Lesson 13

Against a Tyrant
by Aphthonius1
(1) Since laws are established and courts are part of our constitution
the man who tries to put an end to laws should be punished by the laws.
For if acquittal in the present case was going to make him more friendly
to the people in the future perhaps one would remit the penalty; but in
fact if acquitted now he will be more oppressive in the future - and how
can it be right to allow leniency towards this man to be the beginning of
tyranny? All others who are chosen for jury-service come to no harm if
they dismiss the charges; but dismissing a charge of tyranny will bring
harm on the jurors, for jury-service itself no longer survives under a
tyrant's rule.
(2) It seems to me that you will form a more accurate view of this
man's intent if you take into account the intentions of our ancestors.
As if as a favour to us they discovered a form of government free of
despotism - and justly so. For at different times different fortunes befall
men and change they way they think. So they invented laws, correcting
fortune's instability by the impartiality of laws; and so they produced a
single standard of judgement for all. And this is what law is for cities, the
correction of evils caused by fortune.
(3) All of which this man disregarded when he devised a most
diabolical plan, to change the constitution's basic law. This is how he
spoke to himself: 'What is this, in heaven's name! Shall I, who clearly
stand above the masses, consent to outright equality with all the rest?
Shall I permit fortune to lavish wealth on me in vain? If I submit to the
same conditions as the masses, and the poor assemble to take decisions,
then the resolution of the masses is a law to me. So what will be my
deliverance from this? I will seize the acropolis, I will set aside these
1 “Malcolm Heath, trans., Aphthonius’ Progymnasmata, http://www.rhetcomp.gsu.edu/~gpullman/2150/
Aphthonius%20Progymnasmata.htm.
Poetics & Progym II
miserable laws, and I will be a law to the masses, not the majority to me.'
That is what he said to himself - but he did not bring it to fulfilment; the
favour of the gods prevented that. Do not let something for which we owe
the gods thanksgiving preserve this man today.
(4) A murderer is terrible, but a tyrant is worse. The one commits
butchery on some single individual, but the other overthrows in their
entirety the fortunes of the city. To the degree that inflicting a little
pain falls short of butchering all, to that degree a murderer is of less
consequence than a tyrant.
(5) All other men, no matter how heinous their crimes, can make
a distinction between their intention and their action; the tyrant alone
cannot claim that his reckless enterprise was involuntary. For if he had
undertaken tyranny against his will perhaps one would remit the penalty;
but since he did this deliberately, how can it be right to exempt what had,
before the deed, come about in intention?
(6) All other men who are brought for judgement before you are held
to account for the present only, and they are often acquitted on account of
their past life. This man alone is subject to judgement for his past as well
as for his present life. He did not live his past life with moderation; the
present is worse than what preceded it. He should be punished for both,
for the pain he caused before and for the pain he has subsequently caused.
(7) Who, then, will plead for his freedom? 'By god, his children.'
But when they weep and wail picture the laws standing by them; it is far
more just to cast your vote for them than for this man's children. For this
man's children would have sustained his tyranny, but it is because of the
laws that you serve on the jury. You are more bound in justice to cast
your vote for the laws, through which you have received your places on
the jury.
(8) Moreover, if it is the law that those who free their country be
honoured, it follows that those who enslave it are to be punished. And
it is just that the penalty should be fixed on your part equal to what he
himself has done. The fall of the tyrant will do good, since it will make
the laws secure. It is easy to bring about this man's punishment; for
165
166  Lesson 13.1
Poetics & Progym II
though he needed bodyguards to establish his tyranny, you have no need
of allies to overthrow the tyrant. The jurymen's vote will suffice to bring
to nothing the power of tyranny in its entirety.

Lesson 13.1
Prose & Poetry
PROGYMNASMA COMMON-PLACE
The Common-place exercise either censures a certain type of wrongdoer or lauds a certain type
of benefactor.
Common-place (koinos topos) is an amplification . . . of an acknowledged evil or human
goodness. ~ Pseudo Nicolaus2
“It is called ‘common’-place because (what we say) applies to every temple robber or
every war hero.” ~ Hermogenes3
In general, this essay focuses on the moral choices and intentions of the person, the magnitude of
evil or good that is done by this type of person, the results of the person’s actions to himself and
to those he harms (benefits), and to the community or society as a whole.
