University of Montana
ScholarWorks at University of Montana
Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1983
Post World War II American civil-military relations:
External threats and public support for the military
Craig Z. Zachariasen
The University of Montana
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Recommended Citation
Zachariasen, Craig Z., "Post World War II American civil-military relations: External threats and public support for the military"
(1983). Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers. Paper 8837.
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POST
WORLD
WAR
11 A M E R I C A N
EXTERNAL
PUBLIC
CIVIL-MILITARY
RELATIONS:
THREATS AND
SUPPORT
FOR
THE
MILITARY
By
Craig
B.S.E.,
University
Presented
the
of
Z.
Zachariasen
South
Dakota
in p a r t i a l
requirements
M a ster
UNIVERSITY
for
at
S p r i n g fie l d ,
fulfillment
the
degree
197 3
of
of
of A r t s
OF
MONTANA
1983
A p p rov e d :
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Board
of E x a m i n e r s
D € a n , Graduate
//- Y -
Da t e
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ABSTRACT
Z ac ha riasen,
Craig Z . , M . A . , Sp r i n g
1983
Po l i t ic al
Post W o r l d War II A m e r i c a n C i v i l - M i l i t a r y Relations:
Th r e a t s and Public Support for the M i l i t a r y
Director:
Scienc e
Ex ternal
Forest L. Grieves
This w o r k is an analys is of the impact ex te rna l eve nt s have on
pu b l i c opini on and support of the A m e r i c a n military.
Specifically,
the study centers on the a l l o c a t i o n of two important nat ion al
r e s o u r c e s — m o n e y and m a n p o w e r — and the p u b l i c ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to
sa crifice these in support of an effi ci ent m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n
w h i c h is used as an im plement of f o rei gn policy.
This involves
a study of f l uc tu at ion s in d e fen se sp en din g and enl ist ee rates as
in dicators of the pu bl i c' s support for its m i l i t a r y establis hm en t.
In conclusion, public op i n i o n and its in fluence on defense
sp ending in re act io n to an ex te r n al crisis is a v a l i d i n di ca ti on
of publ ic support for the nat i on 's m i l i t a r y and foreig n policies,
but fl uc tua tio n in enl ist ee rates is not.
T h e y are due p r i m a r i l y
to change s in the domestic environment.
11
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PREFACE
American
the
civil-military
foundation
of m i l i t a r y
between
of
civil
f orces.
this
relations
control
Achieving
civilian
control
over
t he
c i v i l - m i 1 i ta ry
of
"the m i l i t a r y " w i t h
in t h e s e
and
relations
relations.
its m i l i t a r y
the m i l i t a r y ' s
factors.
One
society's
attitude
or
little
regard
such
foreign policy
society
is a
sit y
towards
concerns.
or d o m e s t i c
He
that
or d e c r e a s e
threat
influence
that
a nation
and
that
environmental
is an
influence
external
on
threat
or
share
of
the
to the
inten­
crisis.
Gabriel
Almond
in T h e
to
states
that
the n o r m a l
when
conduct
attention with
saying,
the
towards
relation
the p u b l i c ' s
concludes by
opposition
in
a n d F o r e i g n P o l i cy
character
accessibility
of
issue
in t e r m s
entities,
resu l t
the m i l i t a r y
p o l i c y quest i o n s p o s e a threat
they
forget
the
c risis.
of a p e r c e i v e d
affairs,
often,
factor which has a definite
increase
A m e r i can P e o p l e
effectiveness has
civilian
not
and use
strictly
separate
It can g e n e r a l l y b e a s s u m e d
m i l i t a r y will
to
on
relationship
Quite
is a d d r e s s e d
A m e r i c a n s must
in
function
and military
f o r c e s a r e not
ro le
established
a compatible
long p l a g u e d A m e r i c a n p o l i c y m a k e r s .
of
are
"it
is n o t
issue which
of p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n ,
but
of
domestic
the
foreign
determines
the
foreign
intimacy
i m p a c t ."
111
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the
of
the
H o w can w e
will
be
public
the p u r p o s e
interest
relating
on
two
tance
in
of
which
to n a t i o n a l
of
the
this
intimacy
thesis
s e e m to
defense.
the n a t i o n ' s
force
can n o t
money
forces.
concentrated
on the d e f e n s e b u d g e t
This
the
eff ort
areas
and
or
ing
toward military
thesis
su b j e c t
would
is not
en t a i l .
Rather,
to d e m o n s t r a t e
of
and
the
This
all
th e
at
question:
Do
elements
goal
of
present
is m y b e l i e f
of
the
that
relation
to
thesis
is
of p u b l i c
such an
level
to m i l i t a r y
of p u b l i c
the
of
the p r e s e n c e
service
threat
follow­
provide
support,
toward
a
or
the m i l i t a r y ?
the m i l i t a r y
of a
the
of a t t i t u d e
in t h e s e a r e a s w i l l
support
in
external
to a n s w e r
society
is an
fluctuations
of an
on
effo r t
this work
the d e f e n s e b u d g e t
fluctuation
public
reflected
to b e a l l o c a t e d
level
in the a r e a s
in A m e r i c a n
the h y p o t h e s i s — that
in
is an a t t e m p t
fluctuations
assessment
opposition,
in the p r e s e n c e
service and
is
and
a definitive work
a pattern between
thesis
A
resources,
for t h i s
the p u b l i c a t t i t u d e p e r t a i n i n g
crisis.
fluctuate
these
impor­
s e r vice.
the m o d e s t
the d e f e n s e b u d g e t
reliable
and manpower.
research
an a t t e m p t
encompassing
toward military
It
Thus,
of
concentrate
of d i r e c t
resources
to the a r m e d
opposition
are
its m i l i t a r y
these
It
two areas
areas will
function without
to a l l o w
impact?
A m e r i c a ’s c o n c e r n
resources which
in
this
to a n a l y z e
These
importance a nation places
its w i l l i n g n e s s
of
reflect
to the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c :
military
the
evaluate
support
does
foreign policy
IV
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crisis.
The
The
first
of A m e r i c a n
themes
a
time
s p a n will
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry
supremacy
citizen
s o l dier,
military
policy.
ideas
public
concerning
policy
issues.
public
opinion
but
this
has
three
The
correlates
presence
develops
are
fluctuations
external
Chapter
Chapter
Five,
the
th e
impact
opinion have had
on
the
findings
Hopefully,
to th e
idea
American
threat
attitude
concluding
that
society,
or
that
public
It a c t s
and
with
th e
to c l a r i f y
the
toward military
of
will
external
s up p o r t
opinion
as
a
for
the
support
of
in d e f e n s e
same
idea
service.
endeavor
events
to
and public
the m i l i t a r y
based
T wo and Three.
t h e s i s will
its
for
and varied,
increase
provide
the A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y
and
role
for p o l i c y m a k e r s .
or c r i s i s
chapter,
th e p r e s e n c e
in C h a p t e r s
and
into C h a p t e r Three which
Four attempts
this
are m a n y
in the d e f e n s e b u d g e t
on p u b l i c
and
in d e c i d i n g
development.
for a d e c r e a s e
to p u b l i c
on
security
the a p p r o p r i a t e
and a resource
carried
the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
relation
to
the
making,
theories
opinion
the p e r s p e c t i v e
in p o l i c y
stimulus,
of an
spending.
as
survey
reliance
in p o l i c y
the v a r i o u s
of p u b l i c
1946-1980.
developed
on n a t i o n a l
in p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t
functions
assess
influence
theories
functions
a
role
which
the m i l i t a r y ,
opinion has had
the
chapter
constraint,
These
over
Chapter Two discusses
to th e y e a r s
a broad historical
relations
civilian
effe c t
limited
chapter presents
of
the
in
be
efficiency
is
additional
is a
su p p o r t
reflection
in d i r e c t
V
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of
relation
to th e
s upp ort
it
receives
f r o m the A m e r i c a n
people.
^Ga briel A l m o n d , T h e A m e r i c a n P e o p l e a n d F o r e i g n P o l i c y
( N e w Y o r k : F r e d e r i c k Al P r a e g e r , I960) , p . 71.
VI
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LIST OF T A B L E S
1.
2.
P u b l i c P r e f e r e n c e s for I n c r e a s e d or R e d u c e d U.S.
D e f e n s e S p e n d i n g , 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 8 1 .........................
75
R e a s o n s for E n l i s t i n g in th e A r m e d F o r c e s
o t h e r th an "to b e a t the d r a f t . " ...............
94
LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
P u b l i c P r e f e r e n c e s for I n c r e a s e d or R e d u c e d
U.S. D e f e n s e S p e n d i n g , 1 9 6 9 - 1 9 8 1 a n d
P e r c e n t a g e C h o o s i n g F o r e i g n A f f a i r s as the
Mos t I m p o r t a n t P r o b l e m F a c i n g T h i s C o u n t r y . . .
VI 1
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81
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
...................................................
PREFACE.
ü
...........................................
ii i
AMERICAN CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS
1776-1980:
A R E V I E W .........................
1
C h a p t er
I
1.
2.
II
PUBLIC OPINION
DEVELOPMENT.
1.
2.
3.
III
3.
V
SELECTED
OPINION.
.
45
AND MILITARY
SERVICE.
45
49
53
.
H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e ................
P u b l i c R e s p o n s e to I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r i s i s
S u m m a r y ....................................
. . .
H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e ................
Public Opinion and Military Service—
W h y S e r v e ? .................. . . . . .
S u m m a r y ....................................
C O N C L U S I O N ..............................
1.
24
Politicans, P o licy Makers, and
P u b l i c O p i n i o n .........................
T h e o r i e s on P u b l i c O p i n i o n a n d
F o r e i g n P o l i c y .........................
F u n c t i o n s of P u b l i c O p i n i o n ...........
PUBLIC OPINION
1.
2.
2
AND FOREIGN POLICY
.................................
THE DEFENSE B UDGET AND P U B L I C
1.
2.
3.
IV
A m e r i c a n C i v i l - M i l i t a ry E v o l u t i o n
1776-1900
A m e r i c a n C i v i l - M i 1 i t a ry R e l a t i o n
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 8 0 .................................
63
65
74
82
86
87
93
100
105
S u m m a r y ....................................
Ill
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ...................................
114
L I S T O F T A B L E S .............
vii
L I S T O F I L L U S T R A T I O N S ....................................
vii
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CHAPTER
CIVIL MILITARY
RELATIONS
I
1776-1980:
A
REVIEW
Int r o d u c t i on
The United
largest
institutional
government.
of
societ y,
ranging
States
the
or R e s e r v e u n i t s ,
tary
into almost
organization,
such as
other
ROTC and
Americans have historically
establishment
days
with
of A m e r i c a ,
isolation
an
such as
the
Most
army--by nature
posed
contrasting
citizenry
from Europe
independence.
of
its
the B o s t o n M a s s a c r e ,
symbol
of d e s p o t i s m a n d
liberties
threaten
a n d as an
society.
As
their m i l i tary
early
themselves and
that
discipline,
times made
Americans
as
recruiters.
liberty.
a
the
standing
Experiences
and
standing
instruments
institution
John Hancock
looked
to t h e i r
of d e f e n s e
that
for
c o u l d not
stated:
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other
army
corruption.^
have
their
and power —
the Q u a r t e r i n g A c t ,
universal
their
for
to t h e i r
colonial
institutions
Guard
the m i l i ­
In the
also believed
during
military
the
s a w in t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c
incidents
light,
of
forces
attitudes.
composition,
thr e a t
of
National
elements
armed
elements
In a d d i t i o n ,
community
looked upon
a protection
Americans
overwhelming
In a n o t h e r
to m e d i c i n e .
every
t he
States
i n f l u e n c e all
f o r m of m i l i t a r y b a s e s .
and numerous
has become
the U n i t e d
operations
from education
extends
in
establishment
complex within
The military's
its p r e s e n c e
United
States mil itar y
the
t h e i r (the m i l i t a r y ) i n t e r e s t is the s a m e as that of
the s t a t e . . . ; t h e y d o no t j e o p a r d i z e t h e i r l i v e s for
a m a s t e r w h o c o n s i d e r s t h e m o n l y i n s t r u m e n t s of
h i s ambi t i o n s .
These
differing
opinions
as
to
military
occupies have
analysis
concerning what
American
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry t r a d i t i o n .
this
chapter
military
to
military
from
trends
relations
1.
has
r e v i e w the
relations
any apparent
caused much
come
research,
It
evolution
or m a j o r
is
in the
in the
eighteenth
exist;
and,
in A m e r i c a n
militia when
the n e e d a r o s e .
the A m e r i c a n
colonies.
the m a l e
absent,
just
version
of g o v e r n m e n t
be
outside
the
used
standing
civilto
identify
civil-
as
to
a r m y d i d not
relied upon
s e rv e
control
there was no
Each
relation­
in E n g l a n d
in the
system also was
central
colonial
colonial
of
1776-1900
of E n g l a n d
This
and militia.
their
the
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry
population
However,
over home government.
c o n t rolled by
large
3
control
of
of
th e d e f e n s e
levy
state milit i a s was
of
A
a compulsory
and
of A m e r i c a n
s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t
therefore,
discussion,
the m i l i t a r y .
tradition
century.
the
the p u r p o s e
A m e r i c a n Civil-Mi 1 i tary E v o l u t i o n
s h ips w a s b o r n
society
in an a t t e m p t
themes
regarding
in
to b e k n o w n a s
1776-1980
The Anglo-American
used
the p l a c e
used
over
t he
central
colony developed
its
M i l i t i a m e n w e r e not
boundaries
in
a n d must
g o v e r n m e n t .^
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be
o wn
to
3
During
the F r e n c h
units proved
t h e i r not
to b e p o o r l y
presenting
Jealousies
and
among
an
the
I n d i a n War,
trained
e qual
match
of
strengthen
myth
colonial
the
developed
the
only
mu s t
be
the w a r
course
that
the
th a n
the war.
that
that
them
himself,
reinforced by
the w a r
maintained
exigencies
that
military policy,
their
to
expertise
"ubiquity
of
General
as w e l l
in t h e
in
reliable
as
they moved
Washington,
are alone
fo r d e f e n s e
is a t t e m p t e d
was weakened
(Regulars)
fewer numbers.
troops
successful
the
the m i l i t i a
to b e m o r e
far
in
to
as h i s t o r i a n
state m i l i t i a s
"regular
and whenever a substitute
7
a n d r u i n o u s ."
a key
contributed greatly
to a n o t h e r .
of m o d e r n w a r ,
Nationalism,
in
a dual
it
found
available
and
In a b a l a n c e d v i e w ,
over C o n t i n e n t a l s
Regulars were
"Grand
or
they
th e
for a
Revolution,
i m p o r t a n t — but,
it w a s
so m e a n i n g l e s s . " ^
of
called
to
of
either useless
it w a s not
field
f r o m one a r e a
the
of
British victories
t he m i l i t i a but
the a c c e p t a n c e
finance,
5
colonies.
the A m e r i c a n
made
Continentals were
the
led
forces.
raise,
of
states,
Continental
to
all
art w h i c h m a d e
Maurice Matloff
the F r e n c h
which
of
clearly understood
e f f o r t , but
to
th e m i l i t i a m e n w e r e
true v i c t o r s
military
that
delegates
the d e f e n s e
During
equipped which
colonies prevented
Benjamin Franklin's Albany Plan,
Council"
and
American militia
it m u s t
equal
to
as
offense,
prove
illusory
government
colonies by
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
as w e l l
the
fact
as
the R e v o l u t i o n w a s b e i n g
foug h t
and by
loyalties
the v a r i o u s
g r e s s w a s m a d e up
and
lacked
the
state
of
thirteen
financial
struggle.
Congress's
the
to
states
logistical
within
was
their
out
America.
example
Also,
Revolution
line
all
that
of
During
the
American
of
and procedures which would
in
national
1777— ratified
of C o n f e d e r a t i o n ,
was no
to
levy
states
central
taxes,
to
a
lead
in
simple
raise
the
and
still
England
of n a t i o n a l i s m
aspects
in
the
of a
standing
settled and would
troops,
of
establish
and
into
labeled
policies
fu t u r e .
thirteen
the A r t i c l e s
friendship."^
lacked
courts,
with
forced
the
the
to
for
establish
a d o p t e d by
and Congress
treaties made
The Articles were very weak
to
safely
1781— was
"league
attempted
of p r o v i d i n g
also
them
government
directing body,
observe
to d e f e a t
leaders
the w a r
states
is
long b e f o r e
was not
coordinated
real
it
colonies
system capable
first
division
the
develop a governmental
The
caused many
to come.
Revolution,
conduct
This
consolidated— although,
or n e g a t i v e
states
t h e m to d i r e c t
internal
feeling
Con­
the
the
of a r i s i n g
on the p o s i t i v e
8
sovereign
to d i r e c t
led
the d e b a t e w h i c h b e g a n
for d e c a d e s
from
units.
the
authority
colonists.
these problems,
army versus a v o l u n t e e r m i l i t i a
continue
to t ax
increased
d i s j o i n t e d — effort
the p r i m e
ow n
central
the
power necessary
Despite
to p o i n t
of
a
delegates
inability
problems and
the army.
necessary
often
supply
against
other
reliance
or
There
the p o w e r
compel
countries.
on a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
c o n s en —
5
sus b y
the
individual
states
to
conduct
most
political
act i o n .
Militarily,
led
to the
the A r t i c l e s
complete
Continental
Congress
the m i l i t a r y a n d
with
was given
force
of a n y
this,
protect
the C o n g r e s s
of
to
finance
f or
service
th e C o n t i ­
the U n i t e d
States.
still
had
states.Under
raise
effectiveness.
forces
The
a Confederation
Problems,
f r o m the
indicative
these
such
states
to
of m i l i t a r y
the A r t i c l e s .
George Washington,
the
w h o as C o m m a n d e r
revolution,
and was
a
str o n g p r o p o n e n t
central
government
c r i t i c i s m of
to
change when
from the
nat i o n a 1 i n t e r e s t s w e r e
War.
units
to d e c l a r e w a r but
and men
military
militia
d i d not
in r e q u e s t i n g m i l i t a r y
during
th e a u t h o r i t y
request
This
could have
Revolutionary
it w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t
real
affairs under
Army
only
the
have
the p o w e r
requisition money
restrictions,
as
could
Congress became
Congress
of
d i d not
the C o n t i n e n t a l s .
nental
to
failure
of C o n f e d e r a t i o n
had
in a l e t t e r h e w r o t e
to a
the C o n t i n e n t a l
suffered under
of a c o n s t i t u t i o n
the p o w e r s
the A r t i c l e s
of
of
is b e s t
this
which
the p u r s e a n d
pr esented by
system
gave
sword.
an
the
His
excerpt
relative:
T h e g r e a t b u s i n e s s of w a r can n e v e r b e w e l l
c o n d u c t e d , if it ca n b e c o n d u c t e d at all, w h i l e the
p o w e r s of C o n g r e s s a r e o n l y r e c o m m e n d a t o r y .
While
one s t a te y i e l d s o b e d i e n c e a n d a n o t h e r r e f u s e s it,
w h i l e a t h i r d m u t i l a t e s a n d a d o p t s the m e a s u r e in
part only, a n d all v a r y in t i m e a n d m a n n e r , it is
s c a r c e l y p o s s i b l e that ou r a f f a i r s can p r o s p e r , or
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
that
best
The
anything.but disappointment
concerted plans.
inability
of
the g o v e r n m e n t
can
to
effectively prompted
thirteen
delegates
meet
in M a r c h
1787
The
in P h i l a d e l p h i a
central
question
establish an
states
and
national
effective
central
of
delegates gave
question
strong
The military
either a
with
or w e a k
clauses
by
the
the d i v i s i o n
element
to
Command
of
As
of
on
over
the
m i l i t a r y was
the
government.
larger
12
came
to
reflect
of
those who
the
of
those who a n t i c i ­
fears
The Constitution
civilian
control
civil
the
This
of
the p o w e r s
of
raising
Congress.
Congress was
also given
firmly
the m i l i t a r y
delineation
of
and
duties
authority.
the P r e s i d e n t
a military
th e
favored
legislative
and military
placed with
and
recognized
su p p o r t
or w e a k
the m i l i t a r y w a s
financing
of
discussion
the
the
th e h o p e s
of g o v e r n m e n t .
insure a bal a n c e
to
question
it w a s
their views
of w a r p o w e r s b e t w e e n
executive branches
was
of
to a t t e m p t
the C o n s t i t u t i o n
strength and
to
the A r t i c l e s .
th e
one,
national
of
pated a military despotism.
established
Although
strong
states
authority between
importance.
compromise between
greater military
f r o m th e
of a u t h o r i t y p r o c e e d e d ,
toward
the n a t i o n
revise
of
the p r e m i e r
in a c c o r d a n c e
of a
a cautious
distribution
not
run
convention was
considerable
the d i s t r i b u t i o n
established
the
government.
defense was
as a m a t t e r
of
to
f o l l o w the
and
placed with
sole a u t h o r i t y
declare wa r .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to
7
The
a
sta t e s w e r e p l a c a t e d
republican
their
ing
own m i l i t i a s .
They were
training
all
the a c c e p t a n c e
and was
to b e
of
lished a
abuse
set
of
the
of p o w e r b y
Constitution
in
formation
the d u a l
States by
the L e g i o n
of
Regular Army.
enrollment
between
preserved
a citizen
By
but
free,
eighteen and
T h i s Act
defense
of e v e r y
The
the U n i t e d
white
improved
1794,
to
soldiery
of
of
army.
The
the U n i t e d
1792
called
in t he m i l i t i a
to b e
The
system bequeathed
able-bodied male
the
estab­
States under General
the b e g i n n i n g
M i l i t i a Act
the
to i n s u r e n o
plus a professional
soldier wh i c h was
for y e a r s
It a l s o
the g o v e r n m e n t .
military
forty-five
and
1789,
for t he p a r t i t i o n i n g
its h i s t o r y — a c i t i z e n
state militias,
of
in
the n a t i o n .
of
for a p p o i n t ­
in a c c o r d a n c e
and balances which was
" M ad" A n t h o n y W a y n e m a r k e d
States
and
to m a i n t a i n
13
system
one b r a n c h
retained
to the U n i t e d
enrolled
any
forces
the C o n s t i t u t i o n
states
checks
allowed
responsible
militia
republic was provided with a
of p o w e r b e t w e e n
men,
each was g u a r a n t e e d
regulations provided by Congress.
With
new
f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t
officers and
with
in that
inherited
for
citizen
of h i s
state.
tradition
th e m a i n s t a y
t he
of
of A m e r i c a ' s
come.^^
the R e g u l a r A r m y
an A m e r i c a n N a v y w a s
of d e f e n s e w a s
also
its g e o g r a p h i c
isolation
numbered
nonexistent.
lacking because
to b e
some
its
four
A national
America was
first
thousand
line
relying
policy
on
of d e f e n s e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8
In r e s p o n s e
break
of
the F r e n c h
b e t ween Great
a more
were
to the E u r o p e a n
rebuilt,
although,
and
only
Department
Revolution and
Britain and
substantial
France,
1798.
six
three w ere
of N a v y a n d
Navy
completed.
In 1801,
economy
th e
expenditures.
gunboat
fleet
and
the
militia.
During his
from four
thousand
teamwork
the
s a w the
future
tenure
the
would
s tage
face
for
the m i l i t a r y m e a n s
of
in
War
to
of
1812,
respect
request,
the p r o b l e m s
to
and
American neutrality
for A m e r i c a
d i d not
to the
of n a v a l
to
for
of a
the Navy,
s p irit.
upon
the N a v y
in h i s
citizen's
the A r m y w a s
reduced
h u n d r e d m e n .^^
dwelt
have
France
of m i l i t a r y
in th e
s y s t e m — or
the M a d i s o n
at
a
of
int e n t
reduction
office,
of
formal
fighting
of
consider
Secretary
office
the A r m y
them.
Madison
quarrel
creation
At
of
goals
of
the
Britain's need
This was a
the n a v a l
it —
without
t he b e g i n n i n g
on G r e a t
sea.
lack
administration
to a c h i e v e p o l i t i c a l
support
President
of a
future
to t w e n t y - s i x
in a t t e m p t i n g
The
entered
Jefferson's military defensive
set
15
out­
fortifications
authorized
the b e g i n n i n g s
including
Jefferson
began
the
undeclared war with
Jeffersonians
in g o v e r n m e n t ,
subsequent
Coastal
the a p p o i n t m e n t
in d e v e l o p i n g
caused by
Americans
frigates were
This war produced
American
the
s y s t e m of d e f e n s e .
Navy was prompted by America's
in
threat
might
ludicrous
to
enforce
I t . 17
Due
response
lack
support,
to E n g l a n d ' s h o s t i l i t y w a s
American
action
to p u n i s h h e r at
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
in
"some
9
v u l n e r a b l e point
until
th e A m e r i c a n v i e w of
vulnerable
Canadian
p oint
should
feel
international
came
expedition
she
l a w at
to be C a n a d a .
caused public
obliged
The
to y i e l d
sea."
defeat
support
18
to
This
of A m e r i c a ' s
for t h e w a r
to
dimini s h .
The
War
political
to
of
1812 w a s
embarrassment
the b u i l d i n g
side b y
side
military
successes
a more mature and
and
the w a r
of
the A r m y - - m a d e
discipline
was
to p r o t e c t
independent
its
th os e ,
of
up
of
and bravery
the w e i g h t
tary
of
pointed
was
lishment
The
Monroe,
s taff
out,
the n a t i o n
The
the
results
deficiencies
relation
cadres
showing
of
of
an
the
for m i l i t a r y
Calhoun,
bu t
of m i l i ­
Secretary
"expansible
such an
peacetime.
of
to the
composition
the a c c e p t a n c e
recommended
the n u c l e u s
to
saw this need,
J o h n C.
and
few
served
towards a need
w o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g
should break
l o o k e d at
the p o o r
made
reform proposals unlikely.
a r m y ” to C o n g r e s s .
which
states
19
one w h o
sentiment
contributed
the
the R e g u l a r A r m y — w h o s e
Madison
of p u b l i c
and
to g i v e
perspective.
s o l d i e r s — and
of W a r u n d e r P r e s i d e n t
ties
served
s tate mi 1 i t i a s - - i n
state militia vo l u n t e e r s
President
th e n a t i o n
who
it
of d i f f e r e n t
attitude,
however,
d r a w and a
Still,
Men
character.
from a different
of p r o f e s s i o n a l
re f o r m .
unity.
they achi e v e d
strengthen
There were
a military
for A m e r i c a n s .
of n a t i o n a l
fighting
unite
at b e s t
estab­
If h o s t i l i ­
t h i s a r m y — six
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
thousand
10
officers
a n d m e n — -could b e
process using volunteers
reason
for m a i n t a i n i n g
tripled by a
as
fill-ins.
this
type
simple
expansion
Calhoun
of A r m y
as
stated his
follows:
I a m a w a r e that the m i l i t i a is c o n s i d e r e d ,
a n d in m a n y r e s p e c t s j u s t l y , as the g r e a t n a t i o n a l
force; but, to r e n d e r t h e m e f f e c t i v e t h e y r e q u i r e
the a i d of r e g u l a r t r o o p s .
