IMMIGRATION EXPERIENCES
OF LATINO ADOLESCENTS:
DEVELOPMENTAL
CHALLENGES
Kristin Pitman, MA, LPC
Ana Caro, Psy.D.
Participants will be able to…
Recognize challenges Latino immigrant adolescents face
as they adapt to the host culture
2. Identify & assess factors necessary to implement effective
treatment
3. Identify treatment and program approaches that address
the challenges of Latino adolescent immigrants
1.
Agenda
• What is Adolescence?
• Developmental Tasks
• Relevant Statistics
• Immigration and Latino Adolescents
• Key Factors to Consider
• Current Research
• Effective Treatment Approaches
Adolescence and Identity
What is Adolescence?
• Period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties,
during which a young person is no longer physically a
child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult
(Cicarelli, 2009)
Identity
Identity:
– A consistent definition of one’s self as a unique
individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and
aspirations.
Identity versus Role Confusion:
– Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development
Identity achievement:
– Attainment of identity
• The point at which a person understands who he or
she is as a unique individual, in accord with past
experiences and future plans.
Cicarelli, 2009
Adolescence & Immigration
• Adolescence has been conceptualized as a stage involving
object loss
– Similarly, the process of immigration and acculturation often involves
separation and loss
• Immigrant adolescents are trying to forge an identity in a
“context that may be racially and culturally dissonant (GarciaColl & Magnuson, 1997, p.114).”
RELEVANT STATISTICS &
UTILIZATION OF MENTAL
HEALTH SERVICES
Barriers to Treatment
Relevant Statistics
• Latinos comprised 12.5% of the US population as of the year 2000
– It is estimated that by 2020 Latinos will comprise 15% of the US
population
• 77% of the Latino population (27.1 million people) live in 7 states,
each with Latino populations of 1 million or more
– California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Arizona, and New
Jersey
• 40% of the Latino population in the US is foreign-born and 52% of
this population entered the US between 1990 and 2002
– Many Latino youth are still adjusting to life in the US
• Latino/as face a number of challenges from the moment they decide
to move to a new country until 8-10 years later when they are able to
master a second language and new culture (Santiago-Rivera,
Arredondo, Gallardo-Cooper, 2002).
Relevant Statistic (cont’d)
• More than 55% of immigrant children were born in
Latin America
• 50% of Latino youth in the US are first- or secondgeneration immigrants
• Nearly half of the Latino immigrant population is under
25 years old and more than 1/3 are under 18 years
old
– In 2002, 34.4% of Latinos, were under age 18
• 1 in every 5 students currently enrolled in US public
schools is an immigrant or child of an immigrant
• 1 in 5 children, including adolescents, live in an
immigrant family
– 13 million children live in immigrant families
Utilization of Mental Health Services
• Immigrants are much less likely to seek help for mental
health problems than their U.S. born counterparts
• Compared to non-Hispanic White and African American
youth, Latino youth have higher rates of unmet mental
health needs (Hough et al., 2002; Kataoka, Zhang, & Wells,
2002).
– Latinos youth are one-third as likely to receive mental health services
compared to White children
• 22% of Latinos likely to use alternative approaches for
religious or cultural reasons, compared to 4% of Caucasians
KEY FACTORS TO
CONSIDER IN
TREATMENT
IMPLEMENTATION
Cultural Beliefs
• Fatalism
• Collectivism
• Latinos are likely to seek assistance from members of their own cultural
group before seeking help elsewhere (Brinson & Kottler, 1995).
• They may seek help for medical and mental health needs from religious
organizations (Altarriba & Bauer, 1998; Frevert & Miranda, 1998).
Familism refers to an individual’s strong identification, attachment, and
loyalty to his or her family (Hovey & King, 1996).
• Familism
• Family relationships are very close and are usually the first or main
source of help for Latinos - strong support for each other at times of
emotional and psychological difficulties
• protective quality for Latino youth (Vega, 1995).
• Value privacy highly (Frevert & Miranda, 1998)
Blanco-Vega, Castro-Olivo, and Merrell (2008)
Immigration Experience
• Type of migration
• Level of danger in the immigration journey
• The migration experience affects the type
and degree of acculturative stress that the
immigrant will experience
Context of Exit
• Age at time of migration
– Migrating at an older age (after 12) has been found to be a
protective factor for Latino immigrants
– Migrating at a very young age (before 12)
• Socioeconomic Status
– Cabassa (2003) reported that socioeconomic status,
occupation, and educational background all play an
important role in an individual’s adaptation to a new culture.
