
NGO projects. The US Agency for InternationalDevelopment(USAID), together
with NGOs, recently initiatedtwo conservationand developmentprojects--BOSCOSAin
1988 and FORESTAin 1991--aimed at stabilizingland use within forest reserves and to
conserve the remaining forest cover for neighboringCorcovado and Braulio Carrillo National
Parks. The projects seek to encourage local people to earn income from the managementof
natural forests rather than from cattle ranching. This is in response to the concem that
campesinosdo not currently view the economic potential of forests as an actual production
alternative. The projects are supportingforest managementresearch through the Forestry
Departmentof the TechnologicalInstituteof Costa Rica (ITCA). Innovativesilvicultural
systems, such as strip cutting, on a relatively small scale (i.e., 700 ha in the Osa Peninsula),
are being tested. The projects are comparing the economic, silviculturaland ecological
aspects of traditionalutilizationsystems with improved systems (whichinclude extraction
with oxen).
Colombia: Pressure from Land Invasions
50.
Colombiais estimatedto be losing an average of about 500,000 ha of natural forest
annually, mainlybecause of spontaneoussettlementand the lack of an effective forest
managementsystem (FAO/CP, 1991). In principle, loggingis controlled by a licensing
system that requires a managementplan stipulatingcutting (diameter)limits, felling cycles
and harvesting methods, all of which are aimed at ensuring sustainableharvests. But in
practice there is little controlover loggingoperations, mainly because of staff shortages (only
20 persons covering 6 million ha) and institutionalweaknessof the governmentagency,
INDERENA, responsiblefor the control of natural forests in Colombia.
51.
Carton de Colombia. In the one significanteffort to manage natural forests in
Colombia, Carton de Colombia, a large pulpwoodcompanyoperated by Smurfit (a
subsidiaryof Container Corporation),put into place a managementsystem in 1974 on 24,000
ha of concessionland in the Pacific Coast forest near Buenaventura. The silviculturalsystem
involved selective loggingof 150 species of trees for pulpwood and area control, with an
expected cutting cycle of 30 years. Damage to the residual stand was minimizedthrough the
use of aerial cable logging. Of the 125 m3 of wood harvested per hectare, about 80 percent
was processed into pulp and 20 percent was sawn. Although studies have indicated that the
management system could result in sustainable yields of about 7 m3 /ha/yr, the company could
not control access to the management circles (i.e, areas) and unemployed people moved into
them to extract wood, mine and farni, thus effectively stopping the management scheme.
15
Bolivia: Novel Research Efforts6
52.
Current Bolivianlegislationrequires that concessionairesreplant or ensure
regenerationafter trees are harvested, but this is seldom practiced. Managementregulations
are not followedbecause they make little economic sense under the current price and cost
structure of forest harvesting. Forest owners rightly perceive high opportunitycosts of not
liquidatingall their commercialmahogany(Swietiniamacrophyla).The growth rates of
mahoganyin net value is less than 10% per year. In fact, only at age 40 (diameter 24 cm)
does growth in volume approach 10%, although mahoganytrees are not marketed at this
young age. Only 80 cm or greater diameter trees (about 80 years of age) are presently
harvested.It is therefore more profitable for entrepreneursto cut the trees as soon as they
reach commercialsize and reinvest the income in other activitiesyieldinghigher returns (real
interest rates in Bolivia probably approach 17% or 18% today) than to leave the trees in the
forest where the returns from value growth are small.
53.
Forest harvestingin Bolivia is highly selective for one species, Swietiniamacrophyla,
which, as currently harvested, is not sustainable.In this area-intensivesystem, 5 trees per ha
is the upper average limit on what is extracted from primary forests, and many forests yield
only as little as 1 tree per 3-4 ha. Loggingappears to change the species and size structure of
the forests, leading to the commercialextinctionof the most valuable species (Gullisonand
Hardner, 1993). The current selective loggingoperations are not very destructivein terms of
absolute damage to the forest, but they are very destructiveon a per-tree basis (Gullisonand
'Hardner, 1993). Evaluationof the damageinflicted by loggingactivitiesin the Bosque
Chimanesin Bolivia, by Gullison and Hardner (1993), showedthat with a loggingintensity
of 0.12 mahoganytrees per ha: (i) the damage due to tree felling was about 0.47% of the
total area subject to harvest (604 ha); (ii) the direct damage due to road buildingwas about
1.05% (4.9 km of main roads and 8.5 kms of skid trails); and (iii) the indirect damage due
to road building (mostlypermanentroads) was about 2.87% (area damagedin addition to
area directly under roads). These findingsare consistentwith the observationthat the scarce
factor of production is capital. Because skidders are the most expensivepiece of equipment,
loggers tend to use main roads instead of skid trails. As is well known, extensionof roads
into tropical forests is the principal cause of vegetationdestructionand soil erosion, and main
roads cause more harm than skid trails.
54.
Chimanesproject. A few improved forest managementinitiatives have recently been
initiated(Kiernan et. al. 1992). The Chimanesproject, located in the Departmentof Beni,
was launchedby the government, private concessionaires,NGOs and ITTO in 1989to
establish a model for sustaineduse of forest resources. The project is testing and putting into
practice improvedsilviculturalpractices (includingenrichmentplanting)on an area of about
600,000 ha.