W a r is an art, to
a t t a i n p e r f e c t i o n in w h i c h , m u c h t i m e a n d e x p e r ^ Q
ence, p a r t i c u l a r l y fo r o f f i c e r s , a r e n e c e s s a r y .
C a l h o u n ' s p l a n w a s not
accepted by Congress,
tion h e m a d e g a i n e d a l m o s t
a r m y w o u l d be
small
militia would,
need
for a
r o a m the
result,
battleships
T h us,
a
America's
and
result
the y o u n g
of
these
nation proved
the C o n s t i t u t i o n
tenuous
for
set
itself
settle
realization
The
mass.
The
the B r i t i s h
th e W a r
reliance
of
1812.
consisted
coastal
Army began,
of
batteries.
on a
strong
which
was
to
also
of
survival
development.
for the
state
a nation
y e a r s — 1783-1815— was
capable
stage
the d e b a t e bu t
that
of
internal
government
of
of d e f e n s e
formative
the
regular
century.
compromise between
of a n a t i o n a l i s t
The
expandable
twentieth
to o r g a n i z e a n d p l a n
d i d not
line
f r i g a t e s b a c k e d up b y
into the
The
th e m a i n
during
longtime military policy
continue
A
first
The
and professional.
surfaced because
will
the a s s u m p ­
acceptance.
constitute
seas at
s t a n d i n g N a v y a n d an
of
expandable
as b e f o r e ,
str o n g n a v y
f r e e d o m to
As a
but
universal
but
evolved.
quieted
must
it
have
and able
The
creation
republic's
sovereignty
and
This
for
fu t u r e .
the p o w e r s
compromise
the
an A r m y
that
time being.
and Navy
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to
11
defend
its
shor e s
on A m e r i c a n s .
but
the n e e d
A
and
to p r o j e c t
large
standing
for a
small
Army
its p r e s e n c e
army
still
abroad
dawned
was
not
accepted,
of p r o f e s s i o n a l s
was
acknow-
1edged.
After
national
the W a r
growth.
of
1812,
Railroads began
and America's merchant
and presence a round
navy began
the w o r l d .
building became marked by
military,
primarily
life.
Indication
An
affairs
Is
the
America
content
of
spread A m e rica n
This period
In m a n y
have more
significance placed
Involvement
facets
Adam
of
the
of A m e r i c a n
Interest
on t h e m t h a n
trade
of n a t i o n
In m i l i t a r y
second annual
the p e a c e t i m e d u t i e s
In h i s m e s s a g e ,
of
their w a y west,
John Q u i n c y A d a m ' s
In t h i s m e s s a g e ,
for war.
to
the d e c l i n i n g
message.
ness
etching
the w i d e s p r e a d
the A r m y ,
of
entered a period
just
of
the A r m y
their
readi­
states:
...to the W a r D e p a r t m e n t a r e a t t r i b u t e d o t h e r
d u t i e s . . . t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of o u r r e l a t i o n s of
p e a c e a n d of p r o t e c t i o n w i t h the I n d i a n t r i b e s ,
a n d the I n t e r n a l I m p r o v e m e n t s a n d s u r v e y s for the
l o c a t i o n of r o a d s a n d c a n a l s , w h i c h d u r i n g the
last 3 s e s s i o n s of C o n g r e s s h a v e e n g a g e d so m u c h
of t h e i r a t t e n t i o n , a n d m a y e n g r o s s so l a r g e a « ^
s h a r e of the f u t u r e b e n e f a c t i o n to o u r c o u n t r y .
The
reorganization
America's
eve n
1850,
first
school
almost
their preparation
all
of W e s t
of
Point
technology.
the n a t i o n ' s
at W e s t
Point.
In
Up u n t i l
civil
They
1817 m a r k e d
ing
the n a t i o n ' s h a r b o r s
and waterways
the
railroads.
the H o u s e C o m m i t t e e
In
1834,
1840 a n d
engineers
assisted
and
In
It as
received
In d e v e l o p ­
surveying
on M i l i t a r y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
for
12
Affairs
remarked:
T h e A c a d e m y ... h a s a c c o m p l i s h e d a n o b l e s e r v i c e
b y s e n d i n g f o r t h n u m b e r s a n n u a l l y c o m p e t e n t to
s u p e r i n t e n d the c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h o s e c h a i n s of
Internal improvement w h i c h ^ ^ ^ b e
th e e x t e r n a l
b o n d s of ou r N a t i o n a l U n i o n . . .
The years between
Years Peace."
As
was a misnomer.
of
settlers
protection
and
beginning
Indians
of
officer's
and
be
Seminole
the n e x t
entered
and
its
areas.
Destiny,"
tions
in
One
War was
with
lent
of
into
and
Indian
the B l a c k h a w k W a r
W a r — w e r e bu t
of
a
and
the
23
confident
education
the
thoughts
the
small
and
to m a n y
of
in t e c h n i c a l
Regular Army
equipment
theory
th e
of
to
in t h e s e
"Manifest
the m i l i t a r y
opera­
Southwest.
the d e m o n s t r a t e d
side R e g u l a r s .
busy providing
Professionalism within
on b y
this
America would have with
enabled
support
the p r i n c i p a l
a basic military
concerned,
the M e x i c a n W a r h i g h l y
latest
"Thirty
Three major
Seminole
eighty years.
spurred
moral
the West
Second
increased,
the
A public,
1817,
conflicts
advancements
familiar with
of
the
the w e s t w a r d m o v e m e n t
pioneers.
capabilities.
corps h ad
tactical
of
the A r m y w a s k e p t
War
or
the m a j o r
over
itse l f
railroads,
as
Regular Army was
the a d v e n t
the F l o r i d a
The Army
in
the
for t h e s e A m e r i c a n
c o n f l i c t s — the
1832,
far as
With
and
1817-1845 were known
military
ability
training,
This was brought
of
to
features
the
citizen
fight
about
of
the M e x i c a n
soldier,
respectably
along­
by professionally
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13
trained
officers who were available
training.
Th e
results
t h e n - L i e u t enant
of
Ulysses
this
to
supervise volunteer
training were
summarized by
Grant:
The c i t i z e n s o l d i e r s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h so
many disciplined men and professionally educated
o f f i c e r s , that w h e n t h e y w e n t i n t o e n g a g e m e n t s it
w a s w i t h a c o n f i d e n c e t h e y w o u l d not h a v e felt
ot h e r w i s g . T h e y b e c a m e s o l d i e r s t h e m s e l v e s a l m o s t
at once.
Primarily,
because
War and partly bec a u s e
results
the
changes
sectional
the h i s t o r y
War
to
1861.
exempted
either
over
of
the
As
the
25
the
of
forces ver y
a major
issue
force
as a m a j o r
attention
would
sectional
lead
from
conclusion
This
over
organization
and
on
slavery.
to a d i v i s i o n
of
in
military
the C i v i l
issues,
the n a t i o n
advantage
which
had become
tradition,
of
the
had
Regular
question
War.
questions
All
to p r e v e n t
it n o w h a d
the
sides
demobilization
remaining
frontier
both
it
a n d u s e w o u l d not
the
the
in a f f e c t i n g
continued,
military
the
of
f r o m the M e x i c a n
of h o s t i l i t i e s ,
the v a s t
fixed
have
the n o r m a l
of d o m e s t i c p o l i c y ,
was n o w
aware
involvement
spread
the M e x i c a n
few innovations marked
a potential
issue a g a i n until
ri g h t s ,
was
crisis
the A n g l o - A m e r i c a n
thin
in
States military
In a d d i t i o n ,
occurred unnoticed.
states
the n a t i o n ,
from obtaining
f o r c e s at
military
of
the U n i t e d
other.
a trademark
As
th e g o v e r n m e n t
the R e g u l a r A r m y
side
d i d wel l
in m i l i t a r y p o l i c y m i g h t
balance
of
the A r m y
to p o l i c e
of
a
be addr esse d
America's
sectionalism,
result
itself.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of w h i c h
14
The
United
military
of
States
entered
s y s t e m that h a d b e e n b e q u e a t h e d
the C o n s t i t u t i o n .
had
fallen
had
emerged
The
to t a k e
Twenty-six
thousand
the C i v i l
regulars were being
frontiers,
and
burden
success
Cat t on
War.
over
force
despite
to t a k e
lessons
state and
in m e e t i n g
states,
care
26
of
numbers were
the
1861,
initially had
soon
turned
to c o n s c r i p t i o n .
approximately
course
of
two a n d
have
a war
a
of
on
to
the
the
train
recruiting
considerable
As historian
Bruce
emotion
27
The
took
surge
and both governments
they m o b i l i z e d
a quarter million men
during
the
the war.
Civil-military problems
w e r e not
the
come b e c a u s e
Combined,
time
Indians
of
however,
last,
one
in the M e x i c a n
of
d i d not
as
l ittle.
to b e u s e d
to b e m a d e . ”
zeal
States A r m y
the
charge when hard decisions were
emotional
states
The majority
t u r n e d mos t
war had
same
organizations
at
learned
the d e s i r e d n u m b e r s .
"in
the
the w a r
duty
the
the m a k e r s
of
United
on a c t i v e
Both governments
to the
The
t he m a x i m u m .
used
it b y
many volunteer
influenced
regulars
only minimal
the v o l u n t e e r s ,
American
but
their place.
War was
War with
organized militia
into d i s r e p a i r ,
a regular professional
during
the C i v i l
as
evident
tendency
to
commences.
major problems
as
fall
during
they were
in
So it w a s
in
charge
during
peace.
line w ith national
in th e C i v i l
Abraham Lincoln
s h o u l d be p l a c e d
this p e r i o d
of
War.
of
Americans
policy
One
f a c e d as P r e s i d e n t
the m i l i t a r y
turmoil
f orces.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
once
the
was who
15
initially,
General
it w a s
Scott
to b e
was
soon
aging
General
replaced by General
Lincoln's war aims passed
through
with
in th e w a r ,
the
South.
South a n d , l a t e r
9A
In o r d e r
national
policy,
military
strategy
General
with
Lincoln
ini tial
limited
loss
the d e s t r u c t i o n
Richmond
attempt
of
neither
life.
political
that
this
during
could
A r m y but
shorten
eventually
string
in the a c t u a l
stage
democracy
of
the war,
Without
unlikely,
the d a n g e r
own
supply his
It
is
the m i l i t a r y be g i v e n
authorities.
and
this
strategy and policy
29
of war.
the p r o b l e m s
generals with
imperative
increased.
the
that
direction by
direction,
which
inefficiency.
to p e r m i t
of m i l i t a r y
is
of
strategy with
conduct
and policy guidance
30
capture
of g e n e r a l s w h o w e r e
to
oth e r .
the
not
the P e n n i n s u l a C a m p a i g n .
failed
each
and
c a u s e d h i m to be
Lincoln,
complement
quickly
the war.
solely by m i l i t a r y
objectives
whose
objective was
caused
tary
the
policy.
the U n i o n
s u r f a c e d w e r e not
himself,
of
corresponded with
in c o o r d i n a t i n g m i l i t a r y
this m i d d l e
defeat
strategy with
strategy
reunify
however,
policy nor
During
total
His principal
followed by a
effective
stages--conci1 iation
to u t i l i z e g e n e r a l s
the C o n f e d e r a t e
relieved by Lincoln
was
to
Scott.
William McClellan
with national
conciliatory
M c C l e l l a n ’s c a u t i o n ,
McClellan
attempted
ran p a r a l l e l
of
in h o p e s
two
to c o o r d i n a t e m i l i t a r y
McClellan's
Lincoln's
Winfield
authority
Russell
t w o to
in a
the
military
mili­
civilian
success
creating
is
its
W e i g l e y best
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
explained Lincoln's
dilemma
in H i s t ori cal
P i m e n si on s of
Nat i o n a 1 Se curi ty P r o b l e m s :
He ( Linc oln) h o p e d to f i n d a w a y to a v o i d
that o u t c o m e in the C i v i l W a r , bu t h e f ailed.
The
w a r b e c a m e a social r e v o l u t i o n .
Once Lincoln
a c q u i e s c e d in that r e s u l t , a n d c o n c l u d e d f i n a l l y
that onl y the u t t e r d e s t r u c t i o n of the C o n f e d e r a t e
a r m i e s , w a r r e s o u r c e s , a n d will to fight to r e s t o r e
the U nio n , h e c h o s e a n d s u p p o r t e d , in G r a n t a n d
Sherm a n , g e n e r a l s w h o s e s t r a t e g y f i t t e d the n e w
a n d n o w r u t h l e s s d e s i g n of the war.
With
the a c c e p t a n c e
the a r m i e s ,
Lee
the
end
at A p p o m a t t o x
reunification
of
nated political
Lincoln
of m i l i t a r y
historian
the w a r w a s
the
policy
to b e
fessionals,
oppression
frontiers
of
latter policy
in
of
the
the
the
coordi­
of mi 1 i t a r y — c i v i 1 ian
example
of C o n f e d e r a t e
as
of
th e
"yoking
stated by
problems.
policies
in
fo r c e s ,
tw o p r i m a r y
responsibilities.
immigrants
escaping
These volunteers were
and
to
defeated
President
South were
the U n i t e d
r e p l a c e d by v o l u n t e e r p r o ­
carry
out
Southern
reconstruction which
military
the
of
of
strategy applied by
civilian policy"
of w h o m w e r e
the n a t i o n
reconstruction
results
a prime
the w a r w e r e
in E u r o p e .
of
surrender
of
Weigley.
surrender
many
The
as g e n e r a l
era m a r k e d b y
the
In the h i s t o r y
this was
armies
set.
of an
were
Regular Army was given
The mass
of G r a n t
and mili t a r y
strategy and
the
end
the n a t i o n
Russell
With
States
and
and Grant.
relationships,
of
by Lincoln
deemed
to o
to p o l i c e
the p o l i c y
states.
caused
Johnson's
famine
by
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
this
civil-
reconstruction
liberal
the
of
It w a s
serious
and
17
soldiers.
to c a r r y
A lso,
out
such a
officers became
former
the p r e s i d e n t i a l
sensitive policy was
convinced
officers
33
was
to be
under
the
one vote,
but
soldiers had
felt
on,
the A r m y w a s
to b e
no
separate
the
since
invisible
and
resultant
to b e
South,
which
He
1865.
in th e
the
seeking
in the
of C o n g r e s s .
necessary
the p e r i o d
campaigns
frontier and
wars
and
1865-1899,
against
to
the F r e n c h
hard and bequeathed
the
escaped
convic­
in t he m a n n e r
From
this
time
r e a l m of g o v e r n m e n t
the A r m y . "
to q u e l l
35
civil
society
thre a t
it a
During
administration used
Indians
rich
it
Although
tradition
to b e
is a p a r t .
troops
to
th e
the A r m y
as
the
never
restore
peace
on
Indian
lean and
"Dark Age s
the m i l i t a r y
In
ten
of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m ,
known
this period,
which
fought
to m a i n t a i n
in M e x i c o k e p t
disturbances,
of w h i c h
the A r m y
expand westward.
these y e a r s — 1 8 6 5 - 1 8 9 1 — were
the
to h i s
and
longer. 34
During
of
strengthened
soldiers
reconstruction proceeded
the
and Union
Congress
Johnson's
the a r m y u n i t s
control
federal
siding with
in l a r g e p a r t ,
of
lacking,
of a l l e g i a n c e s a m o n g
the P r e s i d e n t .
due,
c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i ef
tion by
to h a r a s s
formed— those w h o were
impeachment
the m i l i t a r y
Johnson's policy
Soon a d i v i s i o n
those who were w ith
of
to H a r o l d H y m a n a l l o w e d
southern whites
Unionists..."
was
that
rebels and a ccording
"unrepentant
backing
endears
1877,
order
was
used
an A r m y
to
the H a y e s
following
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
several
18
railroad worker
Pullman
and
on
Strike
8 July
Ind iana,
army
least
one
1890.
established,
tactics.
for a n a v a l
the N a v y
contact
officer
returned
society
for
to u s i n g
and
not
rest
effective
budget
th e
rather
even
on
of
the
Point
policies
command
after
th e
cuts a l s o
obsolescence
in e q u i p m e n t
it a l m o s t
engines
the
Sherman
take h o l d until
to
canvas
t he
retirement
economy made
to u t i l i z e
and
stationed
of G e n e r a l
in a m o r e
and Navy
isolated
socially,
with
th e g u i d a n c e
would
desire
in H a m m o n d ,
s y s t e m b e y o n d We s t
Congressional
the A r m y
a mob
forces were
of p r o m o t i o n
t r i e d but
The
American
the
Experiments
S p a n i s h A m e r i c a n War.
fired upon
educational
equitable method
condemned both
of
limited
An
in the
C l e v e l a n d ’s d i r e c t i o n ;
intellectually,
and u n d e r
established.
also used
rioter was killed.
The majority
structure were
and
troops
"Dark A g e s , "
frontiers and had
a more
was
1894,
forces politically,
nation until
was
The Army was
189 4 u n d e r P r e s i d e n t
these
physically.
the
of
a n d at
During
armed
strikes.
on h i s
than
a crime
ship,
and
steam p r o p u l ­
sion.^^
Few periods
or m o r e
than
in A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y h a v e w i t n e s s e d
significant
that
which
change
occurred a round
Alfred Thayer Mahan's The
and his
thesis
to an a b i l i t y
in d i r e c t i o n
that
Influence
national
to c o n t r o l
the
the
turn
of
greatness
sea
in n a t i o n a l
of
the
a greater
policy
century.
Sea P o w e r U p o n H i s t ory
was
directly
influenced many
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
related
in A m e r i c a .
19
Mahan's
thesis and
the
colonial
conflicts
Hawaiian
Islands b e t w e e n A m e r i c a
starting
in
and become
overseas
one
caused
of
century,
When
strength
the
of
thousand.
strength
39
of
seems
some
last
the A r m y w a s
In A p r i l
and,
resulted
in the
the p a s s i n g
state N ational
of
War.
38
the a c t u a l
to d o u b l e
emotional
involvement
to all
at
in
twenty-eight
enough volunteers.
legally was
sentiment
the n i n e t e e n t h
out,
to the
the n e w n a m e g i v e n
legal w i t h
first
the
surge
in h o s t i l i t i e s ,
Whether
th e
state militias,
doubtful.
This
the V o l u n t e e r B i l l ,
Guard units being
which
used
in the C a r i b b e a n .
The weakness
of
the W a r D e p a r t m e n t
activities
of the w a r p r o m p t e d
reform and
reorganization
of
of
the Regul a r s
caused debate among
a whole
due
This
Spanish American
over
to a c c o m p a n y A m e r i c a n
was made
volunteer
the
the
to m o d e r n i z e
imperialist
of
and
nations
the w o r l d .
decade
slightly
Samoa
Navy
18 9 8 , C o n g r e s s v o t e d
the m i l i t a r y ;
could be used abro a d
Performance
in
Spanish American War br oke
Guard,
extensively
the
the
claim caused
it h a d n o p r o b l e m g e t t i n g
National
States
powerful
increased
States during
which
and European
the U n i t e d
the m o s t
involvement
the U n i t e d
which
1883
over
civilian
Secretary
that
versus
of
limited
of W a r E l i h u
Department
in
effectiveness
in
Root 's
again
leaders.
equipped and
the
1901.
th e v o l u n t e e r s
and military
units had arrived poorly
and were
in c o o r d i n a t i n g
The
trained
the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
initial
as
20
phases
meant
and
of
to
the war.
establish
to p r o v i d e
ment.^^
place
In
the
to p r o v i d e
Major
the y e a r s
fe d e r a l
some
A l so,
the p a s s a g e
control
establishment
of A m e r i c a n
1776-1899
can b e
beginning with
need
supremacy
on
the
soldier
on n a t i o n a l
a
first
result
colonists
forces.
in m i n d .
concept,
the
last,
theme— civilian
the
traditions
military
are
the
during
of n a t i o n a l
which
was
themes,
civilian
on a m i l i t a r y
imp act
supremacy
of
based
the m i l i t a r y
public
opinion
of
Commander-in-Chi e f .
As
the p e o p l e ;
subject
to
t o d a y as
States and was
the p u r s e
was
and
of
authori­
the a b i l i t y
d e s i g n a t e d as
he was
subject
command association,
the w i l l
the
supremacy was
the g o v e r n i n g
the P r e s i d e n t ,
and by
known
the U n i t e d
the m i l i t a r y —
the A m e r i c a n
Civilian
constantly p r a c t i c e d by
was given power
over
inherited by
the P r e s i d e n t
was also
areas
influence
tradition.
in the C o n s t i t u t i o n
Congress
of
relations
the n a t i o n
They
took
and planning.
Four major
reliance
to d e c l a r e w a r w h i l e
will
S t aff
from their British ancestors,
a precaution
ties.
the G e n e r a l
of
equip­
security policy.
of
Anglo-American
embodied
and
to all
was
Guard
in t r a i n i n g
the b i r t h
and
the D i c k A c t
civil-mi 1 i tary
linked
the m i l i t a r y ,
in p o l i c y m a k i n g ,
The
was
over
citizen
wields
has
to be k e p t
of
of
the N a t i o n a l
organization
s u p p o r t e d an d w o n b y m i l i t a r y
however,
over
standardization
for b e t t e r
themes
development
1903,
the
to
the
the m i l i t a r y
the p e o p l e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21
The pub l i c ' s will
theme.
That
is,
citizen
sol dier.
or d e s i r e h a s
a military
The
America's military
establishment
debate
concerning
force has b een
America's history.
Should
composed
soldiers with
at
some
placed
on a
small
in the dual
the p r i m a r y m e a n s
Regular Army was
national
second
theme
influence
significantly
c a ses w e r e
led
to c o n c e r n
to b e
internal
compromise
championed by
but
the
of
at
the
the
citizen
same
cornerstone
in r e l a t i o n
Winfield
Scott
War,
compatibility
provides
Lincoln's national
time
of
in M e x i c o
in
Also,
th e m i l i t a r y
security policy
Reconstruction
of
circumstances.
example.
gave
the
were
Only
establishment
Most
of G r a n t ' s m i l i t a r y
policy
in n a t i o n a l
during
one
third:
security process.
policy.
to w a r t i m e
policies
over a
the m i l i t a r y
influence national
of o c c u p a t i o n
programs
e s t a b l i s h e d as
cases did
lishment
influence
A
concept
of d e f e n s e ,
in the n a t i o n a l
few exceptional
the
emphasis
of d e f e n s e
the
skills—
defense.
This
military
is
of
on a m i l i t a r y
influence?
into
the
throughout
placed
Or
second
composition
military— despite
pattern
institutionalized
the
limited military
efficiency?
stro ng p r o f e s s i o n a l
effected
s o l i d e r as
in a
to m i l i t a r y
emphasis be
in the
based upon
continuous
of u n c o n t r o l l a b l e m i l i t a r y
C a l h o u n and
a
citizen
cost
dangers
was
of
resulted
these
The
estab­
1846 b y G e n e r a l
during
the C i v i l
strategy
and
considerable
formation.
The
i n s t i t u t e d by m i l i t a r y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
commanders
in the
Philippines
Southern
after
the
influence
area.
to W o r l d W a r
was
that
national
military
over n a tional
should
security policy
the a r m e d
forces
s t a t e d by A m o s
II,
occupation
War gave
role
only w hen
for
of
in
the
in
that
accepted guidance
the
duress
executing
the
the m i l i t a r y
security policy
the g e n e r a l l y
"play a
responsible
Jordan
Last,
Spanish American
considerable
Prior
states.
formulation
of
of w a r m a d e
such p o l i c y "
in A m e r i ca n Nat i o n a 1 Securi t y :
as
Pollcy
. _
42
and P r o c e s s .
Military
fourth
theme
influence has
of p u b l i c
security policy.
degree
Tocquevilie
democratic
opinion
Public
a constraint
on
describes
government
an
in
and
its
opinion has
the
th e
interrelationship with
relation
to
of p o l i c y .
public
to
on n a t i o n a l
always been
formulators
eff e c t
i mp a c t
the
some
De
opinion has
in a
foreign policy:
F o r e i g n p o l i t i c s d e m a n d s c a r c e l y a n y of t h o s e
q u a l i t i e s w h i c h a d e m o c r a c y p o s s e s s e s ; . . .a d e m o c r a c y
is u n a b l e to r e g u l a t e the d e t a i l s of an i m p o r t a n t
u n d e r t a k i n g , to p e r s e v e r e in a d e s i g n , a n d to w o r k
out its e x e c u t i o n in the p r e s e n c e of s e r i o u s
obstacles-.
It cann o t c o m b i n e m e a s u r e s w i t h s e c r e c y
a n d it w i l l not a w a i t t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s w i t h
pat i e n c e . . . d e m o e r a ci e s .. .o b e y the i m p u l se of
p a s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n s u g g e s t i o n of p r u d e n c e a n d . . .
a b a n d o n a m a t u r e d e s i g n for the g r a t i f i c a t i o n of
a mon e t a r y caprice.
This
teenth
r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s not
century
but
som e
cases
was
evident
as
it h a s b e e n
are visible.
in the
reaction
as
evident
during
The
of
the
i mp a c t
during
th e n i n e ­
twentieth
of p u b l i c
s o c i e t y at
century,
opinion
the b e g i n n i n g
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
23
the C i v i l
flood
War and
the
of v o l u n t e e r s
Americans
hearts
ar e
people
and pride b e f o r e
a
policy process
sources
develop
as
the
and make
twentieth
opinion
America
industrial
potential
assisting
the
aware
and world power with
which would draw her
she
liked
it
armies
mili tary men
offered military
of
the
twentieth
their
operations
and developed
with American business
the n a t i o n ,
teenth
came
century.
seems
a
and
long w a y
It
to b e n o
cannot
century
different
an
to
in
opinion.
of p u b l i c
as a
leading
and military
international
or not.
policies
fl e e t s ,
in th e
services
closer and
f r o m the
to g o v e r n ­
international
streamlined
closer
relations
The military,
early days
even
it
professional
attractive
role
The
political
E n v i s i o n i n g vast
and mighty
that
security
continue
impact
a wealth
go back
Public
is h a p p e n i n g
forming
industry.
evidence
sources
their
formulation.
into
century.
the
through
real
authorities planning America's
world
in
of what
s h o w the
conscript
there
occasions.
events
twentieth
others,
on m a n y
security policy
entered
initial
think w i t h
t h e m in
well-trained
ment
of
the
to
These media
century will
activity whether
tend
Like
l a r g e r part
society more
on n a t i o n a l
and
coverage
increases.
War with
service.
their mi nd
significantly
t h e i r w o r l d — thus,
The
to m i l i t a r y
emotional
opinion plays
media
Spanish American
if
of
as h a s
the n i n e ­
it w a n t e d
desires
to do
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to,
so.
and
24
2.
The
A m e r i c a n C i v i 1 -Mi 1 i t a r y R e l a t i o n s
term "Progressive
years
of
the
nomic
and
twentieth
social
large-scale
century
problems had
industry
in the
century.
