Society for American Archaeology
Certain Environmental Considerations in West Indian Archaeology
Author(s): Frederick W. Sleight
Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 31, No. 2, Part 1 (Oct., 1965), pp. 226-231
Published by: Society for American Archaeology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2693988
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American Antiquity
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CERTAIN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN WEST INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
FREDERICK W. SLEIGHT
founded on these studies. Loven (1945: 694)
has stated that "The Tainos were a people
closely related to the true Arawaks, although
probably not directly originating from the coastland of British Guiana, but more likely from
Paria." Following this suggestion, archaeologists
and ethnologists have moved the "jumping-off
point" from the mainland to the Orinoco River
delta, to northwestern Guiana, and to other
areas, but more recent evidence carries us back
ABSTRACT
Major migrations into the West Indies emanated out
of South America. For the most part, tropical forest traditions were transplanted, but it is obvious that these
traditions were influenced by a markedly different environment. People who had previously known a rivertropical forest habitat now encountered the sea with its
currents, winds, swells, and expansive transportation potential. Islands, sometimes with limited fresh-water conditions, also presented new problems as well as new
opportunities for settlement. Recent work in the Virgin
Islands points to the strong influence of environment on
the settlement patterns of pre-Columbian peoples. With
the advent of extensive archaeological research in the
Antillean area, new and valued interpretations must be
sought in the cultural-environmental complex.
to Loven's suggestion: the Paria-Cariaco area of
Venezuela (Fig. 1).
Cruxent and Rouse (1958-59) have presented rather clear evidence that establishes a
Saladoid ceramic series on the lower and middle
HE RELATIONSHIPS oif aboriginal culOrinoco during the first part of Period 11 (1000
tural features and physical environment
B.C. to A.D. 300). It was supplanted during the
have been given consideration in the West Insecond half of Period II by what is referred to
dies by such workers as Fewkes (1914) and de
as the Barrancoid series. This displacement
Hostos (1924). However, the more prime tasks
seemed to have pushed some of the Saladoid
of establishing ceramic series and temporal horipeople northward to, the Paria, the Carupano,
zons have overshadowed observations on the
and the Guiria areas of Venezuela by the close
influences of physiography, special climatic feaof Period III. Contact with the Manicuaroid
tures, and ocean-land relationships. Now that
people who, had a nonceramic maritime culture
West Indian archaeology appears to be entering
resulted in the acquisition by Saladoid people
a more clearly defined phase, field workers
of navigational skills which allowed them to
might be well advised to observe more closely
move from Venezuela into, the Lesser Antilles.
the possible interrelationships of such features
According to! Cruxent and Rouse, as well as
as site locations, population intensity, and genTaylor and Rouse (1955), this movement took
eral cultural inventory. Such observations may
place about A.D. 175.
reveal or help to explain adjustments of a tropiDeep probes into the island chain to the
cal forest people to, the ocean-island setting.
north of the islands of Margarita and Trinidad
To anyone who has traveled or worked in the
would have necessitated much more than a casWest Indies and contiguous areas of Soluth
ual acquaintance with such environmental feaAmerica (Fig. 1), it is obvious that environtures as currents, tides, winds, and open-sea
ments are very divergent. Likewise, it is obvious
courses. Because of this, I am of the opinion
that West Indian artifacts illustrate new feathat a moderately long period of coastwise boattures different from those of the mainland, and
ing was necessary before the "mainlanders"
it is of interest to know to what degree environwould have ventured forth on oceanic voyages.
ment contributed to these changes, adaptations,
If we are to understand aboriginal adaptation
and new concepts. We will firs;t review the mito the Lesser Antilles, thought must be given
grational situation leading to the peopling of
to island structure. On the basis of geological
data, the islands of Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados are part of the continental structure of
northern South America. Stretching northward
from the island of Grenada at 12? North Latitude is a chain of volcanic islands variously
called the Lesser Antilles, the Caribbean Arc,
the Caribbee Volcanic Arc, and the Leeward
the West Indies and call attention to physiographic features encountered by aboriginal men
in their exploration of the unknown seas and
islands north of Venezuela.
The archaeology of Venezuela entered a period of intensified studies in 1941, and our
current concepts of West Indian origins are
226
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SLEIGHT]
G
WEST
o
q
INDIAN
ENVIRONMENTS
V
A
T
L
A
N
T
I
227
C
CAICOS ISLANDS
Iz -z' A N 1,11111AN41 0 C E A N
o
\DiIIcA L L GUDL UP
,9 g 4 N S E n m b BARBADOS~~TURS AN
,F
1.
JMC
ofAA,
ST
.
