Preliminary Exploration of Tibetans’ Life Style in
Ancient and Modern Time
Kai-huang Yang
﹝Research Member of the Current Situation Research
Dept.MTAC, Professor of the Graduate School of
Public Administration, National Tong Hua University﹞
Abstract
Because of great differences of religious belief and ethnic concept between
the Tibetans and the Communist China, Tibetan people have been forced to change
their way of life after the Chinese communists controlled and ruled them. When
the Cultural Revolution came to an end, the Communist China began to transform
the life of Tibetans by the way of economic development and modernization. As a
matter of fact, any ethnic people will oppose the former, and the latter is an
inevitable outcome of modernization.
Therefore, the Dalai Lama and his government should not consider that the
change of Tibetan livelihood is the destruction of Tibetan culture by Han ethnics.
In fact, the transformation of Tibetan culture in Tibet is an outcome of adaptation
in the course of modernization. Of course, the modernization itself is much worth
examination. Nevertheless, under the pressure of globalization can any ethnicity
avoid the affection it brings?
Key words：Tibetan Livelihood, Religious life, Social Change, Modernization
I. Foreword
Ever since Tibet has been under the reign of the PRC, the life for individual
Tibetan or Tibetans in all experienced a fierce change, which is easily observed
but hardly studied, for it is only logical for researchers to define “change” when
there is a comparison of previous state that is not likely to be re-presented.
Therefore, the only source of information is written records, which inevitably
present subjective perspectives or even prejudices. Methodologically speaking,
when researchers compare one prejudice to another, differences and changes are
inherent. Thus it’s insignificant to do the comparison.
In view of this, when
referring to the text documents, it is of utmost importance to overcome such
obstacles to comprehend the essence of life; otherwise, it is not possible to find out
the real changes in Tibetan lifestyle. This article uses the journal wtitten by a
Han monk who studied Buddhism in Tibet, as the basic information of Tibetans’
life to reveal the author’s prejudices, and then turns to discuss the changes of
Tibetan lifestyle based on the “achievements” of Tibetan policies claimed by the
PRC government.
II. The Tibetan Society in the Monk’s Eyes
According to the descriptions made by the monk, Fa-zun, preliminary
conclusions can be drawn like the following: traditional Tibetan life of farmers and
merchants is simple but utterly religious, and has a strict social class system and
relative female authority.
(1) Simple
In the journal of Fa-zun, no descriptions of Tibetan recreation are given as if
Tibetan life is purely about survival.
There are festivals or other events in
Tibetan tradition; however, daily life in traditional Tibet has only one focus, which
is to work. According to fa-zun, rich Tibetan families enjoy family gatherings
and chatters, which looks like the most frequent recreation. In addition to that,
life is to work, to chant, to eat and to sleep. As for poor families, to work is their
life and their life is no more than to work.
(2) Social Class:
Fa-zun stated in his journal, “Tibetans created an absolute social class system
that all trespassers must be punished. Members of the same social class lead a
different life, too; for example, the leader of the family can enjoy carefully cleaned
white barley, the best food that is also served for important guests, while other
family members can only have black barley, which sometimes is mixed with sands
and stones and is also the food for average guests. Servants and maids can only
have roasted barley flour and pea and slaves or beggars have no more than peas.
Even the way each member drinks tea is distinguished by his or her social class.”
Obviously, Tibetans rely on this traditional social hierarchy very much.
(3) Religious:
Fa-zun observed that, “ Tibetan Buddhism is not only the spiritual faith for
the people, but also the foundation of the society. In traditional Tibetan society,
the public cannot distinguish religious faith from life, for all walks of life follow
Buddhism. Even though a few people who live in the border are Christians, most
Tibetans, no matter rich or poor, are Buddhists and perform Buddhist rituals.
They believe that Buddha statues, big or small, protect people from evil, and
everything in life is determined by karma. It is a common practice in Tibetan
society to employ lamas to recite Sutras and worship Buddha with oil lamps
during special festivals. Respect is given to those who want to become lamas,
and male family members are encouraged to do so. In addition, religion is the
only access to education in Tibet, children less than the age of 3 can chant simple
scriptures, not to mention the longer ones adults frequently recite.
Tibetan
artworks revolve around the philosophy and stories of Buddhism, and even their
mathematics, medicine, history and geography are based on Buddhism.”