Political
attempted
to
World War
I.
reformers
enhanced public
and popular
Era" was
s o lve
in the
emerged
support
for
the
awareness
legislative
of
was a
conflicting
objectives
one
side,
America
Conversely,
involved
overseas
had heretofore been
in A m e r i c a .
nation's new responsibilities
abroad made
old d a y s "
impossible.
one
of
the most
and
the a t t e m p t
During
powerful
and
other
to
solve
them was
this p e r i o d
the
agricultural,
and
the
1 8 90s h a d
and
In the
influential
end,
left
that
the
commercial
"go b a c k
this p e r i o d ,
social
On
expanding
to
to
difficulties,
the n a t i o n .
rural,
of
Roosevelt,
and presented with problems
absent
interests
action
the d e c a d e
of
the y e a r s p r i o r
these
for
Eco­
th e n i n e t e e n t h
foreign policy,
America was predominantly
isolationist.
of
first
rapid grow t h
"Muckrackers"
In the a r e a
of
of
during
forthcoming.
time
from
the
States.
such as T h e o d o r e
these problems
of
to
United
l a t t e r part
leaders,
Writings
applied
1900-1980
to the g o o d
America became
nations
in
the
w o r 1d .
T h e n e w m o o d at
the n a t i o n ' s m i l i t a r y
between
ment
the
home
a n d a b r o a d a l s o h a d an
establishment-.
Spanish American
in W o r l d W a r
I,
the A r m y
During
War and United
eff e c t
on
the y e a r s
States
and Navy underwent
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
involve­
important
25
organizational
tion
of
the G e n e r a l
oriented
and
reforms.
toward
in b o t h
successful
prompted Congress
expansion
Pacific
of
and
and
performance
and
of
desire
to
end,
this
Britain.
In the
defending
territory
create a navy
expansion
in C u b a h a d not
war with
Spain.
to
stabilize
to a p e r i o d
to p e a c e w a s
of
in
incidents b etween
United
States.
pursuit
America's
in th e
of M e x i c o .
practical
Pershing
training
only
to G r e a t
and Mexico.
the
continued
in
end
Wilson
of
failed
to A m e r i c a ' s
le d
A
thre a t
stabilize
Villa,
of
southwestern
of V e r a c r u z
to c a p t u r e
the
occurrence
Pershing's
to h e l p
The
instability
northern Mexico and
occupation
to
to i n t e r v e n e
reaction
continuing
of P a n c h o V i l l a b y G e n e r a l
attempts by President
results
revolutionary governments.
1911
border
in th e
to A m e r i c a w h i c h
settled with
1934
were
its
f r o m the h o m e b a s e . ^ ^
Mexico's political
changing
seen
of m i l e s
States
it u n t i l
Good Neighbor Policy.
Spain
support
second
th e C a r i b b e a n
been
The United
the R e s e r v e s .
committed America
closer proximity
problems
training,
the W a r w i t h
to
forma­
1903 w e r e
and
the P a n a m a C a n a l
to c a u s e p r o b l e m s w e r e
in C u b a
in
the
Expansion by America
thousands
of m u c h
of
organization,
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e
the b u i l d i n g
Two areas
the D i c k A c t
the R e g u l a r A r m y
an d m o d e r n i z a t i o n .
the n a t i o n a l
were
Staff
improving military
coordination
The Navy's
As mentioned previously,
and
the
forces were
the g o v e r n m e n t
but
the
received by Regular Army and National
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
Guard
troops
on
the
mobilization
of
reserves
establishment
present
of
the
to
focused
on th e
still
in p e a c e t i m e
the
the R e g u l a r A r m y
system was
it p r e p a r e d
with
in the m i l i t a r y
supplement
This
the a s s a s s i n a t i o n
resultant
Americans
ity,
yet
to p r o v e
to b e c o m e
s u pport
to b e
involved
in the
Anglo-French
credit
and
this
loans
in
event
diligently
to d o
so, but
The addition
resultant
discovering
of
the
war needs
for
of
with
1917,
to
Wilson
to
to end
all
it.
sinking
indignation
see
the
only
He w o r k e d
of u n r e s t r i c t e d
hopes
of p e a c e
Telegram and
involve
estab­
The
public
reopening
the Z i m m e r m a n
Japan
in E u r o p e .
i n d u s t r y g e a r e d up
resulting
the
in
neutral­
and American banks
the w a r w a s
to
sided with Great
the A l l i e d n a t i o n s .
the
1 914
threat
situation
American
of a p l o t
in a w a r w i t h M e x i c o a n d
dangerous
relationships,
submarine warfare by Germany
ended.
ignore
prompted President
out
in
Wilson proclaimed American
1915 a n d
to k e e p A m e r i c a
Ferdinand
of E u r o p e p a r t i c i p a t e d ,
the most
the A l l i e d P o w e r s .
the Lu sit ani a
towards
all
as
c o u l d not
by historical
Britain and
of A r c h d u k e
in w h i c h
President
Americans
Americans,
lished
war
recognized Europe
their peace.
way
to b e
Problems
in E u r o p e .
and
of
as
defects
for m a i n t a i n i n g
emergencies.^^
to A m e r i c a
After
to
system
Invaluable.
other
forces n e c e s s a r y
in n a t i o n a l
valuable
and
caused attention
p r o b l e m of a
quantity
war
frontier was
the
the U n i t e d
caused Wilson
on
States
2 April
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
1917
to a s k C o n g r e s s
for a D e c l a r a t i o n
Nationalization
of
railroads and
conscription
i n v o l v e d all
war
Severe p r o b l e m s
ef f o r t .
r e l a t i o n s w e r e not
areas
apparent
the w a r , A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y
power problems.
Act
of
industry along with
of A m e r i c a n
in A m e r i c a n
during
had
solved by
1917, w h i c h p r o v i d e d
society
in
I.
Prior
concentrated
the
67 p e r c e n t
the
c i v i 1 -mi 1 i t a r y
World War
thought
These were
of War.
on m a n ­
Selective
of
to
Service
the U n i t e d
States
/ n
armed
forces.
World War
negl e c t e d area
war"
in the
aspect
of
business
of
and
institutions
World War
research
toward
persevered
between
I,
systems
th e N a t i o n a l
This agency became
organization was
Research
for w e a p o n s
during
emphasis
deprived
a central
on b a s i c
funds after
a n d b e c a m e k n o w n as
and Development
science
and
I marked a definite
science.
th e
increase
in the
agency
the w a r ,
This
of
II.
the m i l i t a r y w a s not
was
for
it
same
the w a r b u t
Office
for W o r l d W a r
with
support.
directing
after
caused
to d e a l
systems
and
between
century
Research Council
the w a r ;
of
or
"t o t a l
economic
effort
of o r g a n i z a t i o n s
requirements
reverted
a
of
the
twentieth
new
scientific
of
the
creation
created.
Management
coordinated
/Q
the m i l i t a r y .
in w a r
the
in a n a g e
during
the
During
century.
soon b e c a m e
leaders and
Technology
however,
economic mobilization
twentieth
the w a r
1 uncovered,
Scientific
The
new,
importance
collaboration
but
of
other.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
World
one
War
to t he
28
World War
with
1 was also America's
coalition warfare.
General
Commander
of
given
responsibility
the
pation
in the w a r w a s
Wilson's
ton,
the A m e r i c a n
aversion
D.C.
status more
John
of
insuring
Force
that
o r g a n i z e d a n d not
and Pershing's
of a p r o c o n s u l
real
experience
J. P e r s h i n g w a s n a m e d
Expeditionary
to w a r , t h e g r e a t
an d P a r i s ,
first
(A E F ) a n d w a s
America's parti ci­
abused by
the A l l i e s .
distance between
personality
Washing­
a s s u r e d hi s
than a p u r e l y m i l i t a r y
représenta-
tive/9
Pershing
and
during World War
on
the
call
Army was
called
up
I.
of
of
1918 a n d
the w a r t i m e
I and
small
of
their
30 J u n e
however,
d id
a pool
Corp
continue
at
of
a
wars had
the
Americans
reestab­
affairs.
and
draft
Between
2,800,000
the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n
ended after World
the N a t i o n a l
trained
to p r o d u c e
1 — that
and
relying
the R e g u l a r
approximately
Guard hindered
soldiers.
the n a t i o n ' s
this d e m o b i l i z a t i o n was
after World War
to
of
ceased,
peacetime
1919,
appropriations
Training
s upport
soldiers
army b e g a n . T h e
Officers
of
to
received discharges,
t h e m in m a i n t a i n i n g
All
soldiers
a n d as h o s t i l i t i e s
return
officers and men
War
citizen
respectably
the A m e r i c a n b e l i e f
the n a t i o n ' s n o r m a l
11 N o v e m b e r
of
Again,
revalidated;
for the
lishing
the A m e r i c a n A r m y p e r f o r m e d
The
land grant
colleges,
a pool
of
result
of A m e r i c a ' s
ended
reserve
forever.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reserve
officers.
dream
29
The National
earlier
S taff
was
to b e
War
11.
for
industrial
1939
war
avoid
1921
international
1936,
for
with
not
t he
changes
sounds
of W o r l d
Secretary
of
and Navy
led
to d e v e l o p
1934,
renewed
of w a r
rebuilding
emanating
program
administration.
for
As
only
for
peace.
that
other major
avoiding
the
the y e a r
forces were better prepared
thought
and
America
powers.
could and
small
achieve
should
By p romoting
commitments with
a
their
defense
t h i s g oa l.
old w o r l d
establishment,
As h i s t o r y has
to be.
second
to E u r o p e .
for e s h a d o w e d what
a
By
days
which
responsibility
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e
they might
this w a s
came
the
during
and m a i n t a i n i n g
Again
real
time
peace,
they b e l i e v e d
war
to
future wars
shown,
and
the m i l i t a r y
other
of
th e A r m y
services.
the R o o s e v e l t
representatives
nations,
first
It g a v e
officers,
to an A s s i s t a n t
and Asia p r o m p t e d
emerged,
From
during
Board which was
for b o t h
forces under
elected
J oint
in the m i l i t a r y
than any
of
the
R o o t 's
command.
complement
coordinations between
contingency plans
and
the a s s i g n m e n t
mobilization
to the A r m y a n d N a v y
from Europe
1920 b o l s t e r e d
of p l a n n i n g
importance
It a l s o p r o v i d e d
interest
of
an a d e q u a t e
of g r e a t
Further
armed
Act
r e f o r m in the a r e a
the G e n e r a l
War.
Defense
time
in the
twentieth
Action by
Japan,
Germany,
the y e a r s
in m i l i t a r y
of
policy
1939-1945 were
occurred,
bu t
century,
and
Italy
to b r i n g .
No
appropriation
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
for the
services
overwhelming
sentiment
Isolationist,
neighbors
the n a t i o n
It
program
out
of
armed
In
and began
however,
the
remained
oceans and America's
the
F a r East
the d e p r e s s i o n
In
substantial.
friendly
from aggression.
and
forces
1941,
th e
In the U n i t e d
of H i t l e r at M u n i c h
Harbor
became more
In A m e r i c a ,
upon
In E u r o p e
rearmament
powerful
relying
to p r o t e c t
Events
a
from Congress
1938 a n d
In
1940,
to
created
one of
the m o s t
the a p p e a s e m e n t
Japanese
attack
to the d a n g e r s
the
stimulate
which helped bring
Between
the
America awakened
to m o b i l i z e .
States,
and
In h i s t o r y .
helped
Selective
on P e a r l
from without
S e r v i c e Act
was p a s s e d and aid
to B r i t a i n b e g a n .
Strategic planners
Washington began a
coordinated
In d e v e l o p i n g
effor t
concerning global
and
tary and bus i n e s s
establishments
of
coordinated
efforts
the
their
coalition
toward
warfare.
Again,
the n a t i o n
plans
the m i l i ­
combined
c o m m o n goal
In
and
of p r e p a r i n g
for the w a r t o c o m e .
In
1940,
of a m a s s
by
the
leaders
army with
one v o t e .
of
th e p a s s i n g
A workable
nation
sent
for
reactivated.
that
a citizen
Into battle.
It
called
for
of
s y s t e m of
developed during World War
was now
the n a t i o n
11
the
draft
S e r v i c e Act
conscription had been
I had
c o u l d be
World War
th e v e r y
Selective
I, a n d b a s i c a l l y ,
World War
army
the
authorized
the
also proven
recruited
reconfirmed
dimensions
s ame
to
swiftly
system
the
and
this a s s u m p t i o n ,
of m i l i t a r y p o w e r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
that
31
A m e r i c a w a s bes t
citizen
prepared
soldiers,
of
production
capability.
to the
equipment
11 w a s
emotions
approached
army
skilled Regular Army
quantities
World War
for— a mass
produ ced by
composed
officers,
of
and massive
the n a t i o n ' s
superior
of w a r w h i c h
appealed
51
also
the
of A m e r i c a n s .
the w a r as a
type
After Pearl
crusade.
Russell
Harbor,
America
Weigley maintains
that :
In the w a y in w h i c h A m e r i c a n s r e g a r d e d it,
it w a s a k i n d of I n d i a n r a i d w r i t large:
the
e n e m y fell t r e a c h e r o u s l y u p o n the c o m m u n i t i e s
o u t e r d e f e n s e s , w h e r e u p o n t he c o m m u n i t y set a s i d e
e v e r y t h i n g e l s e for th e d u r â t ion ... T h e a g g r e s s o r ,
r e p u l s e d a n d b e a t e n , the c o m m u n i t y c o u l d r e t u r n
to the w a y s of p e a c e .
The
s upp ort
and
the a r m e d
lar a w a r
military
culties
the
the A m e r i c a n
strategy
Roosevelt
to
this w a s
invasion
aside
and
to
int o as p o p u ­
53
lessen
Within
there were
to g i v e
the p o i n t
and best
suited
the A m e r i c a n
few conflicts.
the m i l i t a r y
chiefs
of
strategic plans.
the d e c i s i o n
to
execute
Here,
on
the d i f f i ­
th e m a j o r i t y
of N o r t h A f r i c a .
where
emphasis placed
coalition warfare
of A m e r i c a .
tended
evolved
strategy would
organization,
in d e v e l o p i n g
exception
Allied
This
climate
c i v i 1 -mi 1 i t a r y
II d e v e l o p e d
the A l l i e s
in c o n d u c t i n g
emotional
freedom
of
o b j e c t i v e s w e r e put
found
to the P r e s i d e n t
can be.
objectives.
President
public was given
f o r c e s as W o r l d W a r
as a n y w a r
Common
political
of
TORCH,
President
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
One
the
Roosevelt
32
overruled
the
judgment
of W a r a n d d i r e c t e d
Africa.
large
Eagerness
scale
Roosevelt's
It w a s
became very
political
during
that
World War
the p r e c e d e n t
Chiefs
the
and
forces
ground
was
II
Secretary
in N o r t h
forces
engaged
justification
in
for
the m i l i t a r y
chiefs
and
Ada m Yarmolinsky maintains
in T h e Mi 1 i t a ry
the
"super
chiefs attained
involved
relating
for th e
of
that
in d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h m i l i t a r y
F r o m the b e g i n n i n g
domestic policy
present
to h a v e A m e r i c a n
influential
military men were
Joint
Staff
decision.
policy.
SS
of
t h e m to u s e A m e r i c a n
offensive movements
Est abli shment
status."
of h i s C h i e f s
of the w a r
to
f o r e i g n and,
to the w a r
continuation
Staff,
organization
in
almost
in one
to a
effort.
of
the
the
the U n i t e d
of
Japan
end,
large
ex t e n t ,
This was
office
f o r m or a n o t h e r ,
of
cabinet
of
to
the
through
States national
set
the
security
st r u c t u r e .
With
the d e f e a t
traditional
demobilization
demobilization
continued,
toward developing
coping wi t h
authority
National
civil
S e c u r i t y Act
developed.
of
in
A need
for a
a n d as a
1947 w a s
passed.
The
three
the
56
a civilian
services
While
officials worked
system capable
the w a r ,
h e a d e d by
1945,
forces began.
and military
security
the p o s t w a r w o r l d .
emerged during
was
of A m e r i c a ' s
a national
Military Establishment
Defense
and Germany
central
result,
of
command
the
A National
Secretary
were
given
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
execu-
33
tive department
status and a l l o w e d direct
President.
Joint
body
and
The
f u n c t i o n e d as
advisor.
The
coordinate
to
creation
diplomatic,
recommend
the
weakness
of
Secretary
the
of
of
industrial
and
revolved
access
venting
chain
of
Military Establishment
authority
three
The
control
in
over
for n a t i o n a l
At
the
1949
to
the m i l i t a r y
end
of W o r l d W a r
decline
" d e t e r m i n e d not
thus,
department
labeled
to
it
department
circum-
passed
by
out
the
of
the D e p a r t ­
the a f f a i r s
the w o r l d .
of
1947 a n d
tighten
all
the
civilian
the
framework
to come.
the T r u m a n
revenue and
to
of
s e r v e as
for y e a r s
II,
in
the
of D e f e n s e w a s a l s o g i v e n
came
of h a p p e n i n g s a r o u n d
administration
and
The
supervision
an amendment
formalize and
and
that
service
S e c u r i t y Act
security planning
faced a continuous
awareness
served
each
to c o o r d i n a t e
National
simplified
57
executive
Secretary
the p r e r e q u i s i t e
fact
the P r e s i d e n t ,
National
services.
that
the w e a k n e s s e s ,
The
the
only general
command.
c r e a t e d an
of D e f e n s e .
th e P r e s i d e n t
around
and
to
plans
Military Establishment.
in
amendment
and
to
Congress
ment
1949
military
military,
was allowed direct
to
statutory
to
service departments
In r e s p o n s e
a
Security Council
of D e f e n s e w a s a l l o w e d
the n o r m a l
became
of a N a t i o n a l
the N a t i o n a l
the p l a n
Staff
to the
the P r e s i d e n t ' s p r i n c i p a l
security policies
efficiency
over
Chiefs
access
administration
a decline
As a
spend more
in p u b l i c
result
tha n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
[it
the
took
34
CQ
in]
in t a x e s . ’
planners
than
In r e a c t i o n
again had
to
the m a i n t e n a n c e
even h a v e
enough
"containment
A
April
of
r eady
19 5 0 , which was
of
Soviet
increase
in d e f e n s e
military
strength
without
direct
increased
forces
state
The
concept
of
request
designed
Korean
was
forces
of C h i n a ,
The Korean
ready
National
Guard
longer
foundation
fo r
on
and Asia
of
of
funds
to
o ur m i l i t a r y
further
most
in E u r o p e .
With
later
Asia gained new dominance
in
force
also
reaction
to act
soldier was
and
in
the
S outh K o r e a a n d
conflict
forces
citizen
with
conflict,
concentrated
of
aggression
to d e t e r
the K o r e a n
in
substantial
expenditures
orderly buildup
Until
effo rt
Soviet
the M e d i t e r r a n e a n
but
60
strong
the
forewarned
This build-up,
readiness
the d r a f t .
the
labeled NSC-68,
of d e t e r r i n g
to
reserved
replaced by a
Security Council
immediate build-up
Republic
of
59
a n d an
of A m e r i c a ' s d e f e n s e
mobilization
of
spending
of
security planning.
its p o l i c y
advocated a
of a g g r e s s i o n . . . "
the P e o p l e ' s
d i d not
NSC-68
early,
of N o r t h
support
rather
power.
Truman
for an
be
to be
in E u r o p e ,
"...provide
The nation
the N a t i o n a l
confrontation.
caused President
the a t t a c k
to
expansion."
in h o p e s
tension
to a
forces.
forces
study by
military
to m o b i l i z a t i o n p l a n n i n g
ready
of C o m m u n i s t
strategic
the g r o w t h
acts
revert
to t h i s p o l i c y ,
Reserve
the n a t i o n ' s
caused
to a
in
a
t h r e a t — to
as a d e t e r r e n t .
still
f orce s,
in e v i d e n c e w i t h
bu t
defense.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it w a s
American
no
35
participation
build-up
of
rockets,
and
in w a r s p r i o r
forces.
forces
response
other modern weapons
of w a r h a s
in b e i n g
to the
Military
allowed
The postwar world with
The n e w technology
upon
to K o r e a h a d
etc.,
required
as a d e t e r r e n t
limited wars
involvement
of
had
that
More
than h a l f
of
between
went
to d e f e n s e
education
projects
came
directly
the
rely
the
era v e t s
is
but
one
through
the
draft.
had
Even
though
influential
still
th e
The
instance
the g e n e r a l s
positions
t he
decisions.
With
and m a s s i v e
destruction
1972
rely
and
of
research
of
States
the
is
service
draft
impacted
is g one,
tour has
treatment
impac t
1972,
on
bu t
affected
of V i e t n a m
the m i l i t a r y h a s
admirals have gained
in the p o l i c y
civilian administration
to
and
institutions
service
the
of the
and
1951
the P e n t a g o n . U n t i l
their
over
society
forties.
came
in the U n i t e d
Today,
furor
the
seventy percent
military
of m a n y d u r i n g
so ciety.
grants
Over
subsequent
American
and many
funded by
American males.
experience
Industry
federal
conducted
indirectly
and
all
on
in c o m e .
research
or
the d r a f t
almost
to
to p r o v i d e
scientific
budget
contracts,
rely
and a
of A m e r i c a n
since
heavily upon defense
that.
f uture.
areas
expenditures.^^
all
Americans
increased drastically
federal
aircraft,
changed
and government
the
jet
to a g g r e s s i o n
the
in all
its
a gradual
making
process,
which makes
the a d v e n t of n e w w e a p o n s
a n d th e e v e r p r e s e n t
the
capable
thre a t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it
is
final
of q u i c k
of
the
36
Soviet
will
Union,
not
be
the
staged build-up
effective.
America
of
an
expansible military
has allowed,
military
establishment
to g r o w a n d b e c o m e
powerful
instrument
foreign policy.
In the w o r l d
looks
of
to day,
e x c l u s i v e l y at
diplomat
a s set
who views
diplomacy
in
an
the
effective
and
th e m i l i t a r y p l a n n e r w h o
the m i l i t a r y
to h i s n a t i o n ' s
stated
neither
therefore,
element
of p o l i c y ,
isolation,
government.
nor
the
is a p o s i t i v e
Henry Kissinger perhaps
the p r o b l e m b e s t :
A s e p a r a t i o n of p o l i c y can be a c h i e v e d o n l y
to the d e t r i m e n t of b o t h .
It c a u s e s m i l i t a r y
p o w e r to b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h th e m o s t a b s o l u t e
a p p l i c a t i o n of p o w e r a n d it t e m p t s d i p l o m a c y i n t o
an o v e r - c o n c e r n w i t h f i n e s s e .
S i n c e the d i f f i c u l t
p r o b l e m s of n a t i o n a l p o l i c y a r e in the a r e a w h e r e
political, economic, psychological and military
f a c t o r s o v e r l a p , w e s h o u l d g i v e up the f i c t i o n
that t h g r e is such a t h i n g as p u r e l y m i l i t a r y
a dv ice.
ties
An
C i v i l —mi 1 i t a ry
relations
reflected
coordination
this
during
example was Ken n e d y ' s p o licy
ciding with
tional
the m i l i t a r y ' s
forces
a Communist
in o r d e r
military
to
exception
to t h e
Vietnam.
Limited military
military
coordination
involvement
and
problems with military
period
in w h i c h
eff o r t
challenge
to
the
their
capacity
in
of p o l i c y
and
soon
to
coin­
conven­
to r e s p o n d
the w o r l d .
to
An
strategywas
in
e x p a n d e d to o p e n
solve political
Vietnam has proven
relations
seven­
strategy.
response
rebuild
anywhere
the a t t e m p t
c i v i 1 -mi 1 i t a r y
and
flexible
involvement
force.
sixties and
of p o l i c y
of
insure
the
to b e
a
became uncoordinated
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
and
resulted
in the d i s c r e d i t i n g
in A m e r i c a n p o l i c y .
military
more
of
Since
influence and
importance
a renewed
attitude
towards
said
in A m e r i c a
and
of
of A m e r i c a n s
It
the
the
its
role
and
of
forty
following
effect
and
its
role
the V i e t n a m c o n f l i c t ,
is t h e p o w e r of
seven years
the
public
either adv erse ly
the m i l i t a r y
in r e l a t i o n
to a s s u m e
d u e to the e m e r g e n c e
its n a t i o n ' s p o l i c i e s w h i c h
One hun dred
Toqueville
eyes
threat.
or p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t
s o c iety.
end
the m i l i t a r y
r espectability has b e g u n
in the
Soviet
the
of
in A m e r i c a n
ago Alexis
to p u b l i c
de
opinion
on th e m i l i t a r y :
T h e g e n e r a l spirit of the n a t i o n ' s b e i n g
i n f u s e d i n t o the spirit p e c u l i a r to th e Army,
t e m p e r s the o p i n i o n s a n d d e s i r e s e n g e n d e r e d b y
m i l i t a r y life, or r e p r e s s e s t h e m b y the m i g h t y
f o r c e s of p u b l i c o p i n i o n .
Would
the
START
o p i n i o n h a d not
freeze?
it
is
such a p o l i c y ?
credited,
imp a c t
and
Dominant
the
of
on
the d e s i r e
it
public
is t h i s
themes were
those
if A m e r i c a n
for a n u c l e a r
Salvador be
refusal
to
is not
to b e
dis­
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry
reflection
the
during
that
must
twentieth
on p o l i c y d e c i s i o n
of
over
on an
society's
n e v e r be
century
the n i n e t e e n t h
supremacy
as
s u pport
considers before voting
aspect
civilian
in El
opinion has
is a
themes during
same as
public
discussing
also
initiated
the p u b l i c
every p o l i t i c i a n
The military
attitudes,
Those
today without
The power
The
something
tively
emphasis
especially when
relations.
issue.
placed
Would American participation
l i m i t e d as
is
talks have been
forgotten.
are
rela­
century.
t he m i l i t a r y .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
reliance
on a ci t i z e n - s o l d i er b a s e d d e f e n s e
influence
has had
the
in p o l i c y m a k i n g ,
on n a t i o n a l
evolution
theme
of
Today,
of
each
from
is
of
an
The National
part
military
opinion
occur
The
the m i l i t a r y h a s not
technology
of
civilian
was
and
deployed,
control
on p o l i c y ,
overall
changed.
of w e a p o n s
ca n b e
of
reliance
has also been a l t e r e d by
however,
defense planning.
established
to i m p l e m e n t
response
to a p o s s i b l e
of
last
called
for
"f la r e
ups."
larger military
tion
of
the c i t i z e n
"One A r m y "
emphasis
the n a t i o n ' s
effectiveness
America
policy
on
come
of
s o l d i e r h a s no t
professed by
the m a n n i n g ,
reserve
in c a s e
of
Wars and
r eady
rely,
conflicts
as
to b e
therefore,
forces.
The
tradi­
completely diminished.
the m i l i t a r y
equipping,
forces who are
of A m e r i c a n
so r a p i d l y
to
tradition
in w a r f a r e .
buildup
threat.
emerged
has
consisting
concept
technology
the g r a d u a l
three decades have
on a
great
increased
time
in
the
on the A n g l o - A m e r i c a n
is t h e r e
forces
the
objectives.
traditional
longer
in
first
coordination necessary between America's national
The
The
1980s.