6
Derived from Constantino (1992).
16
55.
Gullison and Hubbell (1992)found that although the existing harvest of mahoganyis
not sustainablein the Bosque Chimanes, it appears that it is technicallypossibleto
sustainablyharvest the species. This is because mahoganyis a species adapted to natural
disturbancesand its seedlingsrequire light and only grow under canopy clearings.
Apparently,larger clearings than those occurringfrom the natural falling of trees are
necessary to ensure good regeneration. Silviculturalinterventionsto facilitate the growth of
seedlingsor to conserve some seed trees may, however, be necessary to ensure
sustainability. The reason is that regenerationtends to cluster by the same age and size
class. If all are extracted or damagedduring extraction, there will be no seed trees left to
ensure regeneration. Economicconditionspermitting, it may be necessary to either save
some seed trees and/or clear vegetationaround seedlings to facilitategrowth.
56.
But again, economic considerationsget in the way of natural forest managementsince
at present real discount rates, thinning of seedlingsdoes not appear to be a viable practice.
With private discount rates in Boliviaapproaching 17 percent, the net present value of a
cluster of 10 trees grown after harvestingfollowedby cleaning is negative for interest rates
of 5 % or higher for a cut at age 80. Assumingtrees could be cut at age 40, or that there
would be an appreciationin value, positive post harvestinginterventionsmight be justified at
discountrates of 5 %.
57.
Other projects. The CICOL/CIDOBproject, located in Santa Cruz, was initiatedin
1984 by the Centro IntercomunalCampesinodel Oriente Lomerio (CICOL)and the
ConfederacionIndigena del Oriente Boliviano(CIDOB)to protect and develop, under a
sustained-useprogram, communityforests. A main project focus is to consolidateancestral
rights over the forests and to develop small-scalewood processingindustry to ensure that
benefits from the managementschemeflow to the local community.
58.
Yet another project was initiatedin 1989in the Departmentof Santa Cruz by the
Ministry of campesino affairs (MACA), with IDB financing, to demonstrateon a commercial
scale the implementationof a forest managementplan. Implementedby a private
concessionaireon a 57,000 ha forest concession,with technicalhelp from a local university,
the project includes research, training and environmentaleducationactivities.
LESSONS FOR SUSTAINABLE NATURAL FOREST MANAGEMENT
59.
From this review of the LAC region, we have learned that many natural forest
managementprojects have been abandonedbecauseof unprofitability(like in Tapajos,
Brazil), land invasion (like the Carton de Colombiaproject), securityproblems (like with the
CELOS system in Surinam),or simply lack of politicalwill or institutionalinterest (like at
EMBRAPA/CNPCin Brazil). Despite the dearth of empirical work in the region, and the
absence of truly long-term and large-scaleresults necessary to confirm sustainability,these
projects offer useful insights about the conditionsfor improvedSNFM.
17.
Technical Conditions
60. If we agree that managementof endangerednatural forests is needed to prevent their
destruction, do we in fact have sufficienttechnicalknowledgefor implementation? Growth
and yield informationneeded to specify precisely the length and intensityof cutting cycles is
not available. Likewise, little is known about the impacts of logging on the ecosystem's
capacity to sustain environmentalservices. Most forest managementspecialistswould agree,
however, that sufficient knowledgeabout the effects of harvestingon forest dynamicsis
already available, and that, with educatedjudgementand careful planning, vastly superior,
albeit not perfect, managementsystems can be designed for most forests in the LAC region.
61.
Planning with known technology. Relatively modest measuresinvolvingsimple
planning have already been shown to reduce the destructiveimpacts of logging and at the
same time reduce harvesting costs (e.g., Surinam). Ideally, planning would include detailed
inventoriesand topographicaldata, followedby a transportationplan, designed to avoid
problem areas such as streams, to minimizethe area disturbed. In LAC, the following
technologicalprescriptionshave been includedin successfulplans:
(a)
Area control. Most of the technicallysuccessfulprojects have used some
form of controlledaccess, referred to as area control (e.g., Periodic Block
System in Trinidad & Tobago, QuintanaRoo in Mexico, Palazcu Valleyin
Peru, Boscosa and PORTICOin Costa Rica, Carton de Colombia, Nothofagus
in Chile). Because the logging area is known, area control facilitatesplanning
and enforcementof regulations, such as road closure, and monitoringis more
efficient. Area control also allows for better linkages to environmental
services because particularly sensitive sites can be excluded. For example, the
managementsystem in the Sierra Madre of Mexico allowed for the isolation
and protection of biodiversityreserves. With area control, stand specialization
can be pursued; some stands would specializeon environmentalservices, and
others on commercialproduction. The result would be a mosaicof
managementmodels.
(b)
Cuttingcycles and girth limits. Except for the Strip ShelterwoodSystem in
Peru, and to a certain degree the Nothofagusmanagementsystem in Southern
Chile, a polycyclic(i.e., selective)form of forest managementis generally
used for LAC forests. The key to success is to select the optimumharvesting
intensity, intermediatetreatments(e.g., liberationthinning, climber cutting)
and cutting cycle that provide an economicallyviable flow of timber on a
sustainablebasis, while at the same time protectingenvironmentalvalues.