DOMINICA 0
HOI
V X0 0
DUNAU
MARTINIQUE
S.LUCIA0
N
0
T
bBARBADOS
GRENADA6)
< PANAMA ~ ~ FG.1.Mapa of thBCrbba ae
distances are: St. Vincent to St. Lucia, 21 mi.;
and Windward islands. The Virgin Islands, of
St. Lucia to Martinique, 25 mi.; Guadeloupe to
which St. John is a part, although appearing to
Montserrat, 35 mi.; and Saba to St. Martin, 29
be a northerly extension of the Lesser Antilles,
are actually separated from that arc by the deep mi. Visibility of these islands has always been
a boon to seamen, for their ancient volcanic
Anegada Passage and represent an eastern expeaks make for easy recognition at distances of
tension of the Greater Antilles (Fig. 1) .
25 to 50 mi. Representative heights are: TriniDavis (1926) has reminded us that the Lesser
dad 3085 ft., Tobago 1890 ft., Grenada 2749 ft.,
Antilles form the only instance o,n the No-rth
St. Vincent 4048 ft., Saba 2900 ft., and St. John
Amercan coast of an island festoon or island
1277 ft.
arc, while such a feature is repeated several
times off the Pacific coast of Asia. Such an arc
Winds and currents are important to a full
understanding of the aboriginal exploration and
undoubtedly represents a region of crustal deformation that provides a structural base of vol- settlement of the West Indies. It should be
noted that between the islands of Grenada on
canic nature. From a physiographic viewpoint,
therefo!re, the more recent calcareous and coral the south and Sombrero on the north a chain is
formed with a northVsouth axis having a convex
landscape is still invaded from time to time by
front facing easterly to the Atlantic Ocean and
explosive eruptions and flows. Subsidence has
an inner, or concave, side facing the Caribbean
been a general characteristic of these islands,
Sea. Prevailing winds and currents flow through
and sea cliffs, dissected land projections, and
moderately deep bays are typical against a back-this chain of islands in a general east-to-west
drop of steep mountains.
pattern, although it will be noted that there are
seasonal shifts and regional problems that were
At no place are distances great between the
islands. For example, above Grenada, the
probably of some concern to early voyagers.
Grenadines are in many places no more than
Between the South American mainland and
2 or 3 mi. apart. Throughout the Lesser Anthe Virgin Islands two major currents prevail.
tilles the average span is 30 to 40 mi. Typical
The current which hugs the northeastern coast
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228
AMERICAN
ANTIQUITY
of South America and breaks through the Lesser Antilles between the mainland and the
island of Barbados is called the South Equatorial or Guiana Current. The more northerly
current, on the other hand, is called the North
Equatorial Current. As might be expected, the
flow of these currents is in direct response to
the coriolis force and represents a more-or-less
east-to-west drift factor through the Lesser Antilles. However, a study of the Pilot Charts,
Central American Waters and South Atlantic
Ocean, published by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, will reveal that there are directional
as well as drift fluctuations through various
seasonal periods, variations that would have had
marked influence on pre-Columbian navigation.
When we study the annual wind-current factors, it appears that a group of aboriginal seamen in a dugout canoe bound for the Lesser
Antilles would have experienced their most
favorable wind intensity, wind direction, direction of current flow, and drift factors during
[
VOL.
31,
No.
2,1965
November and December of each year. Whether
or not the aboriginal navigators were aware of
these combined conditions and seasonal optimum, we may never know.
While currents, winds, and physiography are
important to a general understanding of aboriginal migration and settlement in the total
West Indian picture, it is also the purpose of
this paper to discuss the insular environmental
situation. For this purpose the island of St.
John (Fig. 2) in the Virgin Islands will be used
as an illustration. Work there was done under
an archaeological survey contract between the
National Park Service and the William L. Bryant Foundation, the Florida State Museum, and
the Central Florida Museum in 1960 (Bullen
1963; Sleight 1963).
An early occupation was found in the eastern
or Coral Bay region of St. John Island. Tests
indicated a later settlement on the western end
of the island at Cruz Bay and eventual discontinuance of the Coral Bay village. There was an
: I!_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............
I
i
..
...
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... ..l....
l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . _,.. . .
FIG. 2. Aerial view of the northwestern coast of St. John, showing Caneel, Hawksnest, Trunk, Cinnamon, Maho, and
Francis bays. Tortula lies in the background.
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.
SLEIGHT
]
WEST
INDIAN
ENVIRONMENTS
229
vectional air currents which
do, rise result
in
expansion of settlements
along
the
we
northwestern bays
of the
concu
cumulo-nimbus
clouds that island
serve the island little purpose, for they generally drop their rain
and possibly subsequent to the Cruz Bay occuleeward over t'he ocean.
pation. Bullen and Sleight feel that there are
several possible reasons for this apparent shift of Rainfall records are still spotty, but it would
settlements, but Sleight in particular thinks that
seem that an annual average of 45 in. falls
adaptation to, environmental controls was the
througho!ut the Virgin Island group. Observamajor factor that controlled settlement locations tions in eastern St. Croix suggest that rainfall on
on the island of St. John.
the eastern and southern flanks of each of these
islands probably does not exceed 25 in. annually.