Military views
inherent
public
Differences
to the
strict
Security Council
and military
No
effect
these weapons
that
is e s s e n t i a l .
have become
of
the a d v a n c e d
readily apparent
military
the
1776
civilian dominance
because
the
security policy.
destructiveness with which
it
and
s yste m,
and
the k e y
today puts
training
to m i l i t a r y
a p r o t r a c t e d war.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
39
Military
influence
significantly.
percent
of
The
of
the
is most
defense budget
the n a t i o n ' s G N P
to a p p r o x i m a t e l y
area
5 to
economy
often
to b e
panied by
the g r e a t e r
formulation,
the
the
mistakes
of
lie w i t h
the pas t
of
and p e r h a p s most
During
the n i n e t e e n t h
increased
chise,
and
The
literacy
the
society have
attack
of
impact
on P e a r l
increase
accom­
equals greater
foreign policy
role d u e
policy.
The
to
future
the n a t i o n ' s
policy development
this
coordination,
the
r e p e a t e d — or r e f l e c t e d - -
important,
century,
of
public
of
development
foreign
and
foreign policy.
had
opinion's
American
was
was going
technology,
extended
have had
opinion
fran­
on A m e r i c a n
formation
Issues,
a positively
imp a c t
to w h a t
citizen,
events
impact
foreign policy.
of m e d i a
the A m e r i c a n
Harbor,
is the
the p o p u l a c e
increased awareness
concerning matters
this
influence
th is
expanded
of
on the n a t i o n ' s
the a w a r e n e s s
in the w o r l d .
of
1954
t omo r r o w .
opinion has had
on
for
which
to c o o r d i n a t e
to b e
in
It h a s b e e n
the m i l i t a r y
taken an
Without
from 5
of m i l i t a r y
and military
are b o u n d
public
limited by
of
the a b i l i t y
65
cause
In the a r e a
strategies.
in the p o l i c i e s
L ast,
systems.
and diplomats
with military
imp a c t
size
increased
13.5 p e r c e n t
1980.
sophistication,
of n a t i o n a l
of A m e r i c a w i l l
politicians
increased
II h a s
fluctuated
to
primary
the m i l i t a r y h a s
integration
in
the
The
has
1950
7 percent
observed.
of w e a p o n s
in
in w h i c h
continues
cost,
since Wo r l d W ar
such as
electrifying
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
and
40
unifying
support
effect
of
consensus
on A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
the w a r
on
effort.
foreign policy
involvement
in V i e t n a m
Vietnam had
the
in the
World War
and
result
caused a
conflict-.
lack
is
and a gre a t e r w i l l i n g n e s s
to h a v e
role as a w o r l d p o w e r
This
theme
security and
support
This
of
upon
support
toward
the
on A m e r i c a n
research
attempt
in this
the
attitude
it d i v i d e d
s upp ort
for n a t i o n a l
the U n i t e d
and
support
be
allocations
in
States
the
citizens
t a k e an
its
on n a t i o n a l
specifically
the h y p o t h e s i s
of m i l i t a r y
external
Areas
oriented
relating
toward military
imp act
the
is w o r t h a d d i t i o n a l
research
and values.
thesis will
Harbor;
to A m e r i c a n
formation,
intensity which
lives
for b u d g e t
society's
to
in
surfacing.
the n a t i o n ' s m i l i t a r y ,
opinion
dependent
is
opinion
foreign policy
thesis will
American
have
of p u b l i c
returning
States'
involvement
As V ie t na m retreats
public m e m o r y , confidence
active
of
subsequent
th e U n i t e d
America's
of P e a r l
its
II d o m e s t i c
remained until
increased.
opposite
the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
objectives
Post
opinion and
study.
that
forces
events
and
is
issues
of p a r t i c u l a r
on
the p u b l i c ' s
to d e f e n s e
service.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and
41
CHAPTER
ONE
ENDNOTES
^ R i c h a r d H. K o h n , " T h e C r e a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n M i l i ­
t a r y E s t a b l i s h m e n t , 1 7 8 3 - 1 8 0 2 " , in T h e M i l i t a r y in A m e r i c a
f r o m the C o l o n i a l E r a to the P r e s e n t , ed., P e t e r K a r s t en
(N e w Ÿ ork : F r e e P r e s s , 1980 ) ,
73 .
2
J o h n H a n c o c k , as c i t e d in P e t e r K a r s t e n , T h e M i l i t a r y
in A m e r i c a f r o m the C o l o n i a l Er a to the P r e s e n t , p . 73.
3
R i c h a r d A. P r e s t o n a n d S i d n e y F. W i se, M e n in A r m s :
A H i s t o r y of W a r f a r e a n d Its I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h W e s t e r n
S o c i e t y ( N e w Y o r k : P r a e g e r , 1970) , p~I 167 •
ton,
^Ib id ., p.
l68.
^ I b i d . , p.
170.
^Maurice Mattloff, American Military History (Washing­
D.C.: U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1969), p. 997
Pre s t o n and Wise,
Men
in A r m s , p.
173.
^ I b i d . , p. 175.
9
H e n r y S t e e l e C o m m a g e r a n d A l l a n N e v i n s , A P o c k et H i s ­
tory of the U n i t e d S t a t e s ( N e w Y o r k : W a s h i n g t o n S q u a r e
P r e s s , 1956), p5 96.
^ ^ R u s s e l 1 W e i g l e y , H i s t o r y of the U n i t e d
(Ne w Y ork: M a c M i l l a n C o m p a n y ”, 1^6TT^ p"^ 81 .
States Army
^ ^ G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n , as c i t e d in G o r d o n B. T u r n e r , A
H i s t o r y of M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s S i n c e the E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u ry
( N e w Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e a n d C o m p a n y , 1956) ,
24 •
^ ^ I b i d . , p . 23.
13
Weigley,
^"^Ibid. , p.
History
of
the U n i t e d
S t a t e s A r m y , p . 94.
94.
15
R u s s e l l W e i g l e y , T h e A m e r i c a n W a y of War:
A History
of U n i t e d S t a t e s M i l i t a r y S t r a t e g y a n d P o l i c y (N e w Y o r k :
M a c M i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , I n c ., 1973), p T 42.
^ ^Ib id ., p . 46.
^^Ibid.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42
^^Ibid.
1Q
Weigley,
History
of
the U n i t e d
S t a t e s A r m y , p.
20
of
J o h n C. C a l h o u n , as c i t e d In R u s s e l l
the U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y , p. 140.
Weigley,
132.
H I s t ory
21
J o h n Q u i n c y A d a m s , as c i t e d In M a r c u s C u n l l f f e ,
Soldiers and Civilians:
T h e M a r t i a l Spirit In A m e r i c a ,
1 7 7 5 - 1 8 6 5 (Ne w Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , I n c . ,
1973), p. 43.
22
R. E r n e s t D u p r e y , T h e C o m p a c t H i s t o r y of the U n i t e d
S t a t e s A r m y ( N e w Y o r k : H a w t h o r n e B o ok s', Inc -^ 1968 ) , p”I 7%.
I b l d ., p . 76.
of
2/
U l y s s e s G r a n t , as c i t e d In R u s s e l l
the U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y , p . 173.
^ ^ I b l d . , p.
Weigley,
H i s t ory
189.
^ ^ T h e o d o r e Ropp,
C o l l i e r B o o k s , 1962),
W a r In the M o d e r n W o r l d
p'l 176.
(New York:
27
B r u c e Cat ton. T h i s H a l l o w e d G r o u n d ( N e w Y o r k : P o c k e t
Books, 1956), p. 429.
oO
R u s s e l l W e i g l e y , "M i l i t a r y S t r a t e g y a n d C i v i l i a n
L e a d e r s h i p ," In H i s t o r i c a l D i m e n s i o n s of N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y
P r o b 1 e m s , ed. , K l a u s K n o r r (L a w r e n c e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of
K a n s a s , 1976), p. 42.
^ ^ Ibld.
p • 46.
^°Ibld.
p- 47 .
Ibid.
p • 56.
^^Ibld.
33
H a r o l d M. H y m a n , " J o h n s o n , S t a n t o n , a n d G r a n t : A
R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the A r m y ' s R o l e In the E v e n t s L e a d i n g to
I m p e a c h m e n t , " In T h e M i l i t a r y In A m e r i c a f r o m the C o l o n i a l
Er a to the P r e s e n T ^ e d 1 j P e t e r Ka r s t en (N ew Y o r k : F r e e
Press, F98Ô ) , ^
T 6 1.
^ ^ I b l d ., p.
170.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
43
Samuel P.
American Defense
to the P re sent ,
Wi 1 ey a n d S o n s ,
H u n t i n g t o n , " T h e D a r k a n d the B u g l e , " in
P o l i c y in P e r s p e c t i v e : F r o m C o l o n i a l T i m e s
e d ., Raymond
O ' C o n n o r (N e w Y o r k : J ohn
Inc., 1965), p . 111.
Commager and Nevins,
S t a t e s , p. 331.
37
Huntington,
American
A Pocket
History
of
D e f e n s e P o l i c y , p.
the U n i t e d
111.
QQ
Commager and Nevins,
S t a t e s , p . 361.
3P
Weigley,
History
of
A Pocket
the U n i t e d
History
of
the U n i t e d
S t a t e s A r m y , p.
295.
^ ^ " A p p l i e d M i l i t a r y H i s t o r y , " (Ft. L e a v e n w o r t h : U.S.
A r m y C o m m a n d a n d G e n e r a l Staff C o l l e g e , 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 ) , p. 73/1
W e i g l e y , H i s t o r y of the U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y , p. 321.
42
A m o s A. J o r d a n a n d W i l l i a m J. T a y l o r , Jr., A m e r i can
National Security:
P o l i c y and P r o c e s s (Baltimore: Johns
H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1981 ) , p"ü T54 .
43
A l e x i s de T o c q u e v i l i e . D e m o c r a c y in A m e r i c a 2 v o l s .
( N e w Y o r k : A l f r e d A. K n o p f , 1945), V o l . Ï1 p p . 234-35.
^^Matloff,
"^^Ibid. , p.
American Military
H i s t o r y , p.
344.
357.
^^Commager and Nevins,
S t a t e s , p. 395.
A Pocket
History
of
the U n i t e d
/n
Weigley,
^®Ibid.,
History
p.
360.
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
378.
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
396.
I b i d . , p.
480.
of
the U n i t e d
S t a t e s A r m y , p.
357.
^^ I b i d .
53
W a r II
p5! 16 .
Kent R o b e r t
(Baltimore:
G r e e n field, A m e r i c a n S t r a t e g y in W o r l d
J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963),
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
q/
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
15.
A d a m Yarmolinsky, The Military Establishment:
Its
I m p a c t s on A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r a n d Row,
P u b l i s h e r s , 1971), p. 112.
^^Matloff,
American Military
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
H i s t o r y , p.
531.
532.
^^"Applied Military History,"
Staff C o l l e g e , p. 191.
U.S.
Command and General
^^ I b i d .
^ ^ N S C - 6 8 , as
Securi t y , p. 64.
cited
in
Jordan,
American National
S t e p h e n E. A m b r o s e a n d J a m e s A l d e n B a r b e r , T h e Mi 1 i ta r y a n d A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y ( N e w Y o r k : F r e e P r e s s , 1972), p T
11 .
^^Ibid.
^ ^ H e n r y K i s s i n g e r , as c i t e d in P a u l R . Schrat z , "On
M i l i t a r y A d v i c e a n d D i s s e n t , " S t r a t e g i c R e v i e w , W i n t e r 1981,
p. 47.
^ ^ A l e x i s d e T o q u e v i l i e . D e m o c r a c y in A m e r i c a , 2 v o l s .
(New Y o r k : A l f r e d A. K n o p f , I n c ., 1963) , 11 : 270.
65
U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e A n n u a l R e p o r t , F i s c a l Y e a r
1981 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,
1 9 8 0 ), p. 68.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER
11
PUBLIC OPINION AND FOREIGN
POLICY
DEVELOPMENT
P o l i t i c i a n s court it; s t a t e s m e n a p p e a l to it;
p h i l o s o p h e r s extol or c o n d e m n it; m e r c h a n t s c a t e r
to it; m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s f e a r it; s o c i o l o g i s t s
a n a l y z e it; s t a t i s t i c i a n s m e a s u r e it; a n d c o n s t i ­
t u t i o n -mak e r s try to m a k e it s o v e r e i g n .
- H a r o l d L. C h i l d s
In the a b o v e
some
of
the
formulation
confusion
of
d e c r e a s e but
policy
but
political
surrounding
foreign policy,
tends
to
initiatives
as polit i c a l
also
quote,
looked upon
source
scientist
public
this
increase.
is a
scientist
opinion.
confusion
Public
of
Childs describes
d o e s not
support
strength
In the
for
foreign
in a d e m o c r a c y ;
Geofrey Chandler
st ates,
it
as:
...a c o n t i n u a l d r a g on the d e v e l o p m e n t of
f o r e i g n p o l i c y w h i c h s h o u l d be a b l e to a d a p t
i t s e l f f r e e l y to c h a n g i n g s i t u a t i o n s .
Its
i n f l u e n c e h a s m e a n t that A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y
h a s b e e n a s e r i e s of a d - h o c d e c i s i o n s ... r a t h e r
t h a n a s t e a d y d e v e l o p i n g p o l i c y ...
1.
Politicians,
Although
the
success
his ability
to
there
is no
formula with
these
leaders
a
identify,
cite
single voice,"
the
and
Poli cy Makers,
of a p o l i t i c a l
define,
which
that
they are
the p r o b l e m of a c c u r a t e l y
is o f t e n
solved by
by
it a n d
the p u b l i c w i l l .
control
the
depends
public
it.
deciphering
his
then
his
is
position
determine
speak w i t h
public
leader using
H o w d o e s he
oft e n ,
to this v o i c e .
the p o l i t i c a l
claiming
on
opinion,
Quite
"people
reacting
...
and P u blic Opi n i o n
leader
to d e c i p h e r
old adage
that
and
However,
to d e c i p h e r
is
what
own
opinion
code
supported
the p u b l i c
45
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
46
will
is?
What
Public
is
the
opinion may be
frequently monitored
in the
editorial
opinion polls,
necessarily
but
th e
su p p o r t
expressions
columns
of
r eflect
a re
can b e
through
reading
paper.
Prior
television
media
to
see a
story
happened
high,
then
so
that
readers
agree with
in that
paper's
The
second
frequently
political
usefulness
been
is
the
of
the
they
in the
electronic media
the m o s t
shaping public
opinion.
it
effectively
One might
of a n e w s p a p e r
that
th e m a j o r i t y
on p o l i c y
impor­
a n d F o r e i g n P oli c y ,
concerned.
circulation
opinion
of
remains
the
issues as p r e s e n t e d
columns.
expression
the p u b l i c
scientists,
of p o l l s .
refined and
the
in T h e P r e s s
are good
readers,
These
issue
in the n e w s p a p e r s ,
the
the p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of
and
far as w e a r e
if
found
readers by assimilation
use
expressing
"if w e
are
owners
i ssu es.
the n e w s p a p e r s w e r e
states
The most
style w i t h w h i c h
c o v e r a g e g i v e n an
Cohen
conclude
to the
to th e w i d e s p r e a d
of
editor and
- policy
As B e r n a r d C,
h a s not
the
su p p o r t
rad io,
opinion
t he n e w s p a p e r
in the
the p r e s s
source
do not
of
of
evident
transferred
and
of p u b l i c
the a t t i t u d e
quite
in m a n y w a y s .
the n a t i o n ’s n e w s p a p e r s , p u b l i c
3
elections.
E d i t o r i a l s d o not
and national
- or fail
opinions
tant
expressed
opinion and beliefs
newspapers
of
result?
and
of p u b l i c
opinion
opinion poll.
others are
However,
restructured
the
In
that
Many historians,
skeptical
science
recent
is u s e d
as
to th e
of p o l l i n g
years.
Polls
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
has
are
47
used
extensively by political
being
valuable
taker,
in t h r e e
Louis Harris.
schematic breakdown
such
f e a t u r e s as
Second,
polls
candidate
the
r ecord,
The
are
third area
is
in t h e i r
or
they
The
three areas
the p o l i t i c i a n
constituency
statements mean,
they aware
candidates
can
select
indicating
occupational
patterns.
thinks
of
candidate's voting
the
of
of h i s
the
results
it
from lists
familiar
to
deficiencies?
is s u e s .
The voters may
the g o v e r n m e n t
and
reply
to
e spoused by H a r r i s will
to d e t e r m i n e
issues.
that
the
candidate
accurately
on m a n y
of
is the
of a s s i s t a n c e
more
a
constituency
electorate
their perception
however,
policy makers use
man
the
and
seen as
to A m e r i c a n p o l l -
own w o r d s h o w t h e y b e l i e v e
questions.^
to a g r e e w i t h
religion,
is the d e f i n i t i o n
specific
of h i s
polls give
figure:
a n d ar e
according
of h i s p o l i t i c a l
as a p u b l i c
s h o u l d act,
help
First,
race,
a n d what
express
areas,
indicate what
electorate,
candidates
None
the
"slant"
of
the
foregoing
policy makers
are
inclined
of p o l l s .
as a p o l i t i c a l
Many politicians
gimmick.
and
One C o n g r e s s ­
remarked:
P o l l i n g y o u r p e o p l e w i t h q u e s t i o n n a i r e s is a
g r e a t e r g i m m i c k t h a n m a i l i n g out free f l o w e r
s e e d s ... e v e r y o n e is f l u t t e r e d to b e a s k e d h i s
o p i n i o n on g r e a t i s s u e s .
In the a r e a
of
large n u m b e r s
have been
foreign policy,
of q u e s t i o n s
asked
o v e r an
polls
pertaining
are most
useful
to a p a r t i c u l a r
extended period
of
time,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
when
issue
thus p e r m i t ­
48
ting
the a n a l y s t
to
establish hopefully
accurate
trends
in
.n i
. o n .7
cpi
Policy makers
opinion
not
by
in
order
must
be
to d e v e l o p
cause public unrest.
social
c hange,
movements
of
forces
by
all
policy makers.
what
in
is
Gabriel
of h i s t o r y
opinion
in
Trends
the p o p u l a c e .
the
is
the n e w s
Almond
8
of
these
trends
foreign policy which
change,
trends
reflect
be
second and perhaps
run,
hot
the m o m e n t ,
and
the m o v e m e n t
considered
more
blooded
does
caused
productivity,
s o c i e t y a n d must
short
in p u b l i c
in o p i n i o n m a y b e
These
in
A
the
of
better
technological
of
trend
aware
dangerous
reaction
or as p o l i t i c a l
to
scientist
states:
... a n o v e r r e a c t i o n to e q u i l i b r i u m in w o r l d
p o l i t i c s ... w h e n t h r e a t s f r o m a b r o a d b e c o m e
g r a v e a n d i m m e d i a t e A m e r i c a n s t e n d to b r e a k out
of the p r i v a t e orbit a n d t r e m e n d o u s e n e r g i e s
b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e fo r f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
A s an
example
of
this
tren d ,
fervor with which A m e rica
interpretations
and
policy ma k e r will
ful h e
is
during
the n a t i o n a l
official
tio n
determine,
t he b e s t
is v o t e d
of h i s
p o l i c i e s not
policies,
of
for a c a n d i d a t e
policy
to a
of
usually
given
large
emotional
1 and
these
degree,
of p u b l i c
elections.
office,
or a
interest
the
II.
The
trends by
how
the
success­
initiative.
expression
political
out
cites
entered World Wars
considerations
in p u r s u i n g
Perhaps
Almond
it
rejection
to h i s
reflects
opinion
When
an
is t a n t a m o u n t
of h i s
electorate.
support
occurs
elected
to a
support
of
A majority
for h i s a c t i o n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
rejec­
vote
and
49
opinion
on
topics
considerable
of
constituent
opposition
topics.
This
however,
for
to h i s
expression
in A m e r i c a
e l e c t o r a t e d o e s not
go
of
won by
margins
the
small
overall
basis
public
mood
desired.
It w o u l d be
either needless
2.
The
opinion
on P u b l i c
debating
come
to a
C.
Wright
be
left
the
role
of
process.
opinion
A
in the h a n d s
"power
individuals
and groups
the p u b l i c ,
for
that
are
stable
to be
regards
it
as
that
for y e a r s h a v e
policy
concept
of M i l l s
in
failed
its p l a c e
proposed by
govern America
11
role
Scholars
opinion and have
all
the
foreign policy
holds
to
in the
social
scientist
decisions
few educated and
elite"
issues.
concerning
and
t h e y — the p u b l i c — a r e
on p o l i c y
complements
As a
who
regarding
concept
of a
face
security
of p u b l i c
Mills maintains
e l i t e s . T h i s
leaders
theirs alone.
consensus
policymaking
elections
leaves much
official
elections
Opinion and Foreign Policy
in n a t i o n a l
is not
been
the
show accurately
issue.
opinion
an u n w i s e
of
or u n i m p o r t a n t .
Theories
development
judgment
public
q u a n d ry p o l i t i c a l
of p u b l i c
and many
t h e y d o not
on a n y g i v e n
for p o l i c y m a k i n g ,
those
Many national
is s u e s ,
that
on
one— third
the p o l l s .
on d o m e s t i c
least
can b e m i s l e a d i n g ,
approximately
to
or at
opponent's views
support
are won p rimarily
such
interest,
should
competent
that
without
a
few elite
direction
incapable
of
from
sound
G e o f r e y C h a n d l e r ’s c o n c e p t
that
Chandler believes much
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
50
the p r o b l e m
that
is,
This
lack
is d u e
Americans
external
of
as
to
Arguments
leads
as
being
of
the A m e r i c a n
towards
it b e c o m e s
a positive,
not
them;
public
debate
when policies
line w i t h
involvement
of
the p u b l i c
policy will
willingly
in
support
Relations
of
to
These
charac­
to the
Lerche,
that
international
force.
issues
He
tends
to
th e p u b l i c ' s v i e w t h e y
interests;
has been
in n a t i o n a l
P e o p l e , states
negative,
reflect
national
consistent
be
stronger and
of
it.
and
if
the n
the
s uppo rt
sacrifices given more
13
Committee,
considering
foreign policy.
Fulbright
tend
C h a r l e s O.
over major
J. W i l l i a m F u l b r i g h t , f o r m e r
importance
society.
involvement
is d i r e c t e d
that
events.
to l i n k
dysfunctional
are als o prevalent.
in
of
inability
of A m e r i c a n
to p u b l i c
m a y be m o r e
Foreign
international
opinion
maintains
for that
to t h e i r
completely
favorable
in F o r e i g n P o l i c y
clarify
on
illiteracy";
12
development
problems
educated
the w e l l
opinion
policy process.
when public
"international
espoused by Mills and Chandler
terize public
Jr.,
a r e not
education
events
approaches
policy
to A m e r i c a n s '
chairman
of
the
is a l s o a p r o p o n e n t
public
In h i s b o o k .
support
The
Senate
of
the
in the d e v e l o p m e n t
Crippled G i a n t ,
states:
T h e s u c c e s s of a f o r e i g n p o l i c y , as w e h a v e
b e e n d i s c o v e r i n g , d e p e n d s no t o n l y on the a v a l i a ­
b i l i t y of m i l i t a r y a n d e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s , but,
at l e a s t , a s m u c h , u p o n the s u p p o r t g i v e n it b y our
p e op 1 e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
Further
sup port
process
is
for a n a c t i v e
found
in R a l p h
B.
public
role
in
the p o l i c y
L e v e r i n g 's w o r k .
Th e P u b lie
a n d A m e r i c a n F ore ign P o l i c y , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 7 8 .
In t h i s b o o k ,
Levering
statements
the
on
discounts Mill's
inability
of
and Chandler's
the A m e r i c a n
foreign policy.
Levering
public
to m a k e
believes
that:
sound
about
judgments
P e r h a p s the m o s t h o p e f u l d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g
the past s i x t y y e a r s h a s b e e n the i n c r e a s e d
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of l a r g e p o r t i o n s of the p u b l i c in
r e g a r d to f o r e i g n a f f a i r s .
Levering gives
level
and
of
the
credit
for
this d e v elopment
education Americans
emergence
of
the
have
Levering
news
sources
proposes
the
or m e d i a b y
in
regard
to o p i n i o n s
of
e d u c a t i o n an
on
idea
that
information
conducted
in the
sixties
college" were more
information.^^
less w e r e m o r e
found
news while both groups
on
a
is
that
the
relied
significant
The
of
a high
impact
level
subsequently
A
study
forty percent
those with
on p e r i o d i c a l s
Individuals with
dependent
1930s
of d i f f e r i n g
source utilized.
fifty percent
dependent
the
radio and
issues.
attained
in the n e w s
and
of
the u s e
foreign policy
has
since
increased
source.
reflected
college graduates
media
individuals has
individual
late
received
electronic
t e l e v i s i o n as a w i d e s p r e a d n e w s
to the
"some
for t h e i r n e w s
school
education
electronic media
on n e w s p a p e r s
of
as
for
or
their
supplemental
sources.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
52
Levering believes
one
source
for n e w s
newspapers
tend
lack
of
analyze
space and
foreign affairs which
the
significant."
a more
17
ensure a
them,
As
public
Jr.
a
in p o l i c y
"the
the
f acts
on
the
development.
on an
the
about
than
present
a l s o m a y be
issue.
To
the w o r l d a r o u n d
of n e w s
f o r m an
f r o m the
is d i f f i c u l t
of
of
rather
they
the
because
other hand,
but
forms
to
information
exceptional
issue,
all
and
Additionally,
sided v e r sion
utilize
on a n y
sources provide news
understanding
with
it
of
one
can b e g a r n e r e d
opinion,
these
relying
television,
the b a s i c
in d e p t h .
stress
overall
themselves
it
in
Radio,
Periodicals,
Americans must
provide
role
sound
only
time,
detailed account
biased and present
is a d a n g e r
information.
to p r o v i d e
i s s u e a n d d o not
of a
there
sources
to
opinion.
foregoing
discussion
on
to a n a l y z e
accurately
its
Political
scientist
V.
O.
Key,
states:
... the s harp d e f i n i t i o n of the ro le of
p u b l i c o p i n i o n as it a f f e c t s d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of
p o l i c i e s u n d e r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of s i t u a t i o n s
p r e s e n t s a n .a n a l y t i c a l p r o b l e m of e x t r a o r d i n a r y
difficulty.
The
true
role
of p u b l i c
opinion
in p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t
somewhere between
the d y s f u n c t i o n a l
democratic
that
of p u b l i c
than
is
theory
preferences
concentrated
public does
foreign policy
and belief.
on m a t t e r s
s l o w to m o b i l i z e
on
theory
these
m o b i 1 i z e - - a s it
of
is m e r e l y
the
a
It m a y be m o r e
foreign policy
issues.
did
an d
in the
However,
late
liberal
reflection
diffused
for
when
fifties
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
lies
the p u b l i c
the
in
53
support
again
of
the g o v e r n m e n t ' s h a r d
in the
pressure
forces
late
sixties and
contributed
in
it
can
of A m e r i c a n p o l i c y m a k e r s .
interest
may participate
3.
public
are
is
opinion,
there
three p r i mary
seems
conclude
some
public
military
constrain
that
external
but
the a c t i o n
d o not
unless
e v e n t , they
lead
it.