Conservativeharvesting systems, based on minimum diameter, could be
implementednow, while pursuing the long-termresearch on growth and yield
to fine tune the systems as informationbecomes available. Cycles and girth
limits can be difficultto enforce, however. An alternative, which has not been
tried in LAC, could be an area control model where one part of the forest is
managed on a monocyclicsystem for commercialproduction and only very
18
(c)
conservativeinterventionsare recommendedfor the forest areas identifiedfor
conservationand the provision of mainly environmentalservices.
Controlled Extraction. Directional felling to protect residual trees (e.g.
CELOS, Surinam)and planned skiddingtrails (e.g. Chimanes, Bolivia)have
been shown to reduce damage to residual trees by as much as 33 percent
(Marn and Jonkers, 1982). In steep and swampy areas, cable yarding has been
successfullyapplied in Colombia and Surinam to reduce road requirements
and concomitantsoil disturbance.
62. Research and Dissemination. Managementplans should be dynamic and improved
over time through a learning by doing approach. Thus, research should be an important
componentof any forest managementscheme, which would be improved as new information
becomes available. All research shouldbe designed to provide the regeneration and growth
informationneeded to specify the timing and extent of those treatments and length of cutting
cycles and to calculate the related costs and benefits. Most research would need to focus on
the effect of canopy openingson the regenerationand growth of the more valuable timber
species so that the design of the harvestingintensity may be adjusted by the amount of light
needed by those species.
63. But research shouldalso focus on the impacts of silviculturaltechniques on the
ecosystemand on the supplyof environmentalservices. The main reason for promoting
SNFM is that it is more environmentallybenign than alternativeland uses. Still, there are
environmentalrisks, and careful monitoringand evaluation is needed. As informationon the
impacts of managementon the environmentis generated, the SNFM system can be modified
to take those impacts into consideration. Given the controversiesover SNFM, it is also
essential to prove (or disprove) that SNFM is consistentwith protection of most
environmentalvalues. Some of the projects reviewed--Palazcu in Peru, CATIE in Costa
Rica, and the new phase in French Guyana--alreadyinclude simple biodiversitymonitoring.
64. Because silviculturalinformationis so costly to obtain, it is imperative that the results
of successfulprojects be disseminated. Withouta systematicdisseminationsystem, foresters
are often forced to reinvent costly knowledge. For example, the Mexican Quintana Roo
project generated silviculturalinformationon mahoganyspecies (i.e., it is a light-demanding
species and regenerates best in large canopy openings) that was already known in the 1920s1930s from work done in Belize. Because that informationwas not accessible, technology
transfer was impossible.
Fmancial Conditions
65. It is usually not the lack of technicalknowledgethat leads to SNFM terminationor
impedesits adoptionoutside of the project area. Rather, it usually tends to fail for financial
reasons. The Tapajos forestry project failed mainlybecause of the lack of buyers for timber.
Mills could simply get their log supplyfree from farmers who wanted their land cleared.
Even the innovativePeruvian YaneshaForestry Cooperative(Palcazu)lacks financial
19
profitability, and the project would probably not be able to repay the $2 million grant for
start-upcosts. Only recently did the Chilenos find a lucrative market for wood chips from
the Nothofagusforests, allowingthose forest owners the economicwherewithalto consider
implementinga sustainablemanagementscheme. This is a rare case, however, and the
generally low prices of wood products and high costs of harvestingand transportation,
combined with the long rotations (generally50 years or more) has been sufficientcause for
dismissingthe idea of good forest management.
66. Fnancial profitability. Under existing conditions,SNFM has seldom been able to
compete with alternativeland uses. Rationalprivate investors tend to leave trees in the
forests only as long as their growth in total value exceedsthe interest rate7 (e.g. Bolivia).
Those conditions usually only occur, if they occur at all, with very intensive forest
managementunder rather artificial technologies.Thus, private farmers have tended to do
somethingother than sustainableforest management,such as selling the trees and putting the
money in the Bank or elsewherein the economy. Kishor and Constantino(1993) have shown
for Costa Rica that large farmers and corporations, well integratedwith credit markets,
would prefer to log intensively, and then convert a natural forest to a plantationof a fast
growing tree species, than to invest in sustainableforest management. This is because
domesticatedtrees in a monoculturecan grow faster than the interest rate, and thus
plantationsbecome an attractive investment. On the other hand, small farmers, isolated from
credit markets and facing higher interest rates, would prefer to mine the forest or to convert
to pastures, over a natural forest option. That low intensityforest managementis not a
financiallyprofitable investmentwas confirmed in an independentstudy for Paragominasin
the BrazilianAmazonby Hardner and Barreto (1993).
67.