St. John, when viewed from any cardinal
Stone has further stated (1942: 31) that, "Owpoint, stands like a mountain rising from the
ing to the small and erratic rainfall the dry,
sea. A high percentage of its cotastline is rocky
and rises at a sharp angle from the ocean (Fig.
porous soils, high evaporation, and the few
permanent streams, it has been a serious prob2). Although the island has a number of bays,
only a few are protected from prevailing winds lem to obtain domestic water supply." This was
and currents. This feature, which is shared by
probably also true in pre-Columbian times and
all of the Virgin Islands, stands in contrast to a suggests a poor fresh-water supply and limited
physiographic aspect to which native peoples
moist soils for the propagation of manioc.
had become accustomed in the Lesser Antilles.
During the hurricane season, St. John, like
In the latter group each island extends along a
other regions within striking distance of these
north-south axis, which always presents a lee
destructive forces, stands, in a vulnerable posiside away from the prevailing winds and curtion. For the aborigines, the best course of actio;n
rents. The reverse is true in the Virgin Islands, was to seek a lee position behind the mountains
where moderately narrow bodies of land extend or move to the western or northwestern portions
along an east-west axis. Thus on St. John few
of the island. Torrential rains usually accombays afford security and protection from wind, pany such storms, and such rains coluld be highwaves, and currents, and there is relatively littlely devasitating to a poorly placed village. A nalee coast.
tive village at Hawksnest Bay, for example,
The sites at Cruz Bay, Caneel Bay, Turtle
would have been vulnerable to flooding during
Point, Cinnamon Bay, and Francis Bay are all
a hurricane (incidentally, there is no indication
in the few protected positions on the island
of pre-Columbian occupation at this locality).
(Fig. 2). The Coral Bay site, although easterly Here the mountain rises 800 ft. and there is a
on the island, did enjoy unusual and highly
broad watershed. The habitable area back from
specialized environmental conditions for that
Hawksnest Bay sits like the spout at the bottom
part of St. John. In other words, pre-Columbian
of a funnel. Informants describe numerous ocpeoples did occupy the most suitable places but
casions in the historic past when great floods
such places are rare. This means that the popu-swept down to, the sea carrying trash and debris.
lation of St. John must always have been small.
Primitive plantings and frail thatch houses
The physiography of the island of St. John
would have given way. This is another limiting
is but oine of the natural environmental factors factor on habitation at many otherwise potential
that dominated man's settlement habits. Availvillage sites on the island.
ability of fresh water and sufficiency of rainfall
Tides, currents, surf, and winds are all addiwere features of practical concern. Those who tional environmental factors that pre-Columtravel the length and breadth of the West Indi- bian men had to reckon with at St. John. How
an chain are impressed with the generally dry did these factors limit oir control the placement
climate and semi-aridity of the southern and and development of habitation sites?
eastern flanks of the Virgin Islands as reflected
Tides would have been favorable to, primitive
by vegetation. The orientation of St. John also seamen because they were probably similar to
influenced rainfall and climate. As the islands the present .6-ft. mean range. The beaching of
are small, their climates are the same as that of boats and the placement of houses would have
met no obstacle.
the surrounding ocean. Convectional forces are
Currents around the island are strong and
minor, due both to the small size and the eastoften tricky. Even contemporary yachtsmen
west axis that parallels the prevailing winds.
tell of difficult maneuvering eastward against
Stone (1942: 24) has pointed out that the con-
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230
AMERICAN
the
strong
other
ANTIQUITY
[
VOL.
31,
No.
2,1965
prevailing
current.
Unlike
tional light
on these phases of economic
activ-
cer
regions,
St. John presents
opportunity
to demonthereity.
seems
to anbe
little
or no
strate how a very special
tropical-island environ-alth
sonal variation in current
direction,
ment controlled
or limited not only
the drift does fluctuate
between
.4plants,
to ani.7 mi.
mals, birds,to
and marine
life, but also
aboriginal
hour -strong enough
have
discourag
man.
dugout crew from making
tool many trips e
The aborigines, who;
possessed apermitted
limited agriward. Lee positions would
have
cult;ural
and fishingcould
economy, could
not have had
ier boating, which in
turn
have
established hoimesites
indiscriminately at any
influence on placement
of settlements.
point on the island.