Opinion
lack
to be
of a g r e e m e n t
a consensus
of p u b l i c
concerning
that
opinion
in
there
foreign
T h e y are:
1.
Public opinion
can c o n s t r a i n p o l i c y
innovations.
2.
Public opinion
can s t i m u l a t e p o l i c y
innovations.
3.
Public opinion
can s e rve as a
i n n o v â t ion s .
America's
has m a d e
n ew and
policy
refusal
even
One might
and
functions
policy development.
or
development
the a r g u m e n t s
of U.S.
stimulate
of P u b l i c
issues and
seventies when
sparked by
in p o l i c y
Functions
Despite
early
on C o l d W a r
to the w i t h d r a w a l
Indochina—
the p u b l i c ' s
line
it
to
think
concern with
rather difficult
initiatives
su p p o r t
need
policy
changes,
present
policy
o p i n i o n has,
not
be
react
they may prevent
for
fear
of
quite visibly,
This
evidenced by
specific policies.
may
domestic matters
for p o l i c y m a k e r s
foreign policies.
the p u b l i c
in p o l i c y
19
overriding
innovative
resource
to d e v e l o p
constraint
actual
public
If p o l i c y m a k e r s
and become mobilized
any attempts
electoral
become
a
on
against
to r e v i s e
punishment.
constraint
20
on
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Public
the u s e
54
of m i l i t a r y
Presently,
power
it
rather
percent
of
spending,
current
U.S.
forces
in
seems
response
to
international
the p u b l i c
is
ready
than apply
it.
those p oll e d
while
level
"combat" advisors
twenty percent
of
spending.
to El
in
Americans
attitudes
force.
even
is
recent
P o licy m a kers must
though military
central
to the
take
force
on
of
to m a i n t a i n
it.
21
into
on e
only
Many
all
the
commitment
however,
the u s e
this
thirty-four
in d e f e n s e
to the
history;
is but
execution
As
favored
examples are available
constraining
wanted
Salvador,
those polled
1981,
increase
forty-seven percent
of d e f e n s e
to b u i l d m i l i t a r y
In N o v e m b e r
f a v o r e d an
ev e n t s .
a b out
other
point
toward
of m i l i t a r y
consideration;
tool
of
they possess,
foreign and national
for
it
security
poli c y .
Policy makers
their advantage.
support
most
attempt
Historically,
governmental
or i n t e r n a t i o n a l
events
perceived passivity
first
and
of
of
seek p u b l i c
occurred during
actions
once
the p o l i c y w a s
support
announced
it.
those
contributing
to
this
factor
la t e r .
incident
only
to
initiated.
of
This
to act
this action
forty-two percent
Johnson's policy
in
it p u b l i c ,
surveyed approved
where
tended
to
foreign policy
Evidence
Aft er he made
increase
opinion
le d p r e s i d e n t s
favored President
of
of T o n k i n
involving
the p u b l i c h a s
seventy-two percent
Gulf
the p u b l i c h a s
the V i e t n a m W a r w h e n
the p e o p l e p o l l e d
1965 b e f o r e h e
to m a n i p u l a t e p u b l i c
it.
in a p p r o v a l
North Vietnamese
22
was
patrol
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A
the
boats
55
supposedly
a t t a c k e d U.S.
attack has
come un d e r
time,
it w a s
stimulate
their
involvement
dent
enough
in
Johnson's
Southeast
is
of a n
support
ins u l t
for
desire
to
opinion
the
exception
stimulus
23
(U.N.).
percent
of
the P R C
to the U . N .
The
In
"...
K e g 1 e y , Jr.
with
example
of C h i n a
1950,
a
By
the U.S.
to b e a d m i t t e d
level
the P R C .
2L
as
su p p o r t
stated
issue
into
showed
in
than
to b l o c k
to the U.N.
of p u b l i c
Also,
more
is
True,
the
an
innova­
and Eugene
to an
issue,
foreign policy
(PRC)
survey
1969»
respect
th e
the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c w e r e
decision by
thi s h i g h
of
often
Republic
Nations
when
stimulate policy
scientists Charles
in
the A m e r i c a n
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e as h a v i n g
T h e y u s e as an
the P e o p l e ' s
the P R C
rule;
in p u b l i c p r e f e r e n c e s p r e c e d e d
change."
it.
that
but
that
Presi­
innovation
than
Political
of
to p o l i c y
the
to
opinion.
rather
tion.
shifts
incident.
questions.
t h e m , their actions may
s tate
this
foreign policy
on
the
increased military
toward
impact
this
the A m e r i c a n p r e s e n c e
some
is
Wittkopf
at
c o n s t r a i n e d by p u b l i c
situation
R.
seen b y
but
of
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e
Without
to p r o p o s a l s b y
is a p a t h e t i c
recently,
to
increase
as a
The actuality
Johnson's
South Vietnam.
a contradiction
it
investigation
Asia may have been
Public
public
destroyers.
of
entry
the U n i t e d
less
favor
the
than
fifteen
of a d m i t t i n g
fifty percent
favored
further attempts by
may have been
favoring
in C h a p t e r
caused by
the a d m i t t a n c e
One,
the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
current
56
"Nuclear Freeze"
movement
G e n e v a m a y b e an
outgrowth
Public
o p i n i o n m a y not
and
of
reinitiation
of a r m s
t a l k at
the A m e r i c a n p e a c e m o v e m e n t .
cause policy
c hange,
but
as p o l i t i c a l
I
scientist
Milton
indirectly
of p u b l i c
or b y
itself."
can act
decisions by
changing
as a
environment
c r a t i c v i e w that
it w o u l d b e
attitude
is not
be
American
are
leaders
that
bargaining with
quite
public
themselves
in
the
that
public
excuse
As
at
attitude becomes
in
the
the
that
a
a
strong
official
T he
1eadership
so.
and
It
resource
arena.
is
in
to be
In
unified public
c o n f i d e n c e but
enables
th e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c w o u l d not
concession which goes
K e g 1 ey a n d W i t t k o p f
as v i c t i m s
the p u b l i c
s u p p ort,
international
demo­
the p u b l i c ’s
that
doing
the
society.
liberal
ref l e c t
to b e l i e v e
efficient
policy
foreign policy
command public
other nations,
a proposed
lar d e s i r e s .
to
i mage
opinion held
upon American
one b e l i e v e s
able
only gives
the
impacts
a mistake
used by decision makers
tolerate
say
inf lu enc ed b y p o l i cy m a k er s .
of a n a t i o n must
h i m to u s e
of p u b l i c
toward
can
of a f f e c t i n g
simply
foreign p o l i c y must
desires,
o p i n i o n not
image
We might
stimulus
No matter h o w much
regard
capable
"the
influencing h o w policy makers perceive
international
this
"the
25
a mobilized public
change by altering
opinion held by persons
the p u b l i c
attitude
st a t e s ,
influence policy
decisions"
by
Rosenberg
against
explain,
of p o p u l a r p r e f e r e n c e s ,
the p o p u ­
by describing
"American
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57
statesmen may
1everage.
The
indeed gain
„26
foregoing
f r u s t r a t e d as
the
foreign
to
observations may
the a c t u a l
and national
As m e n tion ed before,
between
considerable bargaining
leave
place public
the p u b l i c
the
role
their p o l i c i e s
is t h e
real
statement
by Richard
opinion
fying
role
the
and
ruler
R.
confused
the
of
Fa g en will
of p u b l i c
holds
lies
somewhere
to the p u b l i c
republic.
perhaps
in
process.
in
"democratic myth"
the
and
opinion holds
security policy making
decision makers paying no heed
formulating
one
The
assist
that
following
in c l a r i ­
opinion:
... the fact that t h i s d e c i s i o n a l p r o c e s s m a y not
In r e a l i t y o r i g i n a t e
in the w i l l of the p e o p l e
d o e s not d i m i n i s h the s i g n i f i c a n c e or u s e f u l n e s s
of s y m b o l i c a l l y c a s t i n g the t h r e s h o l d g Q f n a t i o n a l
t o l e r a n c e in t e r m s of p u b l i c o p i n i o n .
In o t h e r w o r d s ,
quiescent,
decision
it
would
come
concern
at
is
makers
Former
even
included
in
to the
of
the
being.
Grain
o p i n i o n m a y be
that
and
development.
Rusk hoped
that
Americans
foreign policy was
In an a d d r e s s
Terminal
latent
calculations made by
State Dean
realization
to t h e i r w e l l
Union
in
foreign policy
Secretary
a Farmers
though public
a
to the a t t e n d a n t s
Association meeting,
St re s s e d :
... n e v e r f o r g e t :
F o r e i g n p o l i c y is a bout you-.
It is a b o u t y o u r h o m e ; y o u r c o m m u n i t y ; y o u r
s a fety, y o u r w e l l b e i n g , y o u r c h a n c e to li ve a
d e c e n t life to p r e p a r e a b e t t e r w o r l d for y o u r
children.^®
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
he
58
American
attitudes
distinguish
to the
tend
to
in
security
of A m e r i c a
and
of A m e r i c a n
A
survey
of p u b l i c
(CCFR)
late
emphasis
Foreign policy
more
between
on A m e r i c a ' s
th e
and
survey
public
and
States
foreign pol icy
impacts
unemployment.
Domestic
67 p e r c e n t
of
reflecting
inflation
showing
on
a
security with
This
of
as
and
the
leaders
of
were
from
increase
still
of
out
the
on
th e v a l u e
front
in
on
with
leaders
The
only
concern was national
little w as
13 p e r c e n t
the
five p e r c e n t
concern.
of
too
of
consider United
impact
and
85 p e r c e n t
saying
relationship
the p u b l i c b e l i e v e
their primary
32 p e r c e n t
the
issues,
the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c .
food prices;
substantial
was u p
of
are
in w o r l d a f f a i r s .
substantial
concerns
the p u b l i c
Americans
eighty-two percent
sixty-four percent
foreign policy
defense.
l ives
seventy-two percent
the d o l l a r ;
on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s
realizing
shows
to h a v e
foreign policy
that
role
relation
superseded domestic
are
the
being
on
concludes
i s s u e s h a v e not
events
In p a r t i c u l a r ,
attitudes
1978
and more Americans
world
the w e l l
the C h i c a g o C o u n c i l
in N o v e m b e r
placing more
in
are b e g i n n i n g
foreign policy has
sponsored by
area
they
importance
issues
of
indicate
the
society.
but
to
spent
1974 a n d
on
8 percent
1969.^^
This growing
defense has
military
concern
a definite
forces.
for w o r l d
eff e c t
Charles
L.
upon
affairs and national
the
Cochran
status
describes
of A m e r i c a ' s
it b e s t :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
T h e m i l i t a r y is i d e n t i f i e d in the p u b l i c m i n d
as th e a r m of the g o v e r n m e n t to be u s e d in the
d e f e n s e of c r i t i c a l n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s .
W h e n national security p olicy enjoys a consensus
of n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t , the p r e s t i g e of the m i l i t a r y
is a s s u r e d to the ex te n t it is t i e d to t h e s e " h i g h "
national goals.
But the o p p o s i t e is a l s o true.
W h a t e v e r the ext e n t of c i v i l i a n c o n t r o l , w h e n
U n i t e d States foreign and national p o l icies are
not s u p p o r t e d b y a c l e a r m a j o r i t y of the p o p u l a ­
tion, the m i l i t a r y is as t i e d to the m a j o r m i l i t a r y
d e c i s i o n s as if t h e y h a d b e e n m a d e b y the Joint
C h i e f s o f o g t a f f , w i t h a r e s u l t i n g d e c l i n e in
prestige.
Support
for
the m i l i t a r y
foreign policy
is,
initiatives
therefore,
receive
of
in turn,
are
interest
they p ose
a thr e a t
to
affairs.
Su p p o r t
fluctuate
in
reaction
to the p r e s e n c e
for m i l i t a r y
strength
in
the n o r m a l
for
conduct
the m i l i t a r y
relation
to
the
f r o m the p u b l i c .
policies,
or
items
linked
can
s uppo rt
Those
to the p u b l i c w h e n
of d o m e s t i c
then be
said
to
of a p e r c e i v e d n e e d
to an
international
crisis
threat.
It
is
this
regard
o p i n i o n — constraint,
frequently.
tive
If a
to A m e r i c a n
forces
conduct
is not
society,
is a p e r c e i v e d
increase military
the
threat
invasion
of A f g h a n i s t a n .
exercised
seen as d a n g e r o u s
support
present
such as
Iranian Hostage
Last,
of p u b l i c
r e s o u r c e — are
be
the
public
constrained.
as a
the n o r m a l
stimulus
increase
incident
or d i s r u p ­
of m i l i t a r y
affecting
o p i n i o n m a y act
strength,
after
and
functions
spending will
public
spending
three
th e u s e a n d
defense
of a f f a i r s ,
th e
stimulus,
threat
and greater
If t h e r e
that
and
su p p o r t
to
in d e f e n s e
the
for a
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Soviet
strong
60
military
their
is a
request
resolve
to
resource which
for m o r e
execute
A military
the p u b l i c ,
nation's
for
ness
Chapter
most
valued
society
international
or to
specific
to
to
these
to
signal
and
America's
support
the a l l o c a t i o n
and manpower.
resources
show a
strengthen
foreign policy.
function without
for d e f e n s e
or
can u s e
identified by analyzing
attempt
threat
or
in r e s p e c t
to a s s i g n
of m o n e y
funding
resources— money
can b e
Three will
allocation
cannot
especially
the m i l i t a r y
of
defense
a general
force
statesmen
to
from
of
the
Su p p o r t
the w i l l i n g ­
the m i l i t a r y .
trend between
the p r e s e n c e
crisis.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
of an
61
CHAPTER
TWO ENDNOTES
^ H a r o l d L. C h i l d s , P u b l i c O p i n i o n :
Nature, Formation,
a n d R o l e as c i t e d in C h a r l e s W. K e g 1 e y , Jr. a n d E u g e n e R .
Wittkopf, American Foreign Policy:
Patterns and Process
( N e w Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1979), p . 203.
2
Geoffrey Chandler, "American Opinion and Foreign
P o l i c y , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s 31 O c t o b e r 1955, p. 4573
R a l p h B. L e v e r i n g , T h e P u b l i c a n d A m e r i c a n F o r e i g n
Policy, 1918-1978 (New York: W i l l i a m M o r r o w and Company,
TncT"i 1 9 7 8 ) , pT 33.
^ B e r n a r d C. C o h e n , T h e P r e s s a n d F o r e i g n P o l i c y
( P r i n c e t o n , N e w J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968),
p. 1 3 .
oui s H a r r i s , " P o l l s a n d P o l i t i c s
States," Public Opinion Quarterly
in the U n i t e d
^ L e o B o g a r t , Silent P o l i t i c s :
P o l l s a n d the A w a r e n e s s
of P u b l i c O p i n i o n ( N e w Y o r k : J o h n W i l e y a n d Sons, Inc.,
1972), p. 5.
7
Levering, The Public and Amer ican Foreign P o l i c y ,
p . 53 .
^ B o g a r t , Silent P o l i t i c s , p. 75.
9
Gabriel Almond, The A m e ric an People and Foreign Policy
( N e w Y o r k : F r e d e r i c k A . P r a e g e r , 1 9 6 O ) , p . 54.
^^C. W r i g h t M i l l s , T h e P o w e r
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1956), p. 187.
11
Ibid.
12
Amos Jordan
National Security;
Hopkins University
Elite
(New York:
Oxford
a n d W i l l i a m J. T a y l o r , Jr., A m e r i can
P o l i c y and P r o c e s s (Baltimore: Johns
P r e s s , 1981), pT 43.
13
C h a r l e s O. L e r c h e , Jr., F o r e i g n P o l i c y of the A m e r i can P e o p l e 3rd e d . ( E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N e w J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e
H a l l , 1967), p. 121.
^^ J . W i l l i a m Fulbright, The C r i p p l e d Giant : A m e r i c a n
F o r e i g n P o l i c y a n d Its D o m e s t i c C o n s e q u e n c e s (N e w Y o r k :
R a n d o m H o u s e , 1972) , p~I 265.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
62
15
Levering,
p . 159 .
The
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
23.
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
35.
Public
and American
18
V. O. Ke y, Jr., P u b l i c O p i n i o n
(N e w Y o r k : K n o p f , 1961), p . 7.
19
K e g 1 ey a n d W i t t k o p f ,
^ ° I b i d . , p.
American
Foreign P o l i c y ,
and American D e m o c r a c y ,
F o r e i g n P o l i c y , p.
215.
215.
21
A l v i n R i c h m a n , " P u b l i c A t t i t u d e s on M i l i t a r y P o w e r ,
1 9 8 1 ," P u b l i c O p i n i o n D e c e m b e r / J a n u a r y 1982, p. 46.
22
Kegley and Wittkopf,
American
F o r e i g n P o l i c y , p.
216.
^^Ibid.
^^Ibid.
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
217.
^^Ibid.
^ ^ I b i d . , p . 218.
28
J a m e s N. R o s e n a u , D o m e s t i c S o u r c e s
( N e w Y o r k : T h e F r e e Press'^ 1967) , p”I T~.
2Q
of
Self
20
of F o r e i g n P o l i c y ,
J o h n E. R i e l l y , "The A m e r i c a n M o o d :
A Foreign Policy
I n t e r e s t , " F o r e i g n P o l i c y 34 (S p r i n g 1979) : 77.
C h a r l e s L. C o c h r a n ,
(New Yor k : The Free Press,
ed.. C i v i l M i l i t a r y
1974), p. 3.
Relations
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER
THE DEFENSE
III
BUDGET AND PUBLIC OPINION
It is c u s t o m a r y in the d e m o c r a t i c c o u n t r i e s
to d e p l o r e e x p e n d i t u r e s on a r m a m e n t s as c o n f l i c t i n g
w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t s of social s e r v i c e s .
There
is a t e n d e n c y to for g e t that t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
s o c i a l s e r v i c e a g o v e r n m e n t c a n - d o for its p e o p l e
is to k e e p t h e m a l i v e a n d free.
-British Air Marshall
Sir J o h n SI e s s o r
Major policy
domestic
or
economy.
are
to
issues
foreign,
the U n i t e d
require
Requirements
succeed.
in
of
National
support
security
f r o m the n a t i o n ' s
impa c t
the
one
resources
need and
and
the p r o d u c t i v e
is
improvements,
consumer goods
and a higher
res ult
military
is
that
other demands
on
the
tax
standard
requirements
they
be
for
the
of an
industry
overriding
constraining
and
of
if
services based upon
structure,
programs,
economy,
they
a m a j o r war,
the n a t i o n ' s
e m e r g e as
th e
social
During
or the a b s e n c e
considerations
budgetary policy,
of
be
cannot
economic policy,
constant.
capacity
be m et
requirements
to the m i l i t a r y
In p e a c e t i m e ,
other
as,
public
other
ar e a l l o c a t e d
economy.
threat,
such
on
today,
f r o m the n a t i o n a l
such p o l i c i e s must
c o n s i d e r e d apart
of
States
demand
for
the d e m a n d
for
li v i n g .
must
factors—
The
be w e i g h e d
and priorities
must
be
en d
against
estab-
1 i sh e d .
A major
ments,
fo r
for
instrument
establishing
resolving
and
for b a l a n c i n g
a
scale
recording
resources and
of n a t i o n a l
the p l a n s ,
require­
priorities,
hopes,
and
63
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and
decisions
64
of n a t i o n a l
This
security policy
is
is the P r e s i d e n t 's k e y
nating
the
programs
tool
executive branch
and policies
it
of
a compromise between
policy
those
The
national
the p a t t e r n
budgetary process.
control
the
over
and
spending built
this
the a l l o c a t i o n
of
resources
perhaps
one
civilian
control
o v e r th e m i l i t a r y
defense
of
establishment
of
will
It
into
take
is
the
civilian
the m i l i t a r y
their u n d e r ­
implements
exists.
3
of
The
end
economic, r e s o u r c e s g r a n t e d
shape
is
security and
effective
that
the
2
implement
of n a t i o n a l
the m o s t
allocation
to
coordi­
of n a t i o n a l
sensitivity,
to
exercise
that
requirements
seek
of
is
the
areas
security.
of
officials
and
along with
security p o l i c y will
of
budget.
implements.
domestic
standing
result
controlling
Because
1ever by which
fe d e r a l
the g o v e r n m e n t
involving national
direction
d e t e r m i n e d by
for
develops
represents
and
the a n n u a l
the n a t i o n ' s
the
military
p r ogra m.
Who
should d e t e r m i n e p r o p e r m i l i t a r y p o l i c y
size a n d
content
McCracken,
Advisors,
of
Chairman
the b u d g e t
to
of P r e s i d e n t
s upport
it?
and
Dr.
Nixon's Council
the
Paul
of E c o n o m i c
stated;
... w e h a v e to r e l y on th e j u d g m e n t of g o v e r n m e n t
o f f i c i a l s c h o s e n b y the p e o p l e in the b e l i e f that
t h e y h a v e that g o o d j u d g m e n t , a n d r e a s o n a b l y
r e p r e s e n t the p e o p l e ' s s t a n d a r d of v a l u e s .
The A m e r ica n public does
development
of
desires
requirements
and
not
the n a t i o n a l
are
have
budget
a direct
effect
allocation,
transmitted
on the
but
through
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
their
elected
65
representatives.
is n e e d e d a n d
in
t he
Whether Americans believe
important
fluctuations
te r w i l l
attempt
of A m e r i c a n s
found
to
to a l l o c a t e
defense and
external
cr i s i s .
1.
The ultimate
is m o s t
Product
services
year.
tion
that
Prior
of
of G N P
constraint
to
1930,
of
devoted
4.4
percent
became
to
of
a key
focus
issue
The
of
of an
expendi­
of
goods
and
in a g i v e n
with
the
excep­
to a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1944,
the p e r c e n t a g e
to 3 5 . 5 p e r c e n t .
tradition
size
National
of d e m o b i l i z i n g
1950 h a d d e c r e a s e d
to
the d e f e n s e b u d g e t
of p o l i t i c s w h i c h
resources between
came
th e p u b l i c
sector.
Since W o r l d
"The G r e a t
By
in th e n e w p a t t e r n
on the a l l o c a t i o n
and private
amounted
expenditures by
the G N P .^
of all
the n a t i o n
increased
the A m e r i c a n
after a w a r , defense
presence
security
expenditures,
1 period,
to d e f e n s e h a d
chap­
the w i l l i n g n e s s
to the n a t i o n ' s G r o s s
the n a t i o n ' s G N P .
In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
or a c t u a l
the d o l l a r v a l u e
defense
This
r e s o u r c e s — m o n e y — to
on n a t i o n a l
related
is
reflected
Perspective
could be p r o duced by
the W o r l d W a r
one p e r c e n t
economic
Historical
( G N P )— w h i c h
may be
a trend between
the p e r c e i v e d
directly
being
in the d e f e n s e b u d g e t .
establish
national
tures
to t h e i r w e l l
their mi litary
II,
Equation."
c o n c e r n i n g h o w to
each a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
This
is th e
has had
ever present
"equate needed military
to
satisfy
question
strength with
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66
maximum
must
economic
balance
programs,
ta x
the a l l o c a t i o n
and
Quite
requirements
for
the n a t i o n ' s
economy and
domestic,
be
tax,
of
is
failed
one
American military
national
this b a l a n c i n g
the p h y s i c a l
to c o n s i d e r
security.
They
e n e m i e s but
not
order
to
other nations
military
in o r d e r
and needs
but
in
also
threaten
external
su p p o r t
programs
influences
for d e f e n s e
by
in
so
fa r as
the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
responsibilities
maintain
a much
in p e a c e t i m e .
Union
a round
and
external
they
and
the
enough
the d o m e s t i c
their
the p r e s s u r e s
the d e f e n s e b u d g e t ,
tensions
crisis
th e p u b l i c .
duties
than normal
1949,
the w o r l d
l arge
only do
cause a
and
influence
are p e r c e i v e d
occupation
larger
After
and
tested
expanding
influence
to
fluctuation
spending.
Threats based upon
spending,
Not
this
capabilities.
strain
into
of
to d e f e n d
s h o u l d be
to
of
of
complicated
Intended
so l a r g e as
to d e t e r u s .^
of d o m e s t i c
impact
economic and political
are
placed
the n e e d s
The
and
to
capacity
expenditures have
to d e t e r
or
include defense,
programs.
expenditures
domestic
a n d an a t t e m p t
too diverse
Defense
the n a t i o n ' s
America's
often,
or o t h e r b u d g e t
on d e f e n s e
each a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
resources between
security against
fully understood.
limits
of
this,
reduction programs,
the b u d g e t .
spending
To do
foreign policy p r o g r a m s — which
limitation
balance
strength."^
the
and
responded
to
Post-World War
II
caused America
to
military
establishment
continuing moves
the g r o w t h
defense
of
the
of a n t i - c o m m u n i s m
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Soviet
in
67
the U n i t e d
States
to c o n t i n u e
to g r o w .
of
th e m i l i t a r y
of
it h a s
presence
caused
and
The Common
or the
effort
of
the A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y
American history
the a l l o c a t i o n
D e f e n s e , he
can d e f e n s e
siz e
Throughout
v a r i e d almost
of w a r
the
of
resources
in
d i r e c t l y w i t h the a c t u a l
O
threat of it.
In Samuel
described
from
the
1940-1960
evolution
the
size
support
or p e r c e i v e d
Huntington's
of
the A m e r i ­
in e l e v e n p e r i o d s .
They
a re :
1.
Demobilization:
defense
E.
2.
expenditures
Day and
annual
rate
of
dollars
to
out
10.3 b i l l i o n
1 9 4 7 - Ju n e
1948.
FY
1948 v a r i e d
from
11 .5 b i l l i o n .
budget
and needs
caused
strict
of
After
The
1947 at
Defense
a n d V.
an
expendi­
10.7 b i l l i o n
desire
the E u r o p e a n
ceilings
in
J.
1945,
dollars.
July
during
1947.
d e c l i n e d a f t e r V.
finally bottomed
Stability:
tures
A r p i 1 1 9 4 5 - June
for a b a l a n c e d
recovery program
to be p l a c e d
on d e f e n s e
spending.
3.
Spr i n g C r i s i s
Rearmament:
July
1948-Sept ember
Soviet
movements
in C z e c h o s l o v a k i a
Berlin
sparked a
rising
the C o n g r e s s
into
securing
lation and additional
peak
the
in d e f e n s e
summer
of
and against
of w a r a n d
selective
stimulated
service
legis­
defense appropriations.
spending
1949
fear
of
resulted
1949.
14 b i l l i o n
from this
dollars
A
in
resurgence
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
68
of
4.
So vi e t
aggression.
Eco nom y Drive:
of
the B e r l i n C r i s i s ,
the
of
October
role
of
1948,
the
and
5.
the
rising
three
expenditures
July
election
the E u r o p e a n
towards
1953•
in n a t i o n a l
dollars
of
in
1953
A
security
1950
to
resulted
50 .5
from
at
the
e nd
of
l o w of
the G N P
January
War decline
in d e f e n s e
of
tax
An
cutbacks
in
reductions
38.4 bil l i o n dollars
being
1 9 5 5 - Ju n e
spent
1956.
spending was
stabilization
of a p p r o x i m a t e l y
percent
As
for d e f e n s e
1954.