Although the essay does not name a specific person, most of the ancient examples are
constructed with the actions of a particular person in mind, as closing arguments in a courtroom
setting. The condemnatory common-place is the final appeal of the prosecutor. He has already
proven through confirmation and refutation that the accused is guilty; now he appeals to
judge and jury to act based on the heinous nature of a crime of this sort. In the common-place,
therefore, he now points them to the bigger picture by generalizing this sort of wrongdoing,
telling why this crime cannot go unpunished. Most of the ancient examples we have are
condemnatory in nature.
Subjects for ancient condemnatory common-places included a tyrant, a thief, a liar, a traitor, etc.
Sometimes, there would even be a double common-place, in the case of a murderous thief or a
2 George A. Kennedy, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric, (Atlanta, 2003), 148.
3 Ibid, 79.
Poetics & Progym II
Lesson 13.1  167
temple-robbing tyrant.
Subjects for ancient laudatory common-places included a war hero, a statesman, a patron, etc.
Some even lauded a tyrranicide (one who murders a tyrant). In ancient rhetoric, a laudatory
common-place might be put at the end of a speech defending a person in court, but more likely it
would be used in ceremonial rhetoric, such as a speech given to honor or celebrate a particular
person at a public event. In this case, the speaker has already proven to his audience that this
person being honored has indeed acted in this noble way. Now he points the audience to the
bigger picture by describing every benefactor of this sort, telling why such a person cannot go
unpraised.
ANCIENT COMMON-PLACE STRUCTURE
The ancient rhetors did not agree precisely on the topics to be included or the order in which to
include them. We will use the topics proposed by Aphthonius, because we will first study his
ancient essay.
Condemn a certain type of wrongdoer, or commend a certain type of benefactor following this
format:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Prologue - general introduction to the topic
Contrary or From the Opposite - a praise (censure) of the opposite act or behavior
Exposition - a vivid description of the magnitude of the crime (benevolent act)
Comparison - to a crime (benevolent act) of slightly lesser magnitude
Intention - detail the wrong (proper) thinking and the evil (benevolent) intention that
would that prompted this intentional act
6. Digression or Past Life or Antecedent Acts - the moral choices and deeds that must have
preceded this act
7. Show No Pity to, or Praise this person, and Exhortation to consider reasons of:
Justice/Honor - it is just or honorable
Legality - it upholds the law
Necessity - it is necessary
Practicability - it is practical and/or possible
Propriety - it is fitting
Profitability - it is advantageous or beneficial
Optional Additional Headers: Quote a Maxim (Hermogenes - insert after the Comparison); Vivid
Description inserted between Show No Pity and Exhortation (Libanius). We will consider Vivid
Description further in Lesson 14.1.
168  Lesson 13.1
Poetics & Progym II
In the ancient Common-place, no introductory header or prooemion was needed, since all that
had come before in the speech would serve as introduction. However, Aphthonius advised this
for the “sake of the young.” We will follow his advice and include a prologue.
 Enter the following items in the Rhetoric Section of your Prose &
Poetry Handbook. Memorize the headers for these essays in
order, and be able to spell them correctly by the next lesson.
Prose & Poetry
Handbook
Arrangement: Progymnasmata Common-place, P&P 12.
On the first line, write Common-place. On the next line,
write "Either condemn a certain type of criminal (such as a
murderer, a tyrant, or a thief), or commend a certain type of
benefactor (such as a statesman, a patron, or a war hero) following this format:" and on
the lines beneath that, copy the headers. Include a note with the optional headers at the
end.
ANCIENT COMMON-PLACE: AGAINST A TYRANT
 Read the Ancient Common-place "Against a Tyrant" at the beginning of this lesson. Look
for examples of the three appeals: ethos, pathos, logos (see Lesson 10.1, Three Appeals).
Discuss these with your teacher.

Label each paragraph of "Against a Tyrant" as follows:
Paragraph 1: Prologue
Paragraphs 2-6: choose from these headers: Contrary (From the Opposite), Exposition,
Comparison, Intention, Digression (Past Life or Antecedent Acts)
Paragraph 7-8: Show No Pity to this person. Note which of the following final heads
are used in Paragrahs 7-8: Justice/Honor, Legality, Necessity, Practicability, Propriety,
Profitability

In your Writer’s Journal, answer these questions to aid your
understanding of the ancient essay, then discuss them with your
teacher.