But there have been some private or communityinitiativesin SNFM. What made
those forest owners decide to opt for forest management? From the projects analyzed, we
identified five conditionsthat could help make SNFM financiallyattractive:
(a)
Large industrial investments. Large industrialcomplexes (e.g., Carton de
Colombia, Jari project, Florestas Rio Doce), because of their sizeablecapital
investments,want to sustain raw material production, at least during the
lifetime of the processing facility. After initial loggingof mature forests,
these groups have decided to invest in a future crop. But these are the
exception; in most cases the second crop tends to be a monocultureof exotic
species, where most of the environmentalbenefitsare lost.
(b)
International markets. Increasingly, companiesexportingto
environmentallydemandingforeign buyers seek to secure their market share
through "good managementbehavior". PORTICO, for example, understands
that it needs to please environmentallymindedforeign consumers to secure
access to export markets. And because the main species is not adapted to
monoculture planting, the company has chosen a natural management regimen.
7
But tliisis not exactiy true mnvestorsalsa face the opportunity costs of not freeing up land for another tree
crop, so they will deranti tiiat ces grc shiig1tfy faster tl.an the interest rate.
20
(c)
(d)
(e)
Furthermore, companiesusing high quality natural forest timber may be
betting on real price increases, brought about by an expected scarcity and
shortage of substitutes.
Non-timberproducts. When economicallyimportant, non-timberforest
products, which are dependenton the natural forest structure, can be a key
contributionto the overall financialattractivenessof SNFM. Chicle collection,
for example, is one of the principal factors behind the success of the Quintana
Roo model. To sustain chicle production, which is collected annually,
communitymembersmust also sustain the natural forest. In Brazil, similar
considerationslie behind the struggle of rubber tappers and collectors of Brazil
nuts to stop deforestation,which is threateningthe source of their livelihood.
Silviculture. Enrichmentplantingor other silvicultural interventionsthat
increase growth rates of the natural forest may also make SNFM financially
more attractive. As we saw for the Bolivia case, silviculturalinterventions
that increase growth can help improve profitabilityat real interest rates of 5%
or lower. The Surinam CELOs system was financiallyviable becauseit
increased natural growth rates ten-fold. But the more intensive the
interventionbecomes--usuallythrough focus on a smaller number of species,
use of herbicides, cleaning, etc.--the more environmentalvalues are put at
risk. There is thus a trade-off between SNFM profitability and environmental
protectionfunctions,which policy makers must consider.
Communitystability. Where resource depletion may lead to the
disappearanceand migration of a community, SNFM may have an invaluable
role to play. In several projects in LAC-- QuintanaRoo, Palazcu and
BOSCOSA--the local communitieshave readily taken up the management
program where they stand to benefit. Much more can be done in this area,
especiallyin helpingto develop the financial/fiscalmechanismsto channel
forest revenues to local communities. For example, CanadianSNFM
programs seek, among other things, stabilizationof resource dependent
communities (Fletcher et al, 1993), and can offer useful lessons.
Social Conditions
68. Social pressure is a major reason why natural forest managementschemes are
abandonedor disrupted, mainly because the managed forest areas are invaded by local poor
people. This was clearly seen in Colombia, where the Carton de Colombiaforest
managementproject was disrupted when unemployedpeople proceeded to extract poles and
to mine in the forest, thus destroyingthe regenerationcapacity of the managementcircles.
Similarly, communityinvolvement,or sharing in the benefits, has often been one of the
critical aspects leading to SNFM success.
69.
The special needs of the local communitiesmust be taken into considerationwhen
designing forest managementschemesso that they have an incentive to protect the forest and
maintainthe scheme. Where local communitieshold traditional claim to forest land, secure
21
land rights is a prerequisiteto ensure that benefits from forest managementflow to them.
This was demonstratedin the ejidos of QuintanaRoo, Mexicoand in Palazcu, Peru. In both
cases, job security and communityeconomic stabilityimprovedas a result of the projects.
The BOSCOSAproject in Costa Rica is likely to lead to the same results. On the other
hand, the Carton de Colombiaexample shows what can happen when local people do not
benefit from the managementprogram. Thus, the private concessionaire,as well as the
public sector, must considerlocal needs and develop mechanismsto channel revenues
accordingly. While efforts to involve local communitiesin forest managementschemes may
initially appear difficultand time consuming,in fact, protectionby local people usually costs
less than governmentprotection, and is believed to be more efficient.
70.
Local people generally have knowledgeof the forests and of the non-timberforest
products that can be incorporatedinto managementschemes. In fact, traditionalforest
managementis generally criticized for not taking into account other forest products. Where
possible, more reliance on extractionof fruits and gums and less on timber should help to
reduce environmentalimpacts of extractionactivitiesand create incentivesfor sustainingthe
natural capital. A good example of this is the harvestingof chicle and honey, along with
mahogany, in QuintanaRoo, Mexico.
Policy Conditions
71.
Misguidedpublic policies is another importantcause of SNFM failure. In some
cases, policies complicateor block the implementationof SNFM; in others, the problem is
the lack of supportingpolicies.