Stability:
eighteen month
spending declined.
and major
in a b u d g e t
1954.
once peace was
on n u c l e a r w e a p o n s ,
forces,
of
1953-December
wars,
defense
emphasis
11.3 p e r c e n t
on
of
1 9 5 0 - June
second quarter
or
placed
shift
increase
Decline:
conventional
9.5
July
earlier American
increased
7.
1948,
in the
expenditures
12 b i l l i o n
attained national
resulted
program
of
easing
Crisis.
Post-Korean
the
year
from
in the
the K o r e a n
with
The
reduction
caused a
Korean War Rearmament:
billion
tax
1950.
economy.
sustained
6.
the
"Fair Deal"
Economic Cooperation
budgetary
1 9 4 9 - Ju n e
cutbacks
in
followed by
in d e f e n s e
38-39 billion
the GNP.
The Post-Korean
dollars
Continued
conventional
an
spending
or a b o u t
emphasis was
forces and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
69
increase
8.
for m i s s i l e s
Administrative
During
1957,
billion
defense
9.
f r o m the
July
increase
immediately by
were made
result
increases
contractors,
8) w a s
and
in p r i c e s ,
and a more
1957.
strict
This
followed almost
a p l ann ed decrease.
in p e r s o n n e l ,
of p l a n n e d
of w e a p o n s .
1957-December
(period
to 4 4 . 9
Severe
cut s
spending g u i d e ­
im p o s e d .
Sputnik
advent
Expansion:
of
the
for
January
Soviet's
of an A m e r i c a n
drive
to
1957.
climbed
the
th a n a n t i c i p a t e d d e l i v e r y
unplanned
10.
1 9 5 6 - Ju n e
T h i s w a s not
rather
Eco nomy Drive:
lines
July
expenditures
accelerated payments
speedy
other nuclear weapons.
I nc re a se :
dollars.
p r o g r a m s but
and
Sputnik
recession
economy.
1 9 5 8 - Ju n e
and
caused a
Within
a
1959.
the b e g i n n i n g
reversal
related
expenditures
dollars
in
to 4 6 . 2 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s
second q u a r t e r
in m i s s i l e
of
1959.
programs
and
rose
f r o m 44 b i l l i o n
Increases were
other
in the
fifteen month period,
defense
1958
The
scientific
in the
initiated
related
a r ea s .
11.
Uneasy
Stability:
trated
efforts
stabilize
billion
of
spending
dollars
in
July
1959-December
the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
as
expenditures
I960,
Later
in
I960.
tended
dropped
I960,
Concen­
to
to 44.7
the b r e a k
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
70
up
of
the P a r i s
caused
During
9,
spending
these periods,
the p r e s e n c e
helped
to
allocations
1 96 0 s a n d
In
was
and
right
administration
So v i e t
defense
8 and
threat
spending.
When
in d e f e n s e
continued
i n t o the
turbulence
inadequate
So vi et
and
to de a l
Kennedy
of
too
Secretary
initiated a
strengthening
increase
th e n e w " w a r s
war
the
"Massive
of
arsenals
costly
of
to be
of D e f e n s e
the a p p r o p r i a t e
doctrine
and a
with
combined with
for A m e r i c a ' s m i l i t a r y
crisis with
response
and
spent
in the d e v e l o p i n g
theory
general
18
the K e n n e d y
the a d v a n c e d n u c l e a r
Union made
the n e e d
forces
The
of
spending
c a p a b i l i t i e s p r o m p t e d an
President
conventional
too m u c h w a s b e i n g
nuclear
and
flexible
that
and Latin America
the U.S.
to a n y
showed
e n o u g h . A s
expenditures.
realized
I960
to 9 p e r c e n t
Africa,
liberation,"
considered.
amounted
considered defense
not
office,
national
respond
during
45 p e r c e n t
took
of A s i a ,
of
expenditures
21 p e r c e n t
Retaliation'" w a s
This
external
a decline
This pattern
incident
9
of p e r i o d s
in d e f e n s e
those polled believed
about
to
exception
or p e r c e i v e d
Gallup polls
while
McNamara
t he
the U - 2
climbing upward.
threat,
evident.
on d e f e n s e ,
in U.S.
start
increase
an a p p a r e n t
GNP.
of
nations
with
talks and
70s.
America's
growth
an
i9 6 0 , d e f e n s e
percent
to
of a n a c t u a l
stimulate
t h e r e w a s not
Summit
to be a b l e
level
of
rebuilding
of A m e r i c a ' s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
force
of
nuclear
71
arsenal.
a
However,
cost.
Defense
all
thi s
spending
rebuilding was
in the
Kennedy
Administration
I9 60
to
50 b i l l i o n
in
1 9 6 3 . ^^
crisis,
consisting
of
the B a y
and
the C u b a n m i s s i l e
buting
factor
to
refortify
of
S ov i e t
to
rose
from
crisis
this
The
occurrence
of P i g s
were
not
sent
in, but
occur.
The
on ly a
sl ig h t
allocat io n .
final
Hemisph ere and
1963,
President
S ta t es .
Vietnamese
patrol
This
led
Southeast
populace
of
troubles
in
to
Southeast
increase both mili ta ry
and
Military advisors
of
combat
for d e f e n s e
increase
in
over
boats
Johnson
assumed
area
a year
purportedly
Gulf
off
Southeast
reemphasized
A s i a but
that
Kennedy was
Approximately
to t he
Resolution which
in
in­
st r o n g m i l i t a r y
deployment
President
Lyndon
in the T o n k i n
event
a
1963.
dollar
a contri­
units
1964
the
did
showed
1963
12
the U n i t e d
warships
to
allocation
1.2 b i l l i o n
In N o v e m b e r
and Vice
the a c t u a l
was
threat
support
in
1962,
1961
ever present
the W e s t e r n
to S o u t h V i e t n a m
in A p r i l
the
Additionally,
economic aid
the C u b a n
combined
mind
Kennedy
in
two events
protect
Asia prompted President
the
These
to
interests.
of
debacle
c r e a s e d A m e r i c a ’s r e s o l v e
their
of
42.8 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s
increase.
into
three years
in O c t o b e r
in the A m e r i c a n
incursions
first
a c c o m p l i s h e d at
rather
to
"...
the
the P r e s i d e n c y
later.
North
a t t a c k e d U.S.
coast
of
naval
of N o r t h V i e t n a m .
A s i a — or T o n k i n G u l f —
that
that
be
assassinated
t h e U.S.
the U.S.
left
had no ambitions
wished
in p e a c e
the
to w o r k
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
out
72
their
own d e s t i n i e s
the P r e s i d e n t
necessary
as
best
their
initiate
to p r o t e c t
tantamount
between
to
in
to an
Senators
11
such m e a s u r e s
American
official
John
demonstrates
own w a r . ”
It a l s o a u t h o r i z e d
as h e
forces and was
declaration
determined
likened by
of war.
Sherman Coo per and
J. W.
An
some
exchange
Fulbright
this attitude:
Cooper:
In o t h e r w o r d s , w e a r e n o w g i v i n g the
P r e s i d e n t a d v a n c e d a u t h o r i t y to take
w h a t e v e r action he may d e e m necessary?
Fulbright:
1 t h i n k that is c o r r e c t .
Cooper:
T h e n l o o k i n g a h e a d , if the P r e s i d e n t
d e c i d e d that it w a s n e c e s s a r y to u s e
such f o r c e as c o u l d l e a d into war,
w e w i l l g i v e that a u t h o r i t y b y this
resolution?
F u l b r i g h t : T h a t is the w a y I w o u l d i n t e r p r e t it.
Even with
spending
t io n s
the T o n k i n G u l f
d i d not
for
dollars
occur until
1964 a n d
and
involvement
aspects
in V i e t n a m
the
the
continued
began
to
defense
la te
dollars.
spending.
Defense budget
By
were
1966,
alloca­
51.2 bi l l i o n
however,
American
economic
South Vietnam,
aid
to
in V i e t n a m w h i c h
of
for y e a r s
early
through
low
would
forces,
affect
fe deral
the d e f e n s e
1970s.
1969.
sentiment
and
all
to come.
the V i e t n a m War,
orient ed a round
a very
in d e f e n s e
co m b a t
society
to i n c r e a s e
increase
included actual
1960s and
express
1966.
an
respectively,
escalation
considerations were
during
and
commitment
of A m e r i c a n
With
1965,
47.4 b i l l i o n
increased military
a national
incident,
Defense
By
1969,
in
Vietnam was becoming
favor
a
budget
establishment
expenditures
public
of
increased
lon g war,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
opinion
and
long
73
wars
- especially
with)
-
so on
American
in
But
from
most
the
sour
s up po rt
foreign
the n a t i o n
for
to
logically,
risen
1 9 7 5 an
to
it h a d
against
the U n i t e d
affairs had
1965
im pa ct
t h o s e w h i c h w e r e not
popular
increased
States
taking
13 p e r c e n t
18 p e r c e n t
the n a t i o n ' s
(to b e g i n
from
involvement.
an a c t i v e
1947
to
role
1965.
d r o p w a s n o t e d — due,
involvement
on d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s
in V i e t n a m a n d
and American
. *
15
society.
V i e t n a m also marked
approach
in the
America had
early
obtained
of
believed
8 percent
the
too
but
1974,
spending with
even
only
too m u c h w a s b e i n g
f or d e f e n s e w a s
After
spent
not
reaching,
47 p e r c e n t
of
was being
too m uc h was
stronger
16 p e r c e n t
spent
about
versus
right
and
Data
18 p e r c e n t
on d e f e n s e ;
21 p e r c e n t
a bo ut
a gradual
pre-Vietnam
By
1969,
right;
and
shift b e g a n
sentiments
on
those p o l l e d m a i n t a i n e d
on d e f e n s e v e r s u s
expended.
of
1960s.
on d e f e n s e .
spent
shift
starting
that
spent
right ; a n d
1969,
lat e
indicated
was be in g
"hawkish"
spending
the
t o o m u c h ; 31 p e r c e n t
amount
believing
into
I 96 0
to o m u c h
little.
By
an
in
it w a s a b o u t
answered
right
reflected
in d e f e n s e
little was being
t ow ar d ,
spending.
percent
thought
too
52 p e r c e n t
felt
in the m o d e r a t e l y
continuing
from Gallup Polls
45 p e r c e n t
that
followed
1950s and
those poll ed
heading
a turn
towards
Polls
in
s up port
32
1978
for d e f e n s e
those p olled main tai nin g
45 p e r c e n t
believing
spending
32 p e r c e n t
believing
too
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74
little was
spent.
16
2.
It
Public Response
is
clear
that
trend back
to
in
affairs.
foreign
mination
This
to
trend
eight
supporting
is w e l l
of
question
varied
these
asked
assertive
trend was
conducted
the
slightly)
was
surveys
1973 b e g a n
r ol e
since
capabilities.
late
to t h i r t y -
1968.
in T a b l e
1.
(the w o r d i n g w a s
s t r u c t u r e d as
a
for A m e r i c a
responses
surveys are depicted
in all
Crisis
complemented by a d e t e r ­
weakened military
d o c u m e n t e d by
surveys
International
opinion after
a more
This
strengthen
national
results
public
to
The
17
The
sometimes
follows:
T h e r e is m u c h d i s c u s s i o n as to the a m o u n t of
m o n e y the g o v e r n m e n t in W a s h i n g t o n s h o u l d s pend
for n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e a n d m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s .
How
d o y o u feel a b o u t t h i s ?
Do yo u think w e are
s p e n d i n ^ g t o o l i t t l e , t o o m u c h , or a b o ut the right
amount ?
As
expressed
a low
sentiment
ing b e g i n n i n g
an
earlier,
even
among Americans
to a p p e a r .
stronger
increase
increased defense
results
re f l e c t
defense,
tion
to
but
some
there
are
external
are most
From
from
for
1977
some a b r u p t
crisis
between
important.
on,
or
to
poll
1973
showed
results
sentiment
Gradual
fluctuations
1969
increased defense
in p u b l i c
spending.
normal
The variation
column
the p e r i o d
shifts
spend­
show
favoring
in the pol l
in a t t i t u d e
shifts whic h
towards
are a
reac­
stimulant.
surveys
found
in the
Many Americans
have
"Too L it tl e"
the
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impres-
75
TABLE 1
PUBLIC PREFERENCES FOR INCREASED OR
REDUCED U.S. DEFENSE SPENDING, 1969-1981*
Defense Spending?
Survey
Date
AIPO 784
7/69
AIPO 793
- 11/69
AIPO 814
9/70
AIPO 825
3/71
Harris
10/71
AlPO/Potomac
8/72
Harris
8/72
AIPO 864
2/73
AIPO 878
9/73
AlPO/Potomac
4/74
AIPO 914
9/74
Harris/CCFR*
12/74
NBC
12/75
AIPO 945
1/76
AIPO/Po tomac
5/76
Harris
12/76
NBC
12/76
AIPO 979
7/77
NBC
10/78
AIPO/CCFR
11/78
NBC
12/78
NBC
9/79
AIPO 1145-G
12/79
NBC
12/79
NBC
1/80
CBS/New York Times
1/80
AIPO 1147-G .
1/80
CBS/New York Times
3/80
NBC
3/80
AIPO 1186-G
1-2/81
Too Much
About Right
53%
46
49
50
49
42
38
42
46
37
44
44
41
36
24
32
41
23
38%
47
40
39
40
49
51
50
41
46
44
44
34
42
48
55
33
50
51
52
54
46
45
40
29
40
43
18
32
35
21
16
22
16
21
9
8
14
14
5
13
15
Too Little
9%
7
11
11
11
9
11
8
13
17
12
12
25
22
28
13
26
27
28
32
24
38
34
51
63
46
49
76
55
50
*Source: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, as cited In Bruce Russet
and Donald R. Deluca, "Don't Tread on Me: Public Opinion and Foreign
Policy In the Eighties," Political Science Quarterly 96 (Fall 1981):
p. 383.
Questions for CBS/New York Times January 1980 and all AIPO questions
except September 1970, August 1972, April 1974, May 1976, and November
1978 are Identical with questions given In test; others differ trivially.
The AIPO/Potomac question asked whether "spending for defense and mili­
tary purposes should be Increased, kept at the present level, reduced,
or ended altogether?" The percentage of people responding "too much"
in the above table Includes both "reduced" and "ended altogether."
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
76
s i on
that
budgetary matters
fore
rely
on t h e i r
This
passivity,
reflected
than
the
column
is
two.
that
cans
are
well
being
"A bo ut
should
reflecting
for
increases
usually
to the
change
events
was u n doubtedly
the
crisis
ensuing Arab
but
preference
Percentages
indicating
being
never
to
to
rose
of
to
favoring
1973 a n d A p r i l
There
War
197A
in O c t o b e r
still
defense
l o w of
we
contributed
"Too L it tle "
the
the a b r u p t
spending,
which
of m o r e
196A
personal
s o c ie ty .
some
those w ho bel i e v e d
again
stable
"Too Little"
increase
embargo.
the
is
is m o r e
the A r a b - 1 s r a e l i
saying
correct.
sacrifice
event
abrupt
favor
percentages
never again dropped
spent
oil
is
there­
increase more A m e r i ­
in F e b r u a r y
in
the
increased
or
The
stimulated by
overriding majority
spent
of
and
concern,
which
the w h o l e
favoring
the p o l l s
the
of
of
surrounding
sentiment.
spending b etween
1973 a n d
the
external
in
column,
their w i l l i ngn es s
in p r e f e r e n c e s
find an
lack
importance
being
their grasp
to d o wha t
the p e r c e n t a g e s
the well
In e x a m i n i n g
of
rather a
Right"
The
out
officials
or p e r h a p s
in the
other
elected
are
w a s not
spending,
was being
8 percent.
"Too Much" was
1973 h i g h
of
46 p e r -
c a n t . 19
Ot h e r abrupt
crises
influence public
evident
Most
changes providing
throughout
prominent,
NBC poll
taken
the
opinion
on d e f e n s e
remaining
perhaps,
in A u g u s t
is
evidence
polls
the pol l
1979 a n d
the
that
external
spending
depicted
are
in T a b l e
response between
one
taken
quite
1.
the
in D e c e m b e r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
77
1979.
The
9 percent
decrease
and
th e
51 p e r c e n t
in t h o s e
increase
38
to
by
the
Iranian hos tage
by
the
So v i e t
unanimous
reaction
event
polled
only
showed
effects
of
be
The
favor
shift
linked
in
of
solely with
on d e f e n s e
four
sentiments
one
in
of
a pivotal
it a c c e l e r a t e d
the
liberals
expenditures.
in
1979
showed
invasion
once
of
strongly
the m o s t
67
anti­
important
20
spending
external
The
i m pa c t
events.
since
changes.
of
reversal
1973 h a s b e e n
The
on a t t i t u d e s
influence
favoring
have been
Public
increased defense
expenditures
decline
is a l m o s t
spending versus
So vi et
crisis.
interconnected
the d e c l i n e
This
the
may be
favor
of A f g h a n i s t a n
assumption
liberals
community was
the A f g h a n - 1 r a n i a n
stimulated
Even American
increased
1980 a ft e r
has had a definite
in
of
liberal
recent
V i e t n a m War.
rise
spending.
as
in
opinion
from
to w o r l d p o w e r a n d a w i l l i n g ­
themselves
i nf l uen ced by
has been
but
identifying
in a t t i t u d e s
which
resurgence
16 to
and historians.
defense
Preferences
ca nn ot
spending,
from
"Too L i tt le"
invasion
on t h i s
scientists
defense
in J a n u a r y
this
the
for h i g h e r
Afghanistan.
war:
and
of
support
47 p e r c e n t
percent
change
Agreement
increase defense
Americans
saying
Iran a n d A f g h a n i s t a n m a y not
of A m e r i c a n
to
"Too Mu ch"
those
crisis
among political
to
of
an abrupt
Union.
in A m e r i c a n
trends
ness
was
saying
first
change
toward defense
the
results
of
is m a r k e d not
only by
the g r a d u a l
increased
arms
the
s p e n d i n g but
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
78
also by
ment.
a
renewed
Confidence
attitudes
views.
with
defense,
is n o
avoid
it
thinking
o n c e did.
isolationist
is
that
regardless
too m uch
in
still
evident
U. S .
the g o v e r n ­
of p o l i t i c a l
once a s s o c i a t e d
is b e i n g
spent
a n d d o e s not
certain parts
Americans
to d e f e n d
is
and
interlinked with
generation,
There
attitude
disappeared.
the m i l i t a r y
longer distinctive
commitments
efforts
spending
The Vietnam-era
politics
in
in the m i l i t a r y
on m i l i t a r y
21
e ff e c t
confidence
a desire
of
in
on
have
the
in A m e r i c a
the w o r l d ,
after V i e t n a m has
are n o w mor e wil l i n g
but
to
the
almost
to
s u pport
interests in h i g h p r i o r i t y
areas
of
the w o r l d .
A
second
spending
early
of
is
change a ffecting
changing
1970s ha ve
conservative
increase
decreased,
More
and more
are being
linked
Majority."
s oc ia l
welfare
controls
climate
a way
of
of
together by
Sentiment
programs
their
reduction
on them.
are
has
as
toward
the
supportive
of
increased
of
seen an
punish­
conservatives.
preparedness
as
continuation
so h a v e
the p l a c i n g
changes
the
in e l e m e n t s
group known
i n c r e a s e d but
these
of
ca p i t a l
and military
of
a growth
rise
favoring
a growing
and
views
States has
themselves
All
expressing
is a
United
of m o r a l i t y
toward defense
liberal
there
of p e o p l e
identify
issues
" Mo ra l
favor
to
The
and
The
in the p r o p o r t i o n
and willing
in
ideology.
ideology.
ment
attitudes
spending
conservatism
of
attitudes
of m o r e
in the
the
stringent
ideological
for d e f e n s e a n d
in A m e r i c a .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
79
An
since
increase
1973
s up p or t
Union
is
in
by many
in the
the
and
throughout
military
or
So v ie t
those
stalemate
talks and
hope
of
Union
of
the p o l l
increase;
the
Strategic Arms L i m i t a ­
Sovi e t
activity
declined.
among Americans
the U.S.
strength,
and
to
that
U.S.
retreated
In
1978,
69 p e r c e n t
In
1965,
respondents believed
ros e
There
56
falling b e h i n d
spending.
this bel i e f
Soviet
the n e g o t i a t i o n s
in w o r l d a f f a i r s .
in m i l i t a r y
the
and America has
increased military
38 p e r c e n t
of
cooperation
is w e a k e n i n g ,
position
doing
many
the
perception
increased
cooperation was viewed
increased
for
with
attitudes
for b y m a n y
with America
those p o l l e d p e r c e i v e d
favored
power would
This
Soviets wi nning
a growing
strength
of
Cooperation
1970s.
street
the w o r l d ,
its d o m i n a n t
percent
than
the
(SALT)
also has been
has produced
of d e t e n t e w a s h o p e d
early
failure
a n d a n t i - c o m m u n ist
change which
spending.
as a o n e - w a y
tion Treaty
t he
third
the a r e a
cooperating
from
the
for d e f e n s e
Americans
With
in a n t i - S o v i e t
of
fewer
Soviet
63 p e r c e n t
in
1977 -^^
The
emergence
both militarily
change
ing.
R.
and poli t i c a l l y
contributing
In an a t t e m p t
reasserting
of A m e r i c a ' s
i ts e l f
Deluca maintain
to
increased
to d o c u m e n t
in
the w o r l d ,
that
one
attempt
to
reassert
in the w o r l d
s up po rt
America's
Bruce
reason
for
itself
is the
fourth
for d e f e n s e
move
spend­
towards
R u s set t a n d D o n a l d
this
change
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
is:
80
A m e r i c a n s , in w i s h i n g to i n c r e a s e the s h a r e
of r e s o u r c e s d e v o t e d to m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s , a r e
r e s p o n d i n g to w o r l d e v e n t s
at least to t h e i r
p e r c e p t i o n s of w o r l d e v e n t s .
R u s set t a n d D e l u c a v a l i d a t e
results
"most
of p o l l s
important
covered
that
national
asking Americans
problem"
in
their hy pothesis by
the
facing
1 950s a n d
security were
found
Americans with
50-60 percent
greatest
on
Later,
the
fears
in the
civil
The
interests
to
inflation
- and
gradual
affairs was
by
the
ending
return
in the
of
from abroad.
in F i g u r e
1.
more
by
and
defense
external
concern
spending
stimuli.
for
interest
sensible
American would
soon
issues
of
abrupt
said
a
reflected
in
changes
- primarily
a
foreign
favor
of
of
threat"
is d e p i c t e d
in p r e f e r e n c e
triggered,
in
or
1973,
ov er
areas
spending
can a l s o b e
circumstances
concern
closely para ll ele d
in b o t h
shift
in
caused American
in la te
"sense
to b e
their
communism.
concern
sentiment
trend
rapid
to
replaced with
Beginning
to m ee t
take
concern
the V i e t n a m W a r
foreign affairs
and domestic
affairs and
was
increase was
can b e
political
of m o st
domestic
This
The
foreign
of w a r a n d
was
public
As before,
they
those polled placing
resurgence
spending
emanating
27
of
This
strong
increased defense
of
economy.
observed.
return
to b e
but
to m o r e
to the
increase
1960s
overriding
rights movement
c o n s i d e r the
9A
country.
They d i s ­
the
the p o s s i b i l i t y
1960s,
over Vietnam.
what
examining
to
into account
in p a r t ,
attitudes
related
to
events wh ich
when
forming
op ini on .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
for
any
an
81
FIGURE 1
Public Preferences for Increased or Reduced
U.S. Defense Spending, 1969-1981*
70 ■
"TOO MUCH40
30
20
-TOO LITTLE"
1979
Percentage Choosing Foreign Affairs as the Most Important
Problem Facing This Country®
30-
20
1 V /4
1
*Source: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations as cited in Bruce
Russet and Donald R. Deluca, "Don’t Tread on Me: Public Opinion
and Foreign Policy in the Eighties," Political Science Quarterly
96 (Fall 1981): p. 322.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
82
3.
In the
S u m m a ry
international
environment,
instrument
to b e a p p l i e d
as
to
it.
changes addressed
require
have
all
defense
The
effected
four
the
the
military
change
of p u b l i c
spending and A m e r i c a ' s
Domestic politics
also
on
foreign policy.
of
resources available
foreign
cannot
rol e
environment
in th is
sentiments
options
external
is an
appears
chapter
toward
international
be underrated
Foreign policy
for
in
force
affairs.
in
its
influence
and
the
levels
use greatly
influence
A m e r i c a ’s a b i l i t y to c o p e e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s
2g
to c o r e v a l u e s .
S u p p o r t for i n c r e a s e d d e f e n s e s p e n d i n g
is
stimulated by
crisis which
ment
The
by
as
the p r e s e n c e
is p e r c e i v e d b y
affecting
federal
the a l l o c a t i o n
international
of
indicator
public who
and
threat
of
at
requirements
them.
bright
again provides perhaps
budget
and national
and g o v e r n ­
the n a t i o n ' s p r i o r i t i e s
to d o m e s t i c
T h e b u d g e t , in turn,
elected
or
of d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s .
it a s s i g n s
of fi ci a ls w h o must
the d e s i r e s
American
course
resources
politics.
and a p p r o v e d by
follow,
is an
external
the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e
the n o r m a l
budget
of an
least
is d e v e l o p e d
consider,
placed upon
Senator
the b e s t
and
if not
them by
the
J. W i l l i a m F u l ­
statement
linking
priorities:
F a r f r o m b e i n g a d r y a c c o u n t i n g of b o o k ­
k e e p e r s , a n a t i o n ' s b u d g e t is full of m o r a l i m p l i ­
c a t i o n s ; it t e l l s w h a t a s o c i e t y d o e s a n d d o e ^ g
not c a r e a b o u t ; it t e l l s w h a t its v a l u e s are.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
83
As
of a n
demonstrated
external
spending,
public
and priority.
straint,
th r e a t
public
opinion
a
throughout
contributes
s up po r t
on wha t
Here
stimulus,
the
towards
to
chapter,
fluctuations
these
public
in d e f e n s e
expenditures,
is A m e r i c a ' s m o s t
again,
the p r e s e n c e
important
o p i n i o n a c t s as a
and a resource
and
problem
con­
for p o l i c y m a k e r s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
84
C H A P T E R T HR E E E N D N O T E S
^A ir M a r s h a l l Sir J o h n S l e s s o r as c i t e d on the c o v e r of
F o r c e s J o u r n a l , M a r c h 1980.
2
H a r r y B. Y o s h p e , e d ., N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y M a n a g e m e n t
Requirements:
M a t c h i n g N e e d s w i t h R e s o u r c e s (W a s h i n g t o n ,
D.C.:
I n d u s t r i a l C o l l e g e of the A r m e d F o r c e s , 1964), p. 77.
3
A r n o l d Kant o r , D e f e n s e Politics:
A Budgetary Perspec —
t iv e (Chic a go : U n i v e r si ty of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1979) , p~^ 51
Armed
^ C h a r l e s L. C o c h r a n e , ed.,
( N e w Y o r k : T h e F r e e P r e s s , 1974,
^ " M o n e y ," D e f e n s e
Civil Mili t a r y Rel ati ons
p. 112.