To survive
and maintain
The coasts of St. John
often
receive
hea
a
way
of
life
of
some
efficiency,
they had to seek
ground-swell surf in addition to wind-prom
natural features
and protect themselves
waves. During the certain
winter
months
such s
fromfrom
others. This the
Indian population
needed while
are often experienced
north,
fresh water,
sheltered bays,
protected
homesites,
summer months often
bring
high
rolling
productive
soil,
and
good
fishing.
Such
sites,
from the southeast. Island dwellers must
although
limited, were
in the western
and
portability of their
craft
tofound
beach.
Thus
northwestern
parts of the island,
as well as in
tioins presenting calm
water,
moderate
t
protected region of
Coral Bay. The rest
of
and a minimum of the
current
served
best.
Th
the island
must have been only casually
visited
sites to the west and
northwest,
as
well a
or
utilized.
Because
of
these
limitations
the
Coral Bay site, offered these advantages.
population into,
on St. John St.
at any one
time was and t
The people who moived
John
possibly ever
not more than
several hundred.
West Indian chain small,
were
mindful
of
Observations
oin St.soil
John merely
suggest how
need for sufficiently
good
conditions
may have
influenced limited
the seittlemoisture. St. John physiography
offered
only
o
ment
pattern.
No
field
observations,
the com
tunities for primitive agriculture on
as
other hand, have
revealed influences
of environwith St. Croix and oither
larger,
better-wat
ment
on
such
cultural
elements
as
zemi
cults,
and richer soiled lands.
magico-religio,us
expressions,
and
subsistence
Productive soils evolve from a combination
forms.of
Since the
tropical-forest
environment
of
factors. The geology
the
land
must
pr
America differedand
so much from
that of
basic elements, andSouth
rainfall
humidity
the island
West Indies, it of
seems reasonable
to assume the
be sufficient. On the
St. John
that
such
influences
can
be
detected
and is
that of s
between soil thickness and rainfall
they
will
help
to
explain
certain
unique
artifacts
interest. At lower elevations along the south
that occur
in the islands. Field workers
must
coast and on eastern
projections
of
the i
therefore
look
more
closely
at
the
relationships
the air is dry, rainfall is light, and evapor
between
the enviro,nment
and the
cultural imme
byis rapid. Likewise,
except
in
the
region
been
of
the
products
of a people
who moved
from asoil
moist
Coral
Bay
site,
the
adaptable
has
setting to a highly divergent
and specialto jungle
aboriginal
agricultur
ized oceanic home.
the other hand, there
are limited but adap
plots in the western
and
par
BULLEN,
RIPLEY P. northwestern
the
island,
heights
as
(no
well
as
1963 Ceramic Periods
of St. Thomas mo,untain
and St. John
along
certain
Virgin Islands. The William L. Bryant
evidence Islands,
of
aboriginal usag
Fouundation, Amarican Studies Report, No. 4,
found high on slopes or
Orlando. on mountain top
other words, available soil is in direct rat
CRUXENT, J. M. AND IRVING ROUSE
rainfall. The habitation
sites seem to bea
1958-1959 An Archaeological Chronology of Venezu-
this
relationship.
ela. Pan American Union, Social Science Mono-
graphs, 6 (2 vols.). Washington.
The selection of habitation
sites on the b
of local game or other
resources
does not
DAVIS, WILLIAM
M.
to have been too important
on American
St. John.
Mar
1926 The Lesser Antilles.
Geographical
Society, New York.
studies suggest that fishing
is good off any
of the island and, except
for birds, hunting
FEWKES, J. WALTER
1914 Relations of Aboriginal
Culture and Environhave been a minor activity,
if recent
invent
ment in the Lesser Antilles. Bulletin of the
of wildlife are any indication.
Mo,re inte
American Geographical Society, Vol. 46, No. 9.
archaeological investigation
may throw a
New York.
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SLEIGIT
J
WEST
INDIAN
HOSTOS, ADOLFO DE
ENVIRONMENTS
231
STONE, ROBERT C.
1924 Notes on West Indian Hydrography in Its Relation to Prehistoric Migrations. Proceedings of
the Twentieth Congress of Americanists, pp.
239-50. Rio de Janeiro.
1942 Meteorology of the Virgin Islands. Scientific
Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Istands,
Vol. 19, Pt. 1, pp. 1-138. New York.
TAYLOR, DOUGLAS AND IRVING ROUSE
LoVEN, SVEN
1935 Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies.
Elanders Bokfryckeri Akfiebolag, Goteborg.
SLEIGHT, FREDERICK W.
1963 Archaeological Reconnaissance of the Island of
St. John, United States Virgin Islands. The William L. Bryant Foundation, American Studies
Report, No. 3. Orlando.
1955 Linguistic and Archaeological Time Depth in
the West Indies. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 105-15.
Baltimore.
CENTRAL FLORIDA MUSEUM
Orlando, Florida
June, 1964
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