72. Policies affecting private discountrates. The decision to conserve the natural
forest capital insteadof depleting it largely depends on the discount rate of the decision
maker. When the relative weight given to present benefit of forest land is much greater than
the value of future benefits, there is little interest to manage forest land as a forest rather
than as a short term return option such as agriculture. Any policies affecting discount rates
are therefore liable to influence the decision of SNFM. For example, unstable
macroeconomicpolicies or subsidiesto competingactivities, such as livestockand
agriculture, can deter SNFM by increasinginflationand investmentrisks, which in turn
raises discount rates. Sound and stable macroeconomicpolicies, therefore, shouldplay an
important, but not complete,role in improvingthe economic frameworkfor SNFM.
73.
Support to competingland uses. Much has been written on policies that promote
forest conversionto pasture or other agriculturaluse, especiallyin countries such as Costa
Rica (World Bank, 1993) and Brazil (Mahar, 1989). Official policies that work against
SNFM have a long history in LAC and are often, not surprisingly, a direct reflectionof the
politicalpower of landholders.State budgets have tended to supportedagriculturalactivities
at the expense of forestry in most LAC countries, often to take advantageof quotas and
markets in industrializedcountries. In other countries, such as Argentina, industrialization
policies have harmed all rural based economicactivities, includingagriculture and natural
22
forest management.Moreover, in almost every country in the region, land titling implicitly
imposesa tax on forests. Together, these policies have acceleratedthe conversion of forests
to other uses. With the exception of Belize (Grant, 1976; Guess, 1987) and Trinidad and
Tobago, which developed forestry to serve mercantilistmarkets in Britain, LAC countries do
not have an indigenousforestry tradition. For centuries, this has amply been reflected in
contradictorypublic policies and laws. For successfulSNFM, these distorted policies must be
reformed, and support to competingland uses must be removed.
74.
Land use policy. Missing from most LAC countriesis a clearly defined and strictly
enforced conservation-orientedland-use policy, supportedby a land classificationsystem
designatingappropriate areas for production, protectionand conservation. Because SNFM
generally cannot be justified on financial groundsalone, governmentinterventionwill need to
be justified on the related environmentalvalues (e.g. buffer zones, upper watersheds)or in
resource dependent communities,where the purpose is communitystabilityor job security.
For this to happen, appropriatelydesignedland-use policesare required. The Bank has
already been instrumentalat helping governmentsformulate these policies and the related
conservationprograms (e.g., Rondonia and Mato Grosso, Brazil).
75. Property rights and tenure security. Insecure resource ownership has tended to be
an effective disincentiveto good forest management. Only when agents responsiblefor the
forest managementactivities--whetherlocal communities(as in QuintanaRoo) or
concessionaires(as in Bolivia)--havefull and long term control over the land, will these
forest owners have a personal stake in their future and, therefore, be expected to have a long
term interest in their preservation. This implies a need for security of land tenure, clear and
stable resource use rights, or long duration concessionagreements', for whichgovernments
must take the lead.
76. Unregulatedsupplies. In many countries, standingtimber has low value because of
an oversupplyof unregulatedlogs. This is caused by an open access to the resource, the
rapid rate of forest conversion, and failure of institutionsto enforce extant regulations. This
explainsthe failure of the Tapajos project, where conversionof forest to farmland caused an
oversupplyof free, unregulatedtimber. A similar situationoccurred in Paraguay where a
legal frameworkand an official incentivescheme is in place for sustainablemanagementof
forests. Despite generous tax deferments,there was little interest in the scheme because of
the abundanceof timber, fed by the deforestationprocess (Kirmse, 1993). Governmentsneed
to tax reckless logging according to the environmentaldamage it causes. If the value of
unregulatedlogs to loggers is brought down, through a tax or any other means, the relative
value of managed timber will increase, and hence the profitabilityof SNFM will improve.
77. Royalties. Governmentsmust decide if the purpose of royalties is to influence
behavior or to capture economicrents. In most Latin Americacountries, SNFM has such
8
Or shorter term but with certainrenewalif concessionagreementsare followed.
23
low profitabilitythat any attempt to collectrents may preclude any possibilityof SNFM.
None of the reviewed projects appearedto be generatingany rents, and royalties were not an
important componentof project success. A better approachwould be to try to convince
concessionairesto invest these rents in SNFM and to close access to critical forests in need
of protection.
78.
In any case, royalties are usually a rather inefficientmechanismfor rent capture.
Rather, they are more effective at influencingthe behavior of loggers, concessionairesand
land owners. LAC countriestypically use quantitylimits to control resource depletion. If
these are well implemented,there is little room to use taxes to affect resource allocation.
But, where enforcementis dubious, royalties, by bringing about a price differentialbetween
unregulatedand regulated wood, may be useful as a complementto regulation.
79.
Another common policy mistake made by LAC countriesis to assess royaltieson the
basis of timber removed rather than on forests disturbed. Althoughthis may be justified for
logs of unknown origin, in other occasionsit can encourage concessionowners to highgrade
("cream") the largest and best formed individuals. Higrading tends to leave the poorer stock
as seed trees and thereby depletes the regenerativehealth of the forest. Also, as research in
the Chimanes forest of Bolivia has shown, highgrading,although reducing the numberof
trees removed per hectare, results in a more extensivepermanent road network. And roads
are know to be the main cause of forest destructionduring loggingoperations.
80.
Lack of public incentives. When the private sector assesses the value of a forest,
and hence their interest in its management,it generally considers only the timber resource.