8 2 , September
1982,
p.
19.
6
S am u e l H u n t i n g t o n , T h e C o m m o n D e f e n s e :
Strategic
P r o g r a m s in N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s (N e w Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1961')', p . 197 .
7
L o u i s K r i e s b e r g a n d R o s s K l e i n , " C h a n g e s in P u b l i c
S u p p o r t for U.S. M i l i t a r y S p e n d i n g , " J o u r n a l of C o n f l i c t
Re solut i on 2 4 (M a rch 1980) : 107.
g
H u n t i n g t o n , T h e C o m m o n D e f e n s e , p. 200.
^ I b i d . , p.
of
278.
^ ^J ohn E . R i e l l y , " T h e A m e r i c a n M o o d :
A Foreign Policy
Self I n t e r e s t , " F o r e i g n P o l i c y 34 ( S p r i n g 1979) : 80.
^^Cochrane,
Civil
Military
R e l a t i o n s , p.
1872.
^^Ibid.
13
Forest Grieves, Conflict an d Order:
An Introduction
to I n t e r n a t i o n a l Re 1at i on s (Bost on : H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n C o m p a n y ,
1977), p. 172.
^'^C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d , Vo l . 110, pt. 14, 88 C o n g r e s s ,
2 n d Se s s i on ( 1964) p~I 18409, as c i t e d in L e s l i e H. G e l b a n d
R i c h a r d K. B e t t s , T h e I r o n y of V i e t n a m :
The System Worked
( W a s h i n g t o n , D .C . : T h e B rook ing s In st i t ut i o n , 1975), ^
TÔ3•
15
B e n j a m i n I. P a g e a n d R o b e r t Y . S h a p i r o , " C h a n g e s in
American's Policy Preferences, 1935-1979," Public Opinion
Q u a r t e r l y 46 ( S p r i n g 1982) : 31.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
85
^^Rielly,
"The A m e r i c a n Moo d, "
p.
79.
17
B r u c e R u s s e t a n d D o n a l d R. D e l u c a , "Don't T r e a d on
Me:
P u b l i c O p i n i o n a n d F o r e i g n P o l i c y in the E i g h t i e s , "
P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y 96 (Fall 1981) : 322.
^ ^I b id .
^^Ibid.
20
O p i n i on
"T he H a r d e n i n g M o o d T o w a r d F o r e i g n P o l i c y , "
(F e b r u a r y / M a rch 1980) : 13 .
21
U.S.
Kriesberg and Klein,
M i l i t a r y S p e n d i n g , " p.
22
Rielly,
"The A m e r i c a n
22
U.S.
K riesberg and Klein,
M i l i t a r y S p e n d i n g , " p.
^"^Ibid. , p.
^^Russet
"Changes
101.
Mood,"
"Changes
104.
in P u b l i c
p.
Publie
Support
for
Support
for
82.
in P u b l i c
105.
and Deluca,
"Do n' t
Tread
on M e , " p.
393.
^^Ibid.
^ ^ I b i d . , p.
395.
28
C h a r l e s W. K e g l e y , Jr. a n d P a t r i c k J. M c G o w a n ,
C h a l l e n g e s to A m e r i c a :
U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y in the
1 98 0 s (B e v e r l y H i l l s , Cal i f orni a : Sa ge P u b l i cat i on s , 1979) ,
p. 25.
. William Fulbright,
T h e C r i p p l e d G i a n t , p.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
245.
CHAPTER
PUBLIC OPINION
IV
AND MILITARY
SERVICE
T h o s e w h o e x p e c t to r e a p the b l e s s i n g s of
f r e e d o m mus t I ^ k e m e n , u n d e r g o the f a t i g u e of
s u p p o r t ing it.
Thomas Paine
American
society has
through allocation
in t h i s
easy
thesis— money
to m e a s u r e ,
equipment
to m a k e
of
and
the
two
and develop
Notwithstanding,
manpower
Motivation
individual
is
stim ulate d by more
awards,
such as
style are
an
also
job
and
talent,
individual
but
must
Manpower
t he
nation possesses.
n a t i o n will
tic,
or
is
acting
that
resources
World War
II,
the d e c l i n e
contributed heavily
organization
Psychic
of p u r p o s e ,
an
and
individual
valuable
human
national
to
life
join
buy manpower
of
an
resource a
resources,
economic,
Manpower produces
reinforces
throughout
of N a z i
of m o n e y .
2
out
and
fight.
the p s y c h i c n e e d s
sufficient
to c a r r y
to p u r c h a s e
resources needed
awards.
m o n e y wil l
of
is r e l a t i v e l y
the p o w e r
on w i t h an
upon
th e m o s t
Without
former
if n e e d be
s e ns e
addressed.
doubt
are addressed
than a m a t t e r
s ig n
satisfaction
be u n a b l e
required
and
financial
true
th e n a t i o n ’s p o l i c i e s
reserves
to
foreign p ol icy programs.
subsequent
of
than
als o be
is n o
run,
satisfaction,
It
The
the h u m a n
is m o r e
influences
organization.
resources which
dollars having
the m i l i t a r y m a c h i n e
of an
its n a t i o n ' s m i l i t a r y
and manpower.
so m a n y
to h i r e
supported
a
domes­
all
the p r o j e c t i o n
the world.
During
Germany's manpower
to its
final
defeat.
86
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The
drain
87
on m a n p o w e r
c o n t r i b u t e d not
of G e r m a n y ' s
of
its
industrial
This
to
s oc ial,
the
is an
and
the
external
establish
de al
that
indication
to
with
required human
forces
and
also
to the d e c r e a s e d
the d e c r e a s e d
efficiency
efficiency
base.
chapter will
obtain
military
to
m i l i t a r y but
only
influencing
threats will
of A m e r i c a
to m a n
this.
be a d d r e s s e d
attitude
overall
capability
resources needed
factors
public
of
the
Economic,
attempting
towards military
s u pp or t
for
its
service
the m i l i t a r y
establishment.
1.
F o r mo s t
of
Historical
its h i s t o r y ,
has been
a blend
The
of a n a t i o n
idea
response
down
Perspective
of
manpower procurement
conscription
and a volunteer
of v o l u n t e e r s h a s
through
the y e a r s , for
attracted
it
is
on i n d i v i d u a l
a nation
comprised
however,
has been used
the U n i t e d
only been
people
War
tion
II.
of
S t a t e s but
liberties
fr ee m e n .
with
only
its n e e d w a s
When
seemed
inequitable,
sory m i l i t a r y
throughout
of
clearly demonstrated
as
during
service has been
the
service,
of
It h a s
the A m e r i c a n
as
or w h e n
in W o r l d
the a p p l i c a ­
the V i e t n a m War,
center
in
the h i s t o r y
limited popularity.
evident,
in
Conscription
is an a b o m i n a t i o n
to a m a j o r i t y
t h i s n e e d w a s not
favorable
Compulsory military
frequently
seen a s a c c e p t a b l e
when
and
system.
seen as m o r e
t u n e w i t h A m e r i c a ’s d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s .
infringes
in A m e r i c a
compul­
of h e a t e d d e b a t e s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
88
and
the
fragmentation
of A m e r i c a n
Compulsory military
probably
e x i s t e d as
Moses was
years
old and u pw a r d
Greek
city
armies.
tion
of
states
all
fr ee m e n
s ta t es ,
Revolution.
dent
of
to act
on
armies.
this
requested
the
request
Madison,
it w a s d i s a p p r o v e d .
years
that
su b j e c t
Confederacy which
1862,
followed by
of
the C i v i l
of
the m a n p o w e r u s e d
Civil
War and
and
first
f ear of
of
standing
1812,
also
not
until
the
issue
in
1863.
limited.
in the w a r w e r e
the d r a f t
reappeared when
of
again
failed
large
It w a s
c o m e up.
Presi­
establishment
the m i l i t a r y ,
would
itself."
the A m e r i c a n
Congress
the W a r
Wei g 1 ey
to A m e r i c a a n d
for
again
were
the
their
Russell
of m e n
the N o r t h
W a r draft
Conscription
of
during
approached
in
the
the
establishment
the
conscription.
because
again
throughout
requested
and
in E n g l a n d
Washington became
he
twenty
to m a n
in the
it b e c a m e m o r i b u n d
armies.
in the m o b i l i z a ­
"transplanted
conscription
the
originated
resulting
on g e n e r a l
President
to war,
system was
States,
males
conscription
system was used
the U n i t e d
f o rt h
As historian
When George
of an A r m y b a s e d
them
has
organized
syste m.
hereafter,
The militia
conscription,
to t a k e all
in A m e r i c a
in E n g l a n d
the m i l i t i a
nourished,
se nd
practiced
the E n g l i s h m i l i t i a
or
there have been
the L o r d
and
Conscription
of
service,
lo ng as
instructed by
society.
but
the C i v i l
It w a s
War
the
conscription
The direct
O n l y a b ou t
first
effects
6 percent
draftees.^
disappeared after
the U n i t e d
States b e c a m e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
3
89
involved
in W o r l d W a r
S e r v i c e Act
s y s t e m of
World
of
1917»
1 and
early
by way
the d r a f t
of
Activity
World War
the
11,
(UMT)
and
the
system us ed until
and
of
This
itself
of
was
also
extension
over
this
of
issue
the H o u s e
and
extension was
over a m o n t h
finally
in the H o u s e a n d
This was
tives
the
and
turnaround
increased.
a
first
72
in
time
16
in a t t i t u d e s
roll
since
5 Senators voted
that
three
of d e b a t e
a
1951
after
Selective
that
293
Service
1951,
the
fou r t i m e s —
on the
r e q u e s t e d a two
political
days
to
vote
that
only
the U M T Act
Since
in the
call
1951
Military
one d a y d e b a t e
Nixon
1971
After
the p r o b l e m s
the C o n g r e s s
only
approved by
to
the
in
After
"standby"
a Universal
adopted
President
the d r a f t
in
four years.
1967— with
overtly
War and
required
1959,
year
the
the A r m y
in V i e t n a m .
left
established
1955,
until
was
conflict,
extension has been passed by
It w a s not
w a s not
the K o r e a n
every
throughout
entering
the w a r
draft
issue.
man
national
system during
to o p e r a t e
c e a s e d but
1973 b ut
1 9 6 3 , and
Selective
1973.^
draft
that
extended
the
effective
last
Service Act
of d e b a t e .
reviewed
the
30 J un e
the advent
for
an
continued
escalation
with mobilization
be
It w a s
the d r a f t
With
four days
on
passed
e stablished a truly
1 970s w i t h
against
until
Training
which
11 a n d
1960s an d
st atus.
Congress
conscription.
Wars
visible
I.
discussion
of d e b a t e
Senate,
99
roll
in the
over
in
the
call
vote
Senate.
44 R e p r e s e n t a ­
against
the
extension.^
concerning
the
draft
was
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
This
sparked by
90
related
outside
debate.
The
history
of
events whi ch
revealing
of
the
the V i e t n a m W ar ,
L i eut e n an t W i l l i a m C a l l e y
namese
civilians,
on m u t u a l
heavy
the d r a f t
and
take a more
be
public
look
that
and
coalitions
all
to act
can
s a f e l y be a s s u m e d ,
unrest
inequities
of
offer
towards
the d r a f t
of Vie t —
of p r i s o n e r s ,
an
end
to
to
the d ra f t , a n d
7
force.
It
events also aff ected
in turn,
their
their
wi ll
elected
direct
their
officials who
electorate's wants.
that
the
the V i e t n a m y e a r s
and
of A r m y
the C o n g r e s s m e n
th e p o l i t i c i a n s w a s
during
on the
to n e g o t i a t e
supporting
caused
same
therefore,
by
m a s sacre
volunteer military
in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
the d r a f t
conviction
the V i e t n a m War,
these
requirements
the p u b l i c
and
repatriation
the p u b l i c ,
are
extending
and
at
of an all
attitudes;
and
t rial
the M y Lai
the V i e t n a m War
critical
the C o n g r e s s i o n a l
Pentagon papers
the N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
remembered
desires
for
pressure by
the p o s s i b i l i t y
must
secret
the
troop withdrawals
lobbying
influenced
the A m e r i c a n
concern
a
sh own
reflection
towards
It
for
of
the
involvement
in
V i etnam.
Public unrest
President
Johnson's
demonstrations
on the
events and
the
escalation
against
as A m e r i c a b e c a m e
these
against
started
gre w more
196 5 w i t h
to
With
pressures placed
President
study
Public
and more nu me r o us
in V i e t n a m .
political
the p u b l i c .
commission
in
the V i e t n a m War.
involved
subsequent
administration by
a p p o i n t e d an a d v i s o r y
of
the d r a f t
increasingly
the
draft
Nixon
the p o s s i b i l i t y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
91
O
of
a n all
Secretary
head
the
sion,
as
volunteer
armed
of D e f e n s e
Thomas
commission.
it w a s
By
All
stating
for
the
developing
"...
a
conscription and moving
force.
following
submitted
its
report
in F e b r u a r y
points:
2.
Steps should be taken p r o m p t l y
that d i r e c t i o n .
3.
T h e first step is to ” ... r e m o v e the i n e q u i t y
in the p a y of m e n s e r v i n g t h e i r first t e r m in
the a r m e d f o r c e s . "
L,.
T h e y b e l i e v e d a n all v o l u n t e e r f o r c e w o u l d
b e n e f i t A m e r i c a a n ^ ^ n o t e n d a n g e r its
national security.
1972,
registration
Volunteer
Force
rebellion
fr ustration about
Service
for
against
and
t he w a r .
System was
the d r a f t
a
to m o v e
ceased,
{A V F ) w a s b r o u g h t
itself
to
the G a t e s C o m m i s ­
T h e n a t i o n w o u l d b e b e t t e r s e r v e d b y an all
v o l u n t e e r force supported by a standby draft.
the V i e t n a m W a r
in
and
in
draft
may have been
the
draft
an
casualty
of
the
into being.
the
Whatever
1973
the
the w a r
o u tl e t
case,
in
against
for p u b l i c
the
Selective
Southeast
Asia,
the A V F a p r o d u c t .
The AVF
has
Former
was nominated
charged
with
eliminating
volunteer
Jr.
1969.
1.
The
and
S. G a t e s
The President
The Gates Commission
1970
in M a r c h
to b e c o m e k n o w n ,
comprehensive plan
t o w a r d an all
force
is not
its p r o b l e m s .
stated
gress
cure-all
Former
the p o s i t i o n
in J a n u a r y
the
of
1973.
Secretary
the A V F
He
it w a s h o p e d
to be;
it
too
of D e f e n s e M e l v i n L a i r d
in h i s
final
report
said:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to C o n ­
92
if t h e D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e h a s the full support
of C o n g r e s s a n d the full s u pp or t of the A m e r i c a n
p e o p l e in a s s u r i n g that t h o s e w h o s e r v e in the
m i l i t a r y p r o f e s s i o n receive the r e s p e c t , r e c o g n i ­
tion, a n d c o m p e n s a t i o n that t h e y d e s e r v e , w e will
b e a b l e to h a v e an A l l - V o l u n t eer F or c e .
The
support
r e f e r e n c e d b y Mr.
only par tia lly .
allowed
needed
to
increase
dollars)
servicemen has
resulted
drug
Prior
American
dropped
to the
truly
on
of
are black.
the
toward
of
dollars
Som e
With
the n u m b e r
these
in
soldier
Also,
36 p e r c e n t
of
of
support
a s Mr.
individuals,
charges are
1973,
the a v e r a g e
level.
Today
in the A V F h a s
the A V F ha s a
the
shortcomings,
the n a t i o n ' s
the A r m e d
of
of m i n o r i t i e s w h e n
these
in
force ma nn ed by
eleventh grade
level.
almost
(in
increased wages have
is a
the a v e r a g e
upon public
the u n c e r t a i n t y
attitudes
13
while
conscription
percentage
s oc i e t y ,
r e li a nt
of
funds
increased
l o w i n t e l 1 e c t u a l - 1 evel
fifth gr a d e
disproportionate
the A V F
end
r e a d at
level
to the
overall
and
1981,
has been
the a d d i t i o n a l
12.3 b i l l i o n
These
and alcoholics.
soldier
reading
12
in
for
wages have
of
som e m a i n t a i n
l o w skill
abusers,
true.
the
f r o m a t o ta l
declined.
in what
minorities,
Soldiers'
dollars
forthcoming
the D e f e n s e B u d g e t
the p r o v i s i o n
to 3 0 . 3 b i l l i o n
196 4
the
Financially,
to p a y a n AVF .
current
Laird has bee n
compared
to
soldiers
in
the A V F
is
Laird m e n t i o n e d and
economic
situation and
Forces.
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93
2.
Public
Opinion
The attitudes
days
and
to the a g e
character
perception
military
of
of
of d / t e n t e h a v e
the
to
from
Forces
B i l l,
for
travel,
the g r e a t
to
en li s t
of
period
of
would
to
serve
of
the
in
1 96 4
li f e
them
d r af t
stated
force.
the d raft
Air
units
choose
For ce ,
technology
career.
43.2 percent
quite
draft
or
was
for a
their bra nch
or C oast
chance
skill
two
strong
first
i ts elf.
Guard.
of
area which
Enlistees
of D e f e n s e
of all
the G.I.
step u p w a r d
the d ra f t
combat
could
years
the A r m e d
through
stood a much b etter
A Department
continues
Others were motivated
three years versus
the
that
a n d as a
of
in A r m y
motivation was
that
of a l a r g e
entered
ladder.
th re at
civilian
purpose,
influenced by many
style,
Marines,
in a h i g h
in a
that
obtained
Enlistees
Navy,
least
era.
showed
the
served
enlisted
training
draft
surveyed
by
two y e a r s .
for at
This
of
size,
is the p u b l i c ' s
Throughout
American mobility
(volunteer)
assist
are
benefits
a change
those wh o
receiving
however,
the
security
of
Serve?
from revolutionary
relevance
many young Americans
se rvi ce— Army,
Also,
It
texture
earlier.
the d r a f t e e s
of
and
educational
on
Most
stated
1946-1973,
forces.
ensure national
the q u a l i t y
as
dictated
importance and
These attitudes,
catalysts
Service— Why
the A m e r i c a n p u b l ic
of A m e r i c a ' s
force
to p r o v i d e
and Military
did have
for d r a f t e e s .
in the y o u n g m e n
s tudy
conducted
term enlistees
the p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
94
for t h e i r
enlisting
conducted
in
19 69
in the A r m e d
revealed
surveyed maintained
behind
their
t he d r a f t
some
of
4 9. 7 p e r c e n t
the d r a f t
other
these
reasons.
Another
of
those
survey
enlistees
the p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i o n
w h o w e r e not
Listed below
m o t i v a t e d by
in t a b l e
two a r e
reasons:
Table
Reasons
to
was
enlisting.Those
had
Forces.
2
for e n l i s t i n g in the A r m e d
"beat the d r a f t . " *
Forces
other
t ha n
P e rcent
Answering
1.
Training
and
educational
o p p o r t u n i t i eess
2.
A d e s i r e to b e c o m e m o r e m a t u r e
self reli ant
and
11
ces
12
i fe
16
t
of m y
ime
P r e s s , 1 968 ) , p~^
of
the
based upon
Communist
surveys
available
external
threat.
influences
Also,
civilians
would motivate
t h e m to
it w a s
draft
Sk i 1 1 ed
11 .
located asking
The
49
choosing
St :
None
22
had been
automatically
no
indicated
a desire
to
serve
su ch as V i e t n a m or the
opinion polls
similar
questions
or
surveys were
concerning what
enlist.
such a p a r t
taken
of A m e r i c a n
life
that
into consid era ti on when planning
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
95
an
individual's
h a d almost
draft;
all
feeling
Fathers,
military
the y o u n g .
A
sense
at
having
A
can m a l e s h a d h e l p e d p r o t e c t
their
looked back
they
on
their
part— a positive
feeling
With
of
the
of
the
funds are
young men
so ug ht
P e n t a g o n but
the d r a f t
major
years,
concerns
s y s t e m is
levels
not
also
accomplished by
the
adapted
and
considered
in t h e i r
life.
stigma military
s e ns e
they
it — on the mo st
enjoyed was a
this
of A m e r i
o nc e
of
A
result.
service
civic
an
and women
only
expansion
arising
obliga­
of p e r s o n n e l
be
capability
is
Extra
and wages by
the
call
During
forces was
up.
of an all
One
of
the
volunteer
to m a i n t a i n a d e q u a t e
its m i s s i o n
force was
the A V F
s e r v ic e.
of m i l i t a r y
the d r a f t
to p e r f o r m
con script ive
the
to
and advertisements.
f r o m the u s e
the m i l i t a r y ' s
it m u s t
into
for w e a p o n s
increasing
of m a n p o w e r ,
the b u s i n e s s a p p r o a c h
for p u b l i c i t y
of m a n p o w e r
attraction
Also,
freedoms,
and
f a d e d a w a y.
attracting
tion
the
the
in the A r m e d
l a rg e m a j o r i t y
they
the V i e t n a m War ,
Today's AVF has
While
and
of
to the n a t i o n
served
period
freedoms
the d r a f t
obtained during
t io n
and meaningful
earning
end
service
etc.,
seen as a c i v i c
of d u t y
to u n i t e A m e r i c a n s .
teachers,
service because
service was
of h o n o r a n d p r i d e
Forces helped
brothers,
experienced military
therefore,
obligation by
a
f ut ur e.
effectively.
concerned with
concerned
first
the a l l o c a ­
with
and
then
the a l l o c a t i o n
remembered
that
th e AVF,
the
of m a n p o w e r .
because
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
it
is not
96
a
conscriptive
force,
concerns within
concerned with
Thus,
society
its
advertising
become
almost
is m o r e
as
and,
susceptible
therefore,
reputation
campaigns
important
and
to t r e n d s a n d
m u st
standing
be
in
constantly
society.
1S
and multi-media blitzes have
to n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y as
reliable
weapon s .
Americans
but
also
e xc e p t
respected
as a
percent
today w h o want
of
last
5 percent
tend
resort.
17,000 high
was a desirable
only
ones
believed
about
military
s e r v i c e w a s not
seriously
long
as
level,
ing
the a r m e d
the q u a n t i t y
military
of
Studies
the
surveyed
composition
unemployment
an
rate.
Unemployment
assists
is the p r o s p e c t
causing
seriously
rates
As
attract­
the
individual
as a n a l t e r n a t e
affected by unemployment,
linking unemployment
is
exceptionally high
First
means
ca r e e r .
thought
little diff icu lty
in t w o w a y s .
only v i s i b l e
10
ca r ee r .T h is
force who se
have
directly
than
a desirable
seniors
of v o l u n t e e r s n e e d e d .
for t h o s e
less
respondents,
s t a n d s at
Second,
the m i l i t a r y
college bou nd
an a c c e p t a b l e
service more
of
careers
the m i l i t a r y
all
of u n e m p l o y m e n t
paying
th o u g h t
the n a t i o n a l
rate
clear
survey,
seniors
consider military
s e r v i c e m a y be
1979
Of
forces will
recruiting
some p r o b a b i l i t y
steer
to a v o l u n t e e r
jobless
only well
the m i l i t a r y w a s
50 p e r c e n t
affected by
the
In a
occupation.
led
to
school
Overall,
attitude has
not
for
economic
and military
to
job.
military
survival.
service
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
97
suggest
that
a
15 p e r c e n t
causes between
recruiting.
during
again
s e v en y e a r h i s t o r y
its
recruiting
the p e a k
in
So vi et
1980
following
to t h r e e
factors
tions:
and
of h i g h
other
analysis
of A m e r i c a ' s
postulate
19
1975 a n d
The
1980
according
1976,
crisis
reaction
and
to L a w r e n c e
some
recruiting
to a c c e p t
l ar g e n u m b e r s
scored
influences
of
l o w on
the
a more
to t h e m can be
extensive
completed.
the A f g h a n i s t a n C r i s i s
seizing
construed by
to t h e i r n a t i o n a l
pride
freedoms
so v a l u e d b y A m e r i c a n s .
This
ac t e d as
the
influence
to b e
enlistments
to c a u s e
awakened
and
the
thus
in the A r m e d F o r c e s .
stemmed pri mar ily
acted
of A m e r i c a n
the p u b l i c
c i v i 1 ians
as a m o r e
and violates
in su l t
crusading
resulted
Again,
the
two
and
The
reaction
innova­
Iranian Crisis,
insult
J.
These
real
visible
the
increase was
the
provocation may be
and
relatively high unemployment
The
catalyst.
Once
for M a n p o w e r .
only be as s u m e d until
without
of
times.
that
as an a d d i t i o n a l
Americans
the A r m y h a s
three
and p e o p l e w h o
te st s .
can
of
the y o u n g ;
dropouts
crises
only
of D e f e n s e
of a
among
external
the AVF,
18
the A r m y ' s w i l l i n g n e s s
entrance aptitude
f r o m the
in m i l i t a r y
Iranian h ost age
factors,
consisted
school
One might
the
Secretary
ra te p a r t i c u l a r l y
of
years
of A f g h a n i s t a n .
K o r b , Assistant
three
decline
objective
unemployment
invasion
als o due
3 to 7-5 p e r c e n t
in y o u t h u n e m p l o y m e n t
17
In the
achieved
a
reduction
the
could have
spirit
in the
increase
th is w a s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
of
98
d e f i n i t e l y not
buting
the
only
the
civilian
additional
b y not
in b o t h
manpower,
The Navy
better
trends
this
and Air
the A V F
time
and
is
seen as
the
soldiers,
continued
Secretary
20
security
advanced
place have
and
of
of A m e r i c a .
p e o p l e as
experience;
and
only
to meet
failed
than
training
in the
The need
other
on ly
in t h e s e
two
for b e t t e r
and marines
the n a t i o n .
for M a n p o w e r
caused
and Marines have
for t e c h n i c a l
airmen,
systems
for the N a v y a n d
The Army
recruits.
sailors,
of D e f e n s e
q u a 1 i ty of p e r s o n n e l .
they have
les s p o s s i b l e
services by p r o s p ect ive
educated
training
four times
b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y h a r d hit,
services
also
l o o k e d u p o n b y most
Force.
demands
the m i l i t a r y ' s p r o b l e m s
educated youth
into being,
for t h e A i r
competition
technologically
for t h e
objective
is
this market
civilian market
technical
came
When
q u a n t i t y but
Force are
of
their personnel
for
have been a contri­
the A V F
increases
toward more
competition
sources
facing
labor market.
the m i l i t a r y
increased
one
problem
only affe cti ng
Increased
since
may
f a ctor.
An additional
with
reason but
is
important
As Assistant
Lawrence Korb
states:
The most important m i l i t a r y m a n p o w e r questions
for the 1 9 8 0 s a r e ra t h e r :
are we recruiting
a n d r e t a i n i n g e n o u g h h i g h q u a l i t y p e o p l e to meet
o u r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d what
s t e p s m u s t w e t a k e to e n s u r e that w e 2Y ^1 1 be
a b l e to d o so t h r o u g h o u t th e d e c a d e .