It
should be noted that the only documents related to religion remain to the current
time.
(4) Relative Female Authority:
Female members of the ethnic minorities in the southwestern part of China
enjoy a higher social status mostly because they are responsible for most of the
house and field works. Besides, traditionally they may marry to more than one
man. According to Fa-zun, “Tibetan women have the power over men who are
controlled by their wives and can even be kicked out from the house. This
phenomenon can especially be observed in Shi-gan.” “The relationship between an
upper-class man and a lower-class woman is considered scandalous, but that
between an upper-class woman and a lower-class man is not that serious disgrace.”
Judging from the descriptions given by Fa-zun, it can be inferred that ethnic
minorities usually make recreation part of their life; thus, it is not justified to
comment their work and recreation separately.
Furthermore, for Tibetans,
religion and life are inseparable; therefore, the concepts about religion of Han
people is not applicable in Tibetan society, and it is not justified to criticize
Tibetan religious life from such a point of view.
While Fa-zun might have described Tibetan life with his Han prejudices, the
PRC government shaped Tibetan lifestyle with socialistic ideals on purpose.
First of all, the presence of traditional Tibetan social class is opposite to
communist ideology, and the PRC government adopted an almost revolutionary
approach to make changes in 15 years. The consequences of doing so inevitably
incurred the grudge from those who have been “reformed”. The “beneficiaries”
of revolution without sense of non-class society had no idea how to lead a life in
such a new social stage.
As a result, the newly selected officials could do
nothing but relied on the outside power (the PRC government) and usually did not
take the interests of most Tibetans into consideration but their own power.
Eventually, these officials are isolated from the public and become a” new social
class”. This would be ironic to the communists who propagate the value of
equality.
Secondly, in terms of religion, it is more than a faith as mentioned above.
Religion is everything in Tibetans’ life. It is fair to say that Tibetans’ life in its
essence is a religious life.
Unfortunately, the brutalities in the Cultural
Revolution ruined and denied Tibetan way of life while the PRC government took
it as merely a mistake of its religion policy. Without deeper realizations and
reflections, it is not likely that Tibetans will ever trust the PRC government.
Finally, as for the sexual equality, it must be understood that even though
women appeared to assume an authoritative role in the Tibetan society just like in
many other ethnic minority groups, their privilege and influence could not go
beyond family level, and the society as a whole has been under the dominance of
men. No officials in the traditional society were female, and women have no
importance in the religious culture.
Economically and socially speaking,
women’s higher social status comes from the fact that men need their women’s
caring other than show their respects and their awareness of sexual equality. The
PRC government also encouraged Tibetan women to strive for an equal role, but it
was no more than a slogan, and so far no female officials in the autonomous
region are present.
III. Characteristics of Modern Tibetan Society
The PRC’s policies of reform and openness after the Cultural Revolution
influenced the Tibetan society. In 1980s, economic aids dispatched to Tibet by
the PRC central government out of psychology of compensation significantly
improved the life of Tibetans. The media illustrates the urban life in Tibet as:
Senior citizens living in a retired home in the western side of Lhasa are woken
up every morning by a welcome yell, for that was farmers from the village who
deliver dairy products to them.
Every August and September, children try to sell
the mushrooms they collect in the mountains to passengers along the highway.
On the Bakhar plaza of central Lhasa, women speaking rusty English sell
souvenirs and jewelries to foreign tourists.
There are many vendors and teahouses around the Potala Palace. One dairy
product vendor I interviewed said that she started the business to support the
family, but now she hopes to save enough money for a house of her own and pay
her two children to receive higher education in inner land of China.1
All of these mentioned above indicate that the diversity in material life,
increasing economic awareness, and a secularized religion are the characteristics
of Tibetan way of life at present time.
I. Diversity of Material Life:
Tibetans used to assume few variety of food, but now they have access to
seafood, mushrooms and fruits. Besides, Tibetans now adopt a modern approach
to produce traditional foods and develop certain modern healthy drinks.
Vegetable supplies also improve in both quality and quantity. Thus, changes in
Tibetan culture of diet are enormous.
Tibetan families have different demands now, too. It is reported that back in
the 70s or the 80s, the “three olds”- sewing machines, black and white TV sets and
bicycles were the favorites of the Lhasa residents.