Where SNFM may be rejected by the private sector for financial reasons, but makes
economic sense because of its environmentalbenefits, governmentsshould strive to help
private agents and communitiesinternalizethe environmentalbenefits of SNFM. Given the
positive externalitiesof SNFM relative to competingland uses (see Kishor and Constantino,
1993), the public sector may also be justified to use incentivesto promote the activity. The
Palcazu project in Peru, which providedincome and employmentbenefits and ensured the
cultural integrity of the communities,succeededin part because it received a $2 million grant
for start-up costs. Althoughthis specific grant may or may not be economicallyjustified, the
point is, where environmentalor social benefits are large, a subsidyor equivalentmeasure is
likely to be necessary to make SNFM viable.
81.
Offeringdirect grants, however, is not necessarilythe best way of subsidizingSNFM.
Governmentsmay also offer services, supportprocessing, furnishinputs to reduce start-up
costs and maintain price controls. In Brazil, for example, rubber prices are subsidizedin
support of rubber extractors. It may also be possibleto initiate direct transactionsbetween
beneficiaries of environmentalbenefitsof SNFM and providers of those benefits, such as the
carbon offset arrangementsthat are currentlybeing developedbetween temperateand tropical
countries. Another example is the current trend of green labeling. These certification
schemesallow environmentallymindedconsumersto pay a price premiumto benefit SNFM.
24
82.
SNFM could
.....
also be financedby a
--
network of special
funds, similar to the
Swiss model (see box).
.
.. ....
hw
sm-ao
y 'ud wc...r.
se ra.A
n avsandriv
angmn
m_4sfrIrs
am
t .
..
i-poo
f ld
e
decentoaitioi a
pplicbleto SNFM.. his-isbeaauethe
in cm
loei
o
Essential elements
shouldbe built into a
.
namely: (1) its receipts
LAC -of
Depsit fro the sal tibe It te -eioa foe
andexpendituresmust
fun is retundtocmuitie
an hrfr
ere h ups
be transparent, (2) it
of fiaca eqaiaintepdpesd
com=te
a b
should be replenished l
i c- d
-scnric
from internal receipts, -f-Q;-:--4---0- - -;0:-;
-;;0-;t0-f00g-flt:-tit- 0t0400-4000000--ttOw
and(3) it shouldbe
- -- -$ --- - -$ -i-;-- -- -t ----- lT- -~~~~~~~~~~~.
. . ...
. ...
. . . .
held to a specific
mandate, such as
stabilizationof forest-basedincome and employmentin target communities.Relevant details
that would ensure diversity in the managementpians shouldbe worked out at the local level,
nrobablyby municipalcouncils.
.
83.
Log export banis. Governmentsenact log export bans to keep prices below market
levels as a means to encouragelocal value added. But by constrainingdomesticproducer
prices, domestic suppliersand forest producers end up receiving only a fraction of the
market value for their products. Such policies therefore weakenSNFM profitabilityand
further contribute to the rejection of good forest management.
84.
Behind the veneer of nationalistproductionand environmentalprotection, log export
bans have another dimension:only integratedcompanies can capture the free trade value of
the resource. By making forestry highly profitable for an integrated corporationbut
unprofitableto the small producer, bans also contributeto concentrationin the sector. This
has already happenedin Indonesia, where in the 1980s the governmentbanned export of
unprocessedlogs to conserve wood and to force producers to add value to their products by
exportingmore advancedgoods like plywood.The main effect was to drive many small
producersout of business and to hand a monopolyover to a few firms controlling export
licenses for processed wood (Economist, 1993:8).
85. Although a log export ban is inherentlya flawed mechanismfor controlling
deforestation, care must be taken in its removal. Without mitigatingmeasures, the removal
of a ban (or any other measure that increasestimber prices), could also lead to even greater
deforestation,mainly by pushing logging into new lands. Higher prices alone are insufficient
to bring about SNFM. In fact, higher prices may increase the conversion of secondaryor
pbmary forests to plantationsor to pastures, mainly because they would lower the costs of
conversion. However, where appropriate conditionsare in place--i.e., community
25
management, appropriate structure of incentives, effective govemment institution, enforced
environmental controls--removing the log export ban should over the long run benefit SNFM.
86.
Plantation subsidies. To encourageprivate plantationestablishment,most LAC
governmentsoffer forestation subsidies,which, if not properly designed and implemented,
can effect SNFM. Unless specificallyprohibited, plantationsubsidieshave been used by the
private sector to reforest natural forest areas, thus reducing the biodiversityvalue of the
land. Plantation subsidiesmay also send the wrong signal to the economy; that is, by
shifting scarce budgetaryresources in the directionof plantationestablishmentover SNFM,
there is also a shift in research prioritiesin the direction of plantationestablishmentover
SNFM. This happenedin Brazil where plantationsubsidies generated a large demand for
plantation technologyand the entire Brazilianpublic and private research and teaching
apparatus specializedin developingthose silviculturaltechnologies,with little attention given
to SNFM. The same happenedin Chile and Costa Rica. Furthermore, depending on the
specific paymentmechanisms, subsidiescan lead to concentrationin the industry and help to
perpetuate the bias towards large producers.