Military personnel
w h o h a v e not
b a c k g r o u n d wi ll
an a d d i t i o n a l
be
had a
sound
burden
educational
on the a l r e a d y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
99
strained military
recruits
1 7- 2 1
the
sc ho ol
high-tech
year
jobs.
ol ds w i l l
overall
decrease
projected population
estimated
to b e
become
cured quickly.
of
They
the AV F
incentives
to b r i n g
incentives
for m i l i t a r y
because
service
death
of
h a s yet
overriding
military
citizen
freedoms.
nation
devised
are
and
When
all
in
taken
then
it
to act
career
is the
rights and
the
for u n t o
incentives.
The
s o c i e t y , for
freedoms
of a
rights
but
it
and
to h i s
the p o p u l a c e
appreciated.
as a d e f e n d e r
in
the
or m a n a g e r i a l
obligation
abound,
for
occupations
of a c i t i z e n ' s d u t y
to a g g r e s s i v e
to a s s i s t
economic
Economic
st a n d s
economist
99
can be
and defend
all
from within
the A r m e d F o r c e s
1978.
that
from other
for g r a n t e d a n d not
a deterrent
implement
the
is
o n l y an a t t r a c t i o n ,
no
or
understanding
responsibility
an
1987
soldiers.
s u p po rt
for w h i c h
in a d e m o c r a c y
type
The
only pa rtial ly by
States and
come
in
is the m i l i t a r y w h i c h p r o t e c t s h i s
fections within
principles,
to
financial
s o l u t i o n mus t
it
solved
considering
age group.
10.8 m i l l i o n
the
level
educated
intense
that
a r e not
expected
low-skill
these
old males
different
the U n i t e d
disappears,
receive
their
are
service
for
year
service are
if n e e d b e — a n act
e xp e r t
in
in m o r e a n d b e t t e r
is q u i t e
soldiers
Constitution
17 -21
can b e
for
increasingly
in y o u n g m e n
of
to t e a c h
Competition
9.2 m i l l i o n v e r s u s
The problems
military
system used
is
Imper­
still
of A m e r i c a ' s
acts against
execution
the U.S.,
of n a t i o n a l
poli c y .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
100
In free s t a t e s ... n o m a n s h o u l d t a k e up
a r m s , bu t w i t h a v i e w to d e f e n d h i s c o u n t r y a n d
its laws!
H e p u t s not off the c i t i z e n w h e n he
e n t e r s the camp; B e c a u s e it is b e c a u s e h e is a
c i t i z e n , a n d w o u l d w i s h to cont i n ue « s o , that h e
m a k e s h i m s e l f for a w h i l e a sol di er .
The A m e r i c a n p u b l i c must
freedoms
they p o s s e s s
A d e m o c r a c y must
the
support
of
be
and value
continue
its
constantly
to b e
c i t i z e n s — not
p h y s i c a l l y — in m a i n t a i n i n g
the
reminded
that
the
d o not
come without
ef fort.
strong
and
it n e e d s
only
to do
so
f i n a n c i a l l y but
freedom and prestige
of
the
nat i o n .
3.
Public
a crucial
opinion
element
S u m m a ry
towards military
influencing
security.
In a d e m o c r a t i c
important,
for m i l i t a r y
freedoms
influence
and
occupational
that
society,
service
events
economic
prestige
towards military
External
a nation's
enjoyed by non-military
The
service
or
crisis
on
extremely difficult
to m e a s u r e .
would
impact
indicate
no
supporting
that
on p u b l i c
external
opinion
of n a t i o n a l
is e v e n m o r e
representative
members
of
the
is m u c h
on p u b l i c
less
of
evidence was
crises have
and military
wages,
researched
opinion
the
and
course
of
uncovered which
a
the
the p u b l i c
evident
Throughout
of
s ociety.
unemployment,
the a t t i t u d e
influence
service
research,
is not
level
always been
easily unde rst oo d and
concerning military
this
it
factors,
has
is
service has
significant
ser vi ce .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
101
A m e r i c a ' s All
upon public
Current
quality
overly
su p p o r t
attitudes
important
Volunteer
in
than
soldiers.
to m i l i t a r y
membership
in the
the
and
reliant
forces
to
retention
community
li n k b e t w e e n
se rv i c e ,
the
the
today
ev e r w e r e .
service are vitally
of q u a l i f i e d
Ame r i c a n y o u t h , however,
obligation
is
is m o r e
conscriptive
toward military
individual
it
the
the a t t r a c t i o n
receptive
Force
have never been
even though
community.
it
The precept
implies a willingness
rights
is an
of an
that
to d e f e n d
individual
and his
obligation
to the n a t i o n a n d h a s a l w a y s b e e n a st ro n g p o i n t
p/
of a d e m o c r a c y .
To d a y ' s youth, however, are more concer ned
with
individual
prosperity
success
for the
and
tend
to n e g l e c t
community means
the
prosperity
fact
for
that
its
memb e r s .
The polls
have been
desire
Poll
and
limited.
surveys u n co ver ed during
What
among A me r i c a n s
reflected
a law requiring
service,
that
all
are
for m i l i t a r y
two
out
young
either mi l i t a r y
age p o p u l a t i o n
results
of
men
available
ser v ic e.
every
research
show a low
A
1977 G a l l u p
three Ame ric ans
to d e v o t e
a year
or n o n —mi 1 i t a r y .
responses were
this
isolated
But
only
favored
to n a t i o n a l
when
the draft
47 p e r c e n t
of
t h o s e b e t w e e n 18 a n d 24 y e a r s o l d s u p p o r t e d n a t i o n a l
OK
service.
T h i s is not a n e n t i r e l y n e w a t t i t u d e .
Military
service,
as
Americans.
stated
earlier,
Estimates
has never been popular with
of p r o p e n s i t i e s
to
enlist
among non-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
102
prior
service males have
1970s
to
33 p e r c e n t
Perhaps
continuing
opinions
Foreign
in
(CCFR)
thirty-eight
national
security
questions
is not
a public
demonstrated by
years
not
in the
early
conducted
at tit u de s and
a
series
of
the p o l l s
s e rvice.
that
concern until
the
located
This
issue
of d r a f t
over
concerning
asked
lack
of
also by Harris
it a f f e c t s
the G a l l u p P o l l
on
of p o l l s
asking many questions
None
evidence
of a
The C h i c a g o Council
o n l y b y C C F R but
of m i l i t a r y
and
service
t h e m d i r e c t l y — as
age
individuals
earlier.
The American public
w e a p o n s — resulting
in
manpower with which
as a
n a t i o n ' s well
Until
respectable
being,
to t r a d e h i g h - t e c h
increased defense
attracting
man
force
the n a t i o n
society
occupation
the All
difficulties
a modern
seems wi l l i n g
to d e f e n d
policies worldwide.
service
is the a b s e n c e
concerning military
provides
mentioned
has
issues.
opinion analysis,
Gallup,
important
s e r vi ce .
t he p a s t
any
18 p e r c e n t
agency which monitors
on m i l i t a r y
Relations
from
1977.^^
even mor e
polling
ranged
and project
to
its
regard milit ary
and necessary
V o l u n t e e r F o r c e wil l
the n u m b e r s
capable
comes
s p e n d i n g — for
for the
have
and quality needed
of d e t e r r i n g
aggression.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
to
103
C H A P T E R F OU R E N D N O T E S
^ T h o m a s P a i n e , as c i t e d in T h e S e l e c t e d W o r k of T o m
Paine:
Set in a F r a m e w o r k of H i s L i f e , e d . , H o w a r d Fast
T N e w Ÿ o r k : Du ell, SI c a n , a n d P e a r c e , 1945), p. 54*
2
W i l l i a m L. H a u s e r , L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l , U.S. A r m y ,
A m e r i c a n s A r m y in C r i s i s :
A S t u d y in C i v i l - M i 1 i t a ry R e l a t i on s (B a 1 1 i m o r e : J ohn s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973) ,
pp. 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 .
3
R u s s e l l Wei g 1 e y , H i s t o r y of the U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y
( N e w Y o r k : M a c M i l l a n P u b l i shing C o m p a n y , I n c . , 1907) , p p .
3 — 4.
^ I b i d ., p . 205.
Defense
L a w r e n c e J. K o r b , " M a k i n g
82 ( J a n u a r y 1982) : 2.
^C o n g r e s s i o n a l
the V o l u n t e e r F o r c e W o r k , "
Quarterly Almanac
27
(1971)
: 259.
^ I b i d ., p . 257.
^ W i l l i a m R. K i n g , "Th e A l l - V o l u n t eer A r m e d F o r c e s :
S ta t us , P r o s p e c t s , a n d A l t e r n a t i v e s , " M i l i t a r y R e v i e w
( S e p t e m b e r 1977) : 3^Richard Nixon,
as
cited
in.
Ibid.
^°Ibid.
^^U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e , F i n a l R e p o r t to the C o n ­
g r e s s of S e c r e t a r y of D e f e n s e M e l v i n L a i r d , J a n u a r y 1 96 9J a n u a r y 1973 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e ) , J a n u a ry 1973.
^ ^ H a r o l d B r o w n , U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of D e f e n s e A n n u a l R ep o r t
F i s c a l Y e a r 1981 ( W a h s i n g t o n , D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e ) , 1981.
^^Gabriel Almond,
( F e b r u a r y 1969) : 95.
"A bo u t
Face
on
the D r a f t , " A m e r i ca
^'^Evan Cl a g u e , S u s a n F a r r e l l , a n d K.H. Kim, eds.
All V o l u n t e e r A r m y :
A n A n a l y s i s of D e m a n d a n d S u p p l y
Y ork : P raeg e r ^ u b l i sher s , 1971) , pp . 81 -82l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The
(New
104
15
Change:
Soci ety
Armed
F r a n k l i n C. P i n c h , " M i l i t a r y M a n p o w e r a n d Social
A s s e s s i n g the I n s t i t u t i o n a l F i t , " A r m e d F o r c e s
8 ( S u m m e r 1982) : 577.
and
^ ^ L o w n d e s F, S t e p h e n s , " R e t a i n i n g C i t i z e n S o l d i e r s , "
F o r c e s a n d S o c i e t y 8 ( S p r i n g 1982) : 476.
17
R i c h a r d W. H u n t e r a n d G a r y R. N e l s o n , "Eight Y e a r s
w i t h the A 1 1 - V o l u n t e e r A r m e d F o r c e s , " in M i l i t a r y S e r v i c e
in the U n i t e d S t a t e s , e d . , G e n e r a l B r en t S c o w e r o f t (E n g 1 e w o o d
C l i f f s , N e w Je r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a ll , Inc., 1982), p. 92.
^ ®I b id . , p.
^ ^K o rb ,
20
110.
Defense
8 2 , p.
Hunter and Nelson,
4.
Military
Service
in the U n i t e d
States
^^Korb,
Defense
8 2 , p.
4.
22
U.S. A r m y R e c r u i t i n g C o m m a n d , 1982 R e p o r t to the
S t o c k h o l d e r ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g
O f f i c e , 1982), p. 23.
23
actual
Q u o t e g i v e n to t h i s s t ud en t b y a f e l l o w off i ce r.
s o u r c e a n d p a g e h a v e not b e e n l o c a te d.
2 Ix
Almond,
^^"Bring
( F e b r u a r y 14,
9 f\
A m e r i c a , p.
97.
B a c k the D r a f t , "
1977) : 57.
Stephens,
Armed
Forces
U.S.
and
News
and Wo rl d Report
S o c i e t y , p.
473.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Traditional
United
States
in w o r l d
leadership by
national
American
example
projects.
a realization has
and
examples are
where
actions
Until
emerged,
small
in t i m e
the
important,
are
of
are not
conscription.
of
crisis,
have
forces were
citizen
in t h e
raising,
Additionally,
these
military
e xcept
be
thoughts
relationship
the m o s t
of
and
civilians
funds wh ich
This
in a w o r l d
attachment
and
one
from
state
except
system
in t i m e s
as a n a t i o n a l
evil.
Those who abide
the A m e r i c a n
in w h i c h
technically
that
called
c o u l d be a u g m e n t e d
c e nt ury — through a
that
and
ideals
tradition
recruited
the m i l i t a r y
should be
while
established under
Americans,
to a r g u e
militarily
accomplished by
a waste
tend
however,
developing,
forces which
soldiers
looked upon
that
enough
generally
twentieth
of
in i n t e r ­
international
i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h w a s n e c e s s a r y but
by
one
interrelated.
this
for
volunteer military
of
primarily,
forty years,
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry t r a d i t i o n .
o r — as
the
cooperation
last
they
nations
realization
of n e e d b y
militias
than
r o l e of
emerged among Americans
employing military
for
rather
American policies
the A m e r i c a n
to the
affairs has been,
During
of all
the
approaches
all
civildecisions,
speci f ic ,
military
should
spending
c o u l d be m o r e p r o d u c t i v e l y u s e d
where.
105
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
is
61 se —
106
Since World War
substantially.
II,
this
relationship has
Increased need
executing America's
expanded
for m i l i t a r y power
role
in
projected
the m i l i t a r y
establishment
of p u b l i c
scrutiny
concern.
funds
not
and
and manpower has made
only
Charles
in
W.
foreign policy
K e g I e y , Jr.
relationship between
the w o r l d
but
in
order has
into
the
center
The need
for
increased
the m i l i t a r y m o r e
also
and Patrick
domestic
changed
and
of a
ring
factor
in d o m e s t i c p o l i c y .
J. M c G o w a n
su m up
the
f o r e i g n p o l i c y b est:
D o m e s t i c p o l i t i c s sh ape the f o r e i g n p o l i c y
o p t i o n s that a r e o p e n to soci et y; eff e ct the
l e v e l s of r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e for e x t e r n a l use;
a n d i n f l u e n c e g r e a t l y states' a b i l i t y to cope
^
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s to c o r e v a l u e s .
The
increased
conduct
importance
of n a t i o n a l
development.
threats
have
an
in
the
position
Because
rapidly
of
in the n o r m a l
also placed military planners
in c o n t r i b u t i n g
the d a n g e r s
to
and
changing world around
foreign
external
them,
Americans
allowed
the m i l i t a r y
establishment
to g r o w a n d b e c o m e
effective
and powerful
instrument
foreign policy.
Just
how effective
is d e t e r m i n e d b y
Few Americans
force
t he
the m i l i t a r y
affairs has
in a m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s
policy
of
to
resources
today doubt
implement
question
go
resources
to
to
is
to it b y
for an
The
the n a t i o n .
level
but
m a n y ask
to w h i c h
increased allotment
the m i l i t a r y
be
effective milit ary
security policies,
enough?"
support
th e m i l i t a r y w i l l
allocated
the n e e d
national
"how much
A m e ricans will
nation's
the
and powerful
of
is d e p e n d e n t
of
the
on b o t h
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the
107
domestic
and
domestic
affairs
the
external
concerns
world
h a s not
of A m e r i c a
changed,
are
concentration
of a t t e n t i o n
apparent
that
conduct
when
when
of
event
the n a t i o n ' s
there
is a t h r e a t
Union.
between
Examples
Revolution,
continuing Mid-East
Afghanistan,
at
times
li ke
greatest
must
and
has— manpower
indicate
the
w o r 1d
concern
e v en ts .
is e s c a l a t e d
which
is a
of
the
the
Soviet
the H u n g a r i a n
and
invasion
of
in T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s .
influence
all,
important
it
It
is
on p o l i c y
is
is the p u b l i c w h o
resources a nation
Their willingness
suppo rt
This
Is most
the v a r i o u s
Soviet
After
for a
times when
to the n o r m a l
States and
the
of
they have
to do
this may
for the m i l i t a r y
strong m i l i t a r y
in a n s w e r
to
event s .
The percentage
defense
placed
the
The
the p u b l i c
and money.
or th e p e r c e i v e d n e e d
events
i n d i r e c t l y — of most
Conflict,
of
external
seen as a thr ea t
Missile Crisis,
two m o s t
l evel
on
the B e r l i n C r i s i s ,
visible.
the
there are
external
the U n i t e d
these when
sacrifice
or
the u n r e s t
a n d most
The primacy
of v i o l e n c e p r e s e n t ,
include
the C u b a n
focused
on
is
but
affairs.
characteristic— directly
confrontations
environment.
s eems
on
status
f o r as
to b e
foreign
of
Samuel
of
the
a reliable
affairs.
the n a t i o n ' s
Huntington
little by diplomacy
federal
As
indication
allocated
of the
importance
re s u l t
of
armed
forces
is a l s o a f f e c t e d ,
it h a s
"A n a t i o n
the
th i s
to
a
s ta te s:
unless
budget
emphasis,
can a c h i e v e
strength and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
the w il l
108
to b a c k
up
its d e m a n d s w i t h
of b u d g e t a r y
public
opinion
in C h a p t e r
can
distributions
can
Two.
Those
for p o l i c y m a k e r s .
l es s
spending wo u l d
a
an
are
1,
development.
Public
elected
during
occurred
and
involving
of a t t i t u d e s
af fair s are
surveys
the b i r t h
the
again
to
to g i v e
force
toward
the
opinion may also be
there
Soviet
the n e e d
for
rebuilding
either
1 and
spending
international
is a d r o p
a
in
further
international
the
e vi dent
"Cold War,"
seventies,
197 6 M i d - E a s t
to
an
This was
the
strength
for
In T a b l e
spending,
of
t h e m the
or p o l i c y m a k e r s
for d e f e n s e
end of
in the
the a c c e l e r a t e d
occurrence
see
Later
thoughts
s h o w that
seen as n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g .
of d e t e n t e .
in c o n c e r n
and
surveyed
taken af ter Vi etnam,
official's
When
defense
adventure­
favoring
in w h i c h
the U.S.
those p o l l e d w ho desir e mor e
analysis
support
resource
consensus
s pe n d i n g .
after years
opinion
as a
the P r e s i d e n t
in d e f e n s e
in p u b l i c
that
increased defense
officials
on
that
to b e c o m e m o r e
elected
increases
in the a r e a
addressed
a n d act
for
the
or d e c r e a s e
evident
crisis
approval
in p u t t i n g p r e s s u r e
increase
Figure
functions being
programs while a
affect
resource upon which
call
functions
stimulate policy,
foreign policy
foreign policy
might
three
stimulate policy makers
in
is h e r e ,
the n a t i o n ' s w e a l t h ,
the
three
Public
some
on
of
exercise
constrain policy,
spending may
f o r c e . I t
the
in
and
increase
military buildup
war,
forced Americ ans
their milit ary
once again become
forces
a dominant
in w o rid a f f a i r s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
109
Americans
have
nation's
policy
spending
and
One
and military by
the
are b e c oming
indication
more
policies
citizens
security and
is m a n p o w e r .
n ew weapons
are willing
America's
position
end
of
its
recruiting
years,
the d r a f t
1980
(after
only
the
of A f g h a n i s t a n ) ,
increase
in
fervor
Primary motivators
as m e n t i o n e d
ment.
Montana,
s tu d e n t
a
reinforcement
seen as
for
survey was
three
individuals
Four,
due
t a k e n b y Dr.
The
is,
a consistent
the
51
the
students
Only
limit
Since
one of
crisis and
attributed
enlisting
support
(6)
the
Thomas
surveyed,
a total
Payne
to an
i d eals.
of
concerning
including
sophomores
r e f l e c t e d what
1 believe
among Americans
security policies.
of
is,
environ­
decisions,
mostly
Soviet
in the A r m y
the U n i v e r s i t y
attitude
of n a t i o n a l
the
these
in part
to the d o m e s t i c
students,
Government,
for
Volunteer Army has attained
1983 at
studying A me r i c a n
concerning
funds
to b o l s t e r
arena.
ti m es .
could be
the n a t i o n ' s
furthest
toward m i l i t a r y budget
and w e a p on s .
and has been,
the
international
the All
of
to p r o v i d e
to p r o v i d e
in an a t t e m p t
Winter Quarter
attitudes
personnel
the
being.
to d e f e n d A m e r i c a ' s p r e s t i g e a n d
in C h a p t e r
During
concerns
s e e m as w i l l i n g
Iranian h os tag e
invasion
increased defense
foreign policy
do not
to g o
1972,
goals
favoring
for the
to t h e i r d o m e s t i c we ll
is
in the
in
s u pp or t
The willingness
and programs
Americans
their
that
important
r e s o u r c e U. S.
for n a t i o n a l
demonstrated
96 p e r c e n t
thought
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Of
110
either
the V o l u n t e e r
t a i n e d at p r e s e n t
percent
of
service
f or all
percent
of
there was
service
not
these
the
Army
should be
strength
same
students
a m a j o r war,
and
p e a c e t i m e but
and
security
willing
of a
to
by
national
crisis a ffecting Am e r i c a n
the
like
the
changing
ready
fabled Minute Man
situations
that
soldiers.
But
blind
of d u t y
concern
Today
armed
the
we must
only
to
bring
there
forces,
but
is n o
there
domestic market
back
service.
is p e r h a p s
the
Americans
strong mil ita ry during
their
individual
D u r i n g an
inter­
Americans
tec hnology warfare,
enough.
will
to d e f e n d
In t o d a y ' s w o r l d
I do not
the
the
sense
of
being
profess
r e p l a c e d by
comp lem ente d by
source
of
opposition
returns
of d u t y — not
has been
our
to
is a l s o n o v i s i b l e
place
selective
it d e m o n s t r a t e s
interests,
that
ourselves,
overt
the
if
s h o u l d be p r o f e s s i o n a l
country
over p r o t e c t i n g
service
of L e x i n g t o n G r e e n
soon
Americans
o b e d i e n c e — to o u r
s e n se
of
all
Seventy-eight
This data
forces.
and high
be
21
of u n i v e r s a l
thought
o
or m a i n ­
t ha n
universal
of A m e r i c a .
in a m i n u t e m a y not
to b e l i e v e
a
in t h e a r m e d
ideals and pri n c i p l e s
fast
favor
interrupt
pursuits
rise
Less
1 believe
toward military
a r e not
serving
continue.
but
(15)
for one y e a r.
54 p e r c e n t
should
of A m e r i c a n s
the p r o t e c t i o n
olds
in
did agree with
scientifically valid,
want
(34).
students were
18-21 y e a r
registration
attitude
levels
expanded
to n o r m a l
a lack
freedoms.
service
s u p po r t.
and
in the
When
the u ne mp lo y -
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ill
ment
rate
decreases,
difficulties
the
in a t t a i n i n g
fewer Americans will
an
opinion— based
and benefit
foreign policy
their
again
recruiting
experience military
on a c t u a l
of m i l i t a r y
forces may bec om e
admonition
services will
arena,
and
goals.
Fewer and
service and have
p a r t i c i p a t i o n — on the n e c e s s i t y
service.
less a n d
experience
le ss
the
In turn,
America's
of a d e t e r r e n t
realization
in
armed
the
of D e m o s t h e n e s
to the A t h e n i a n s m a y b e a p p l i e d
to A m e r i c a
as
wel 1 :
T h e r e is one s o ur ce , O A t h e n i a n s
to all y o u r d e f e a t s .
It is that y o u r
h a v e c e a s e d to b e s o l d i e r s .
1.
In c o n c l u s i o n ,
in
the d e v e l o p m e n t
public
is v i t a l l y
to u s e
important
resources
towards
resources
of m o n e y
of d e f e n s e
external
It
stimulating
policy makers
or o p p o s i t i o n
not
by
is
extremely
policy,
in p o l i c y
in
be a con sideration
important
development.
supporting
may be
to th e m i l i t a r y
external
a resource
Public
the a l l o c a t i o n
especially
to the
indication
by
changes
opinion
the
support
of p u b l i c
s y s t e m — will
e v e n t s but
in
for
of
occurrence
establishment.
a volunteer
in c o n s t r a i n ­
Fluctuations
traced
a valid
foreign and
and providing
and manpower.
and be
fluctuations— under
often,
o p i n i o n must
a nation's military,
spending
crisis
Summary
of a d e m o c r a t i c n a t i o n ' s
domestic policies.
ing p o l i c y ,
[Americans]
citizens
of
support
Manpower
be
caused more
in the d o m e s t i c
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
112
environment.
American
opi nio n will
military
c i v i l - m i 1 i t a ry
often
focus
relations
on b e c a u s e
establishment.
or
supported by
everyone.
respect
to
the n a t i o n ' s
survival
efficient
safe
in
military,
the
of
the v i s i b i l i t y
The military
"liked"
respected by A m e rica's
a r e an a r e a p u b l i c
Its m i s s i o n ,
must
citizens;
the n a t i o n
international
d o e s not
be
need
of
the
to be
however,
in
considered and
for w i t h o u t
is n e i t h e r
a
strong
influential
an d
or
environment.
A n y k i n d of w a r short of j i h a d (a h o l y w a r) ,
is a n d w i l l b e u n p o p u l a r w i t h the p e o p l e .
Because
such w a r s a r e fo ug ht w i t h l e g i o n s , a n d A m e r i c a n s ,
e v e n w h e n t h e y a r e p r o u d of them, d o not like
their legions.
T h e y d o not l i k e to se rve in t h e m
or e v e n a l l o w t h e m to b e w h a t t h e y must.
F o r l e g i o n s h a v e n o i d e o l o g i c a l or s p ir i t u a l
h o m e in the l i b e r a l s o c i e t y .
T h e li b e r a l s o c i e t y
h a s n o u s e for 1 eg i o n s - - a s its p r o p h e t s h a v e long
proclaimed.
Except
that
in t h i s w o r l d
there are Tigers.^
T.
The American people's
of,
the m i l i t a r y
force
to p r o t e c t
Fehrenbach
says
A m e r i c a n s mus t
which
attempt
must
be based
their
"...
attitude
in
rights,
on
be prepared
to
towards,
the
values,
this w o r l d
fend
to d e p r i v e A m e r i c a n s
R. F e h r e n b a c h
and accep ta nce
realized need
and
for a
freedoms.
there are Tigers,"
off
of
"Tiger"
their
attacks
f reedom.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
As
and
113
C H A P T E R F IV E E N D N O T E S
C h a r l e s W. K e g l e y , Jr. a n d P a t r i c k J. M c G o w a n , eds.,
C h a l l e n g e s to A m e r i c a :
U n i t e d S t a t e s F o r e i g n P o l i c y in the
1 9 8 0 s (B e V erly H i l l s , C a 1 i f o rn ia : Sage P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1979),
p . 25.
2
S am u e l H u n t i n g t o n , "The M i l i t a r y M i nd :
Conservative
R e a l i s m of the P r o f e s s i o n a l M i l i t a r y E t h i c , " in W a r ,
M o r a l i t y , a n d the M i l i t a r y P r o f e s s i o n , e d ., M a i h a m M. W a k i n
( B o u l d e r , C o l o r a d o : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , Ï979), p. 32.
3
T h o m a s P a i n e , U n p u b l i s h e d Su r v e y , M i l i t a r y B u d g e t
D e c i s i o n , ( U n i v e r s i t y of M o n t a n a , M i s s o u l a , M o n t a n a , 1983).
^ T . R. F e h r e n b a c h , as c i t e d in W i l l i a m H a u s e r , A m e r i ca *:
A r m y in C r i s i s :
A S t u d y in C i v i l - M i l l t a r y R e l a t i o n s (Ba l t i m o r e : J ohn s H o p k ins U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973) , p~i iv .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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19.
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