Writer's
Journal
What is a tyrant? Conduct a vocabularly study on the word,
then write a clear definition in consideration of the ancient
context. List some examples of tyrants throughout history.
Paragraph 1: Who was Aphthonius? When and where did he live? How was the governing
authority in his day structured? To whom is this speech addressed? What ruling
Poetics & Progym II
Lesson 13.2  169
authorities or entities does the author cite as a larger context?
Paragraph 2: What is the opposite virtue or action named here? How was this beneficial
or advantageous?
Paragraph 3: How is the evil action of the tyrant described?
Paragraph 4: To which other kind of criminal is the tyrant compared? How is the tyrant’s
wrongdoing worse?
Paragraph 5: In what way is tyranny intentional?
Paragraph 6: Why should the tyrant be judged for past as well as present actions?
Paragraph 7: Who will appeal on behalf of the tyrant? Why should they not be heard?
Paragraph 8: How will punishing the tyrant uphold the laws? How will punishing the
tyrant uphold justice and honor? How will punishing the tyrant be advantageous and
beneficial? Is it practical to punish the tyrant? If so, how and why?
LITERATURE: MACBETH
 Read in Macbeth:
beth
Mac
 Act III
 Discuss this week’s reading with your teacher. Narrate the main
action, and discuss anything you did not understand. How was
this reading delightful? What wisdom does this reading furnish?
As you read, continue to make notes in your Writer's Journal concerning the terms and concepts in the Literature section of your
Prose & Poetry Handbook. In necessary, make adjustments to earlier
notes. Discuss what you observe with your teacher.
Writer's
Journal
Lesson 13.2
Lang uage Log ic
CONTRACTED SENTENCES
Let's hear what a few renowned wordsmiths have to say on the need for concision in composition:
When you wish to instruct, be brief; that men’s minds take in quickly what you say,
learn its lesson, and retain it faithfully. Every word that is unnecessary only pours over
170  Lesson 13.2
Poetics & Progym II
the side of a brimming mind. ~ Cicero
When words are scarce they are seldom spent in vain. ~ Shakespeare
So the writer who breeds more words than he needs
Is making a chore for the reader who reads. ~ Dr. Seuss
One way to achieve concision is to contract sentences, which also tends to simplify and clarify
your language. We have worked with many sentences contracted by ellipsis. Here we will study
another type of contraction called abridgement. You will recognize several of the methods
Harvey's gives for abridging sentences from the Copia of Construction devices you have learned.
 Study these lessons in Harvey’s Revised Grammar.
Harv
ey's
ed
Revis
ish
Engl
r
mma
Gra
Lesson 203
Review this lesson that you studied in P&P I
Ellipsis
Lesson 206
Abridgement
Lesson 208
Analysis
Read over this lesson with your teacher. It may seem a
little dry and confusing, but perservere to the end! You
have already learned some of these ways to contract
sentences under Copia of Construction devices.
Do this exercise orally with your teacher. Check your
answers in Teaching Helps.
 Enter the following items in the Rhetoric division of your Prose & Prose & Poetry
Poetry Handbook.
Copia of Construction, P&P 27. Add to the Sentence Structure
Handbook
list: abridge subordinate clause(s) to convert compound/
complex clauses to simple - HRG 206.
SENTENCE DIAGRAMMING
 In your Writer's Journal, copy these sentences taken from another
translation of "Against a Tyrant" by George A. Kennedy.
Compare this sentence with the final sentence of the first
paragraph in the Heath translation. Which might be considered
an abridgement of the other? Why and how? Mark the
prepositional phrases, subjects, and verbs. Bracket the clauses.
Classify the sentence as simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex. Then diagram it. Refer to Sentence Sense as
Writer's
Journal
Poetics & Progym II
Lesson 13.3  171
needed.
Now all men who have been chosen by lot to serve on juries receive no harm from their acquittal of the accused, but acquittal on a charge of tyranny will cause harm to those making
the judgment; for making judgment does not survive once a tyrant has gained power.4
Lesson 13.3
Eloquent Expression
FIGURE OF SPEECH - APOSTROPHE
The figure of apostrophe is speech directed to an abtract idea or an absent person. This trope of
reference is related to personification; in fact, 3rd degree personification is a type of apostrophe.