Nevertheless, color TVs;
refrigerators and telephones are very common to the people now. Especially in
last ten years, common people own computers, microwave ovens, cell phones and
automobiles. Statistics showed that in 1990, in every 100 Lhasa households,
there are 42 washing machines, 24 refrigerators, 88 color TVs, and in 2001 the
figures increased to 89 washing machines, 74 refrigerators and 130 color TVs. 2
In addition to electrical appliances, Tibetans live in a better housing
condition, for in the past only nobles lived in stone houses, but now concrete
buildings can be seen everywhere in big cities. Statistics showed that from 1998
1
2
http://www.tibetinfor.com/zt/zt20020021028145043.htm
http://www.tibetinfor.com/zt/zt20020021119104837.htm
to 2001 a total of RMB $1.038 billion was invested in construction which covers
total area of 169 square meters. At present, every resident in the region occupies
14.6 square meters of housing in average and real estate business alone makes up
for 0.5% of the GDP of Tibet, while the prospect of this industry is good in the
coming years.
As for recreation, apart from TV, karaoke, etc., Tibetans like to travel outside
the region on holidays. It is reported that in 2001 a group of some 30-person
took a trip to Nepal, which was the first tourist group that traveled outside Tibet.
As Tibetans traveling outside the region increase every year, airlines serve more
flights to meet the needs. 3
The great shift in Tibetan lifestyle is apparent. The 50 years of Chinese
ruling in Tibet can be divided into 2 stages. During the first 40 years the PRC
intended to eliminate Tibetan religion with its communist ideology; however, such
dream did not make it but incurred a lot of problems. In the recent decade, the
PRC focused on Tibetan economic development and has given lots of financial
aids to Tibet so that greatly changed Tibetan economy and are welcomed by
Tibetans. Compared with other parts of China in view of economy, Tibet is still
far behind developed, but compared to its own past, the shift is enormous and the
new material life may eventually influence on their spiritual life. Some Tibetan
teenagers do not want to study their own language because they think they cannot
benefit from it. This seems the way in which Tibetan traditional culture fades
away gradually in modern Tibet.
3
http://www.tibetinfor.com/zt/zt20030021119104837.htm.htm
II. Economic Awareness
The PRC central government consistently helps Tibet financially with more
than RMB $50 billion in the past 50 years in addition to the assistances from
inland provinces of Mainland China. Therefore, Tibetans’ life have been greatly
improved and changed.
Tibetan cadres and profession personnel increased.
Modern education, medical care, electricity and industrial systems are basically
introduced into Tibet.
The PRC government proposed Great Western
Development Plan in 1999; a framework of socialist market orientation economy
was basically formed. So far there are already 7 companies registered, over 30%
of revenue from private sector.
115 foreign-invested companies were approved
to establish with USD $160 million of investment.
With potential strength of
economic development now, Tibet will conduct more reciprocal interactions with
other parts of China and adjust its industrial structure. Now the proportion of
agriculture in the economic structure has been reduced by 11%, which is the result
of Chinese effective policies on Tibet. A plateau economy featuring a market
with Tibetan unique has been the key to its economic growth; for example, tourism
has made a significant progress and contributed 6% of national GDP.
Under such circumstances, Tibetans changed their economic awareness and
values concept. In the past, Tibetan looked down street vendors. Nowadays,
their attitude toward commercials has been changed from negative to
understanding and acceptance. Previous slow tempo of Tibetans’ life has been
turned into a busy and unpredictable one. Thus, faith is no longer everything in
Tibetans’ life, and the lament of the Dalai Lama can be interpreted as a reaction to
the westernization of Tibet instead of purely against the PRC government. No
matter what the reaction of the Dalai Lama and Tibetan exile government to
Tibetan development would be, they can hardly change Tibetans’ determination to
the modernization.
III. Secularization of Religion
The word “secularization” has two meanings. First, traditionally lamas and
Rinpoches are highly respectful in Tibetan society, in which they used to accept
offerings from believers other than making living on labor work. Nevertheless
responding to market orientation economy, Tibetan monasteries became tourists’
visiting spots. Statistics showed that by running business in accommodations,
restaurants, souvenirs stores and transportation, Tibetan temples make millions of
income every year.
Furthermore, the life of lamas has been changed closer to that of secular
people. Nowadays, children especially from wealthy families in the northern
Tibet are not encouraged to become lamas. While lamas today live in a life not
so much different from the common people, the challenges to the tradition of
“living Buddha” become obvious because the number of self-claimed living
Buddha and frauds increase, so the foundation of the faith is not as stable as before.