87.
Accounting methods. LAC governmentstypicallyuse cash-basedaccounting
systems, for which the balance sheets and income statementsdo not reflect the true cost of
failing to maintainforest assets. This accountingtechniquetends to hide policy failure
because it underpricestropical forest assets and allows policy-makersto ignore the current
and future costs of failing to prevent the deteriorationof the capital stock. New Zealand has
valued its plantationforest assets and has employedpublic accrual accountingto make
departmentalmanagersmore consciousof the costs and value of their assets to future
generations(Economist, 1992:50).If LAC forest services were to use the same techniques to
keep accrued accounts on tropical forest resources, more rational policy decision could be
forthcoming.
Institutional conditions
88.
Most LAC countrieshave rules and regulationsfor the logging of natural forests,
which are intendedto ensure sustainableharvests. These guidelines, however, have not been
effectivelyenforced. This is mainlybecause the governmentinstitutionsresponsiblefor
forestry affairs often lack implementationcapacityand resources, but it is also because the
guidelines work againstprivate interests. Moreover, because the regulationsare designed to
sustain commercialtimber productionrather than to sustain environmentalvalues, even if
properly implemented,they would probably not be effective for biodiversityprotection. This
implies a need to reform the regulatory frameworkas well as the responsible institutions.
89. Role of public sector. The degree of governmentinterventionin SNFM varies
widely in LAC. In some countries the Forest Serviceundertakes most management
activities, keeps close control over the forest and sells timber to the private sector. The
forests of Trinidad & Tobago, Surinam, and French Guyana are managedin this manner,
similar to the USA NationalForest model. Public interventionat times goes beyond this,
26
with the governmentowning and operating processing plants, which are generally
unprofitable.Althoughthese government-runprojects are technicallyamong the best, the
costs are very high. In other countries, such as Bolivia or Colombia, most forests are kept
under public ownershipand utilizationrights are transferred to private firms through
concessions. These firms undertake most managementinterventionswhile the government's
role is limited to revenue collectionand regulationenforcement. Still, in other countries,
such as Brazil or Costa Rica, most forests are privately owned and the governmenthas a
regulatory, enforcementand revenue collectionrole.
90.
Government-controlledmanagementthrough a NationalForests model, a concessions
model or a communitymodel makes sense where environmentalvalues are substantialand
the risks of deforestationhigh. With full private ownershipof forests, public interventionis
more difficult. The principle shouldbe to use public ownershipmodels where environmental
values are important. Where private ownershipprevails, the public sector shouldbe
specificallyconcerned with environmentalmonitoringof SNFM. In addition, it should
support SNFM projects by providing regulatory and service functions such as land use
classificationand planning, tenure regularization,forestry extension, regulationof logging
and harvesting, applied research and collectionof baseline data. Directly productive
activities-- such as plantationestablishmentand management,products manufacture,
marketingand export--arebest left to the private sector. Under the right conditions,private
companies, such as Portico, Jari, Florestas Rio Doce, and Carton de Colombia, do
undertakeenvironmentallysound forest management.
91.
Institutionalreform. LAC public sectors have largely been incapable of performing
forestry support functions. The literature is replete with references to structural and
managerialovercentralization,inadequate pay, politicizedrecruitmentand policy-making,
lack of mid-leveland line discretion and weak project managementskills (Wynia,1984). An
institutionalreform program is needed to improve institutionalperformancefor the needed
support and regulatory functions and to reduce the role of governmentin forestry production.
92.
Our review of forest managementprojects in LAC has shown that some of the most
successfulSNFM projects in the region were implementedby NGOs (e.g. BOSCOSA, Costa
Rica), or actively supportedby State or Provincial governmentsstructures (e.g. Quintana
Roo, Minas Gerais). But generally, centralizedpublic sector decision-makingand fiscal
authoritywork against the need of managementdiscretion and accountabilityat the local
level, where it counts. By constrainingthe authority of local governmentsand line
managers, who could implementSNFM projects, communitycontrol is also inhibited. The
overall result is a distortionof information flows and wastage of scarce budgetaryresources.
For improvedefficiency, functions,such as support to SNFM, biodiversity
93.
protection, watershedmanagementand environmentmonitoring, need to be assigned to the
appropriate level of government. This end, however, is inconsistentwith current unitary
structures in LAC, whichreserve most revenue raising and expenditureauthority and service
delivery for the national level. To match expenditureneeds with revenue means and to ensure
27
effective service delivery, the first step is to reform expenditureassignmentin the legal
system. Innovativemechanismsto financeand encouragepublic institutionsalso need to be
tried. One approach--whichis currentlybeing practicedin Canada and being studied for
applicationto other Federal systems suchas Brazil--is to create a system of matchinggrants,
whereby the Federal Governmentexplicitlysupports the forestry initiativesof local
governments,when those activites are in the nationalinterest.