Death be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for, thou art not so,
For, those, whom thou think’st, thou dost overthrow,
Die not, poor death, nor yet canst thou kill me. ~ John Donne
“O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?” ~ William Shakespeare, Romeo and
Juliet
 Enter the following items in the Figures division of your Prose & Prose & Poetry
Handbook
Poetry Handbook.
Apostrophe, P&P 84. Skip a line after your last entry, and write
Apostrophe with its definition and an example.
LITERARY IMITATION
 Work with the sentence that you diagrammed in Lesson 13.2 Language Logic. Copy the sentence’s diagram skeleton. On that
skeleton, construct a new sentence pertaining to the topic of your
Classical Composition for this week, or your current reading
and/or studies in another subject. Finally, write the new sentence
below the diagram.
Writer's
Journal
4 George A. Kennedy, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric, (Atlanta, 2003), 106.
172  Lesson 13.4
Poetics & Progym II
Lesson 13.4
Classical Composition
IMITATION OF ANCIENT CONDEMNATORY COMMON-PLACE: PLAN
Macbeth was a usurper. What was so evil in his act of assuming the throne? You will explore
this ethical question here. Alternately, you may judge the evil action of Lady Macbeth in goading
her husband to act. This is a bit more difficult to name in a single word, but some suggestions
might be a shrew, a termagant, an evil wife. or a jezebel (note this word is derived from a biblical
allusion, but today is also a descriptive noun in its own right)

Answer each of the following questions to develop content for your Common-place topics.
Writer's
Journal
1. Define your term. If possible, conduct a vocabularly study
on the word, then write a clear definition in consideration
of the context of Macbeth. List some other examples of this
kind of wrongdoer throughout history. Although you will not
necessarily name these in your essay, these examples will help
you shape your arguments.
2. Prologue: In “Against a Tyrant,” the larger context of the evil action of the tyrant was
the laws and the constitution. What will be the larger context for the evil action of your
wrongdoer? In the original, the audience was the jury. What will be your audience? How
will you address them in terms of their duty?
3. Contrary (From the Opposite): First consider what motivates the wrongdoer. What is the
underlying vice or evil? Then, determine the virtue that is the opposite of that vice or evil.
What kind of person is motivated by that virtue? How does that benefit your audience or
the larger entity it represents (society, church, family, etc.)
4. Exposition: Describe the evil actions of the usurper Macbeth or the shrew Lady Macbeth,
without naming him or her specifically.
5. Comparison: What other type of wrongdoer is almost as bad? List some areas of
comparison and reasons why your wrongdoer is worse.
6. Intention: Why must we consider this kind of wrongdoing intentional? What occupations
should the wrongdoer have pursued instead of the ones he chose? What kind of wrong
thinking and evil intentions led to this act?
Poetics & Progym II
Lesson 13.5  173
7. Digression (Past Life, Antecedent Acts): What kind of past moral choices would lead to
this behavior? List a chain of possible actions as a result of these poor moral choices.
8. Show No Pity: Who might be tempted to show pity to this type of wrongdoer? Why
should your reader resist?
Explore specific reasons of:
Justice/Honor: Why would it be unjust or dishonorable to allow the wrongdoer to go
unpunished?
Legality: What laws would be compromised by allowing the wrongdoer to go
unpunished?
Necessity: Why is it necessary not to allow the wrongdoer to go unpunished?
Practicability: How can the punishment of this wrongdoer be effected? Is this practical?
Propriety - Why is it not fitting to allow the wrongdoer to go unpunished?
Profitability - To whom and in what ways is the punishment of this wrongdoer
advantageous or beneficial?
Lesson 13.5
Reflection & Review
COMMONPLACE BOOK
 Enter in your Commonplace Book from your current literature reading (see Lesson 13.1 Prose & Poetry):
Commonplace
Book
a favorite passage or two
an example or two of the new figure you learned in Lesson 13.3
an example or two of any other figures you have learned thus
far in Poetics & Progym. See the Appendix for a list of figures.
QUIZLET CLASSROOM
 Study these figures to mastery. This set also introduces figures coming in the next few
lessons.
 Figures Set #2 - Poetics & Progym II
174  Lesson 13.5
 Continue to review each one once a week (more if needed):




Parts of Speech - Poetics & Progym I Review
Sentence Terms - Poetics & Progym I Review
Figures - Poetics & Progym I Review
Figures Set #1 - Poetics & Progym II
Poetics & Progym II