In addition, lamas now do not strictly follow the teachings of doctrines like the
past; in turn the whole philosophy of Tibetan Buddhism is imbued with secular
features.
The secularization of religion is what the Dalai Lama and the exile
government did not agree with, because they worried that this meant the death of
traditional Tibetan Buddhism. As a matter of fact, all religions in the world
would have to adapt to the changes along with time, or they would be buried in
history.
Besides, the PRC did not consider that market orientation economy
would cause the withering of Tibetan Buddhism; instead, secularization means the
separation of religion from politics and breaks the sacred and authoritative social
system. Facing the competition posed by other religions or secular life, a religion
can attract those who truly devote themselves to Buddhist philosophy.
Most
scholars view this as a kind of reform making Tibetan Buddhism more acceptable.
IV. Major Changes in Tibetan Life
1. Lifestyle
The traditional work-centered life has now been transformed into the life with
a mixture of work and pastime.
Tibetans now believe in the strife for a better
and happy life, which is quite different from the old spiritual life only.
2. Information vs. Religion
Cell phones and computers are common in Lhasa today, and newspapers and
magazines now play an important role in Tibetan daily life. Tibetans rely on
Information rather than religion to manage their life. All these indicate that
Tibetans adapt to the changes in their lives, begin to care about others, and
depend on information and technology in daily life
3. Sinicized Tibetans
China has been ruling Tibet more than 50 years, and Han culture has become
the mainstream in Tibet. Although officials of Tibetan autonomous government
tried hard to protect traditional Tibetan culture, the initiation of protection
actually reflects the seriousness of the issue. This is what the Dalai Lama and
the exile government worried about. Nevertheless, it must be noted that any
culture experiences the same transformation, as like the Dalai Lama himself
keeps speaking western terms such as liberty, human rights and democracy.
The cultural impact on Tibet brought by the opening to the outside world of
Tibet is nothing but a natural trend, and it is definitely incorrect to think that to
cast all Han people out of Tibet means a perfect preservation of Tibetan culture.
To modernize the features of Tibetan culture seems to be a more appropriate
and more confident goal to fight for.
4. Loss of Traditions
Comparing to the Han people, Tibetans face more challenges in the process of
modernization because they are exposed to the concepts of modernization through
the perspectives of the Han people. On one hand, the PRC government gave
great amount economic aids to Tibet and resulted in superficial changes in
Tibetans’ life, which is a political rather than economic achievement to boast of.
On the other hand, Tibetans did not have enough time to find out their identity and
position in the new era, so that they, especially the youth, do not have confidence
in their own culture. Though it is anticipated that time will solve the problem,
the cost is not yet known, and the loss may be irrevocable; however, the Dalai
Lama and the exile government are not doing anything helpful by just making
unnecessary accusations.
V. Conclusion
Such a limited sources of information apparently indicate that Tibet is
undergoing a significant transformation, which is held by the PRC as an
achievement, but by the Dalai Lama as disaster.
We consider that the process of
modernization itself is a decisive force, whether you welcome it or not. While
oriental cultures meet with western civilization, they may not have promising
perspectives if they don’t have reflections.
Furthermore, the secularization of religion is controversial and hard to define.
To sociologists, religion exists in human society and cannot remain intact when the
society is transforming itself, as the development of Christianity from the
medieval times to the modern times has shown to the world. In other words,
secularization poses challenges on religion. In order to survive religious belief,
such obstacle must be overcome. Opposition to secularization is inevitable, but
no one or any government may stop the process of modernization, for a better
secular life is what people crave for. As long as the PRC government does not
interfere the religion with violence, the rest of the world stands in no position to
criticize.
In view of this, to hallow the traditions and dismiss secularization is actually
doing harm to Tibetan culture, for only when the unique culture shows its new life
facing such impact can the world see the value of its existence. The author of
this paper once stated that Tibetan Buddhism under the protection of its
geographical location is one precious treasure in human civilization; however, in
the new world of modern technology and politics, the preciousness is nothing but
old glory, and only development is sustainable, the glory may last forever.
﹝This article has been discussed at the seminar on current situation of
Mongolia and Tibet held on April 16, 2004.﹞