94. There are a few successesof decentralizationin LAC. The IEF (Forest Service) of
Minas Gerais, Brazil, underwentmajor reforms, in part financedby a Bank loan. The reform
was far reaching: staff were reclassified,leading to higher pay and a substantialincrease in
morale; improved relations were establishedwith NGOs, research institutes and the private
sector; and staff were deployedinto several regional and subregionalunits where they are in
close contact with fanners. As a result, the IEF manages some of the best parks in Brazil,
has succeededin bringing small farmers into reforestationprograms, has initiatedresearch on
SNFM of the cerrado, and has establishedan efficient control over logging and deforestation,
maldinguse of remote sensing and the militarypolice. Likewise, recent packagesof donor
incentivesand loan conditionsare contributingto the transformationof other regional forest
services--suchas COHDEFORin Honduras--intoforest information centers with greater
responsivenessto local users.
TOWARDS AN SNFM STRATEGY FOR LAC
95. Although there are still many questionson how to implementSNFM, this review has
begun to shed light on a workable, but still difficult, path. Deforestationcontinuesapace in
the LAC region and time will not wait for the design of the perfect managementregimen.
While the technicalmodels are not complete,enough is known to implementimprovedforest
management,if carefully designedto minimizerisks. To this end, we have reviewedthe
main conditions that could help increase the chances for successfulSNFM. In summary,
these elements are:
(a)
Technical: Major improvementscan be achieved with careful planning and the
applicationof known practices such as: area control, conservativediameter
limits, proper silviculturetechniquesto increase growth rates, directional
felling, and improved skid trails and road construction. At the same time,
these technicalpackagesneed to be constantly updated through a learning by
doing program of applied research.
(b)
Financial: Profitabilityof SNFM can be improved under specific
circumstances,namely: where the timber companyis concernedwith
internationalimage, where communitystabilityis crucial, where non-timber
forest products are important, where techniquescan be developedto make
trees grow faster, and where processing facilitiesrequire a localized steady
supplyof SNFM products.
28
(c)
(d)
(e)
Social: Communitysharing in project responsibilitiesand benefits can be
critical to the success of SNFM. For this to work, communitiesmust be given
tenure security.
Policy: Distorted policies, if reformed, could help to improve the
implementationenvironment.First and foremost, macroeconomicstabilityis
needed to maintain low private discountrates. At the same time, governments
need to abolish subsidiesto competingactivitiesand ensure that plantation
subsidies, when justified, do not conflict with SNFM. The fiscal system
should also be reformed to allow for the taxation of unregulatednon-managed
timber, and tax breaks or other incentivesshould be made available for the
environmentalservicesprovided by good forest management. And finally, the
true effects of log export bans shouldbe reviewed, and mitigatingmeasures
shouldbe adopted before the bans are abandoned.
b2stitutions: Public institutions,responsiblefor natural forests, should be
decentralizedand reformed in a way that supportsprivate and community
SNFM.
96. We are suggestingthat these conditionsare needed for improvedmanagementand
protectionof those forests that have already been selectively logged and are degradedand
threatenedwith conversionbecause of their proximity to the agricultural frontier. We
believe that forest managementis probably not the right conservationdevice for primary
forests. Roads needed for SNFM would open access to previouslyinaccessibleforests and
increase the threat of conversion. Rather, primary forests shouldbe protected under a
strengthened,nationalprotected area system. Moreover, a focus on secondaryforests is
consistentwith the official Bank policy on natural forests: "the Bank Group will not under
any circumstancesfinance commerciallogging in primary tropical moist forests" (p.65, The
World Bank Policy Paper; The Forest Sector, 1991).
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NFMLAC.2
12-29-93
LATEN DISSEMINATIONNOTES
No
Title
Date
Author
1
Sustainability,Yield Loss and Imediatisimo: April 1993
Choice of Techniqueat the Frontier
Robert Schneider
Gunars Platais
David Rosenblatt
Maryla Webb
2
The Potentialfor Trade with the Amazonin
GreenhouseGas Reduction
April 1993
Robert Schneider
3
Land Abandonment,PropertyRights, and
AgriculturalSustainabilityin the Amazon
April 1993
Robert Schneider
4
The Urban EnvironmentalChallengein
Latin America
August 1993
John Dixon
5
An Analysis of Flooding in the
ParanA/ParaguayRiver Basin
September
1993
Robert J. Anderson,Jr.
Nelson da Franca Ribeiro
dos Santos
Henry F. Diaz
6
Ecology and Microeconomicsas 'Joint
Products": The BonaireMarine Park in the
Caribbean
October 1993
John A. Dixon
Louise Fallon Scura
Tom van't Hof
7
Forest Managementand CompetingLand
Uses: An EconomicAnalysis for Costa Rica
October 1993
Nalin M. Kishor
Luis F. Constantino
8
Pueblos Indfgenasy Desarrollo en America
Latina
December
1993
Jorge E. Uquillas
Jean-CarloRivera
9
Prospects for ImprovedManagementof
Natural Forests in Latin America
December
1993
Robert Kirmse
Luis Constantino
George Guess
For back issues of the above, please contact:
EnvironmentDivision(LATEN)
Latin America and the CaribbeanTechnicalDepartment
The World Bank
1818H Street, N.W.
Washington,DC 20433
U.S.A.
Tel. (202) 473-7793
Fax: (202) 676-9373