– Loss of Status upon arrival to the US
Legal and residency status
• Legal status = protective factor; Living in this
country without documentation = risk factor
• Families in which some members have legal
status and others do not oftentimes experience
maladaptive dynamics of power and abuse
• Undocumented immigrant adolescents may find
great disappointment in not being able to enroll in
college due to their undocumented status
Material Quality of Life
• Type of Neighborhood
• Environment
• Attitudes
• Poverty
• Lack of Insurance
Language Barriers
• Awareness of services
• Difficulty advocating for self and family
• Therapeutic rapport
• Private or personal matters can best be expressed in one’s
native language
• Clients who prefer to speak in Spanish and who are
allowed to express their emotions in Spanish can
experience engagement and a sense of empowerment
• Misinterpretation by the therapist
• Family, specifically children, as interpreters
Social Stressors
• Stigma of Mental Illness
• Discrimination
• Minority status
Discrimination and Identity
• Self-fulfilling truth
Acculturation
• The process of changes in beliefs,
attitudes, values, and behaviors
resulting from contact with another
culture
• Because most Latinos tend to maintain
a strong cultural identity, it can be a
challenging process for them to
integrate the cultural characteristics of
the majority group with their traditional
cultural beliefs and values.
Acculturative Stress
• The stress related to acculturation
• May include issues such as:
• Language barriers, perceived discrimination, racism, loss of values, and
feelings of depression.
• Negative health behaviors, such as substance use, may be
used as a strategy for coping with acculturative stress (Gil,
Wagner & Vega, 2000)
• Elevated levels of acculturative stress has been shown to be related to
mental health problems
Family Acculturative Gaps
• Parents identifying with culture of origin
• Children adapting to mainstream culture
• Acculturation
• Acculturative Dissonance
• Family bonds can be threatened by conflicting acculturation
responses
Changing Family Roles
• Newly immigrated parents may need to rely on their
children to help them manage and navigate the host
culture
• Relying on the adolescent upsets entrenched family
hierarchies.
– Adolescents are frequently exposed to information usually reserved
for adults and thus cross the generational line between adults and
children.
• Despite their outward ‘‘acceptance,’’ parents resent both their
dependence upon, as well as the involvement of children in adult
business
• Yo-yo’s because parents tend to abruptly change them
from an adult role to a child’s role and back
Family separation
• Only about 20% of children and youth come to the United
States as a family unit (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco,
2001). In about 80% of cases, children and youth are
separated from their family at some point
• Re-unification
– Contradictory emotions and feelings of disorientation, especially if
the absent parent had previously been the primary caretaker
– Problems between parents and children as adolescent children try
to assert their authority (James, 1997; Waters, 1997).
Adolescents’ Conflict
• Acculturation
• Alienation of Family
• Rejection on Host Culture
Intergenerational Conflict and Mental
Health
• Rumbaut (1994), in an analysis of middle school
minority students, found that parent-child conflict
was the strongest predictor of poor self-esteem and
depression.
• Low acculturated adolescents in conflict with their
parents are at particular risk. They may feel cut off
from the host culture while at the same time feeling
distant from their parents.
Cultural Identification and Identity
• Both Instrumental culture and Expressive culture
together form a person’s sense of self
• Parents of immigrants, however, encourage their
children to adapt to the new culture in an instrumental
way, but strongly discourage them from doing so in an
expressive way
• How may this lead to intergenerational conflict?
• How may this lead the adolescent to experience difficulty with
identity formation?
Acculturation & Mental Health
• Both high and low levels of acculturation may produce
undesirable results
• More acculturated Latinos display:
– Higher levels of alcohol use
– Less consumption of balanced, healthy meals
– More consumption of marijuana, cocaine or both
• Low acculturation levels are associated with:
– Depression
– Social withdrawal
– Familial isolation, despair
– Hostility
– Anxiety
• Low acculturated individuals may feel cut off from the host culture
Acculturation & Mental Health (cont’d)
• Immigrant Latino adolescents with high investment in
Latino culture and low investment in non-Latino
culture (e.g., “separation”) appear to experience
more internalizing problems
• Low acculturation = depression and anxiety
Ethnic identity
• Greig (2003) highlights the existence of research
demonstrating the protective nature of positive ethnic identity
• Current research also links self-esteem with ethnic identity.
Identity Achievement
• Bicultural Competency
• Dimensions:
– Knowledge of cultural beliefs and values, positive attitudes toward both
majority and minority groups, a sense of efficacy in both cultures,
communication ability, role repertoire, and a sense of being grounded
• An individual must possess competency in these areas in
order to manage the process of living in two cultures
• Children need to learn how to renegotiate different identities
in their new cultural setting
EFFECTIVE TREATMENT
FOR LATINO IMMIGRANT
ADOLESCENTS
Treatment Considerations
• Bilingual/Bicultural Therapists
• Many Latinos prefer therapy to be brief, direct, and
problem-focused (Sue & Sue, 1990)
• A longer alliance building stage may be beneficial
• Transparency about the intention of the meetings
and explanation of procedures
• Family context
Treatment Considerations (cont’d)
• Actively involve adolescents and family members in
the therapeutic process
• Link youth and families to natural resources within
community
• Strength-based models that emphasize mental
wellness and resiliency
Treatment Considerations (cont’d)
• Assess acculturation status
• Assess relevant cultural factors
• Be aware of the impact of the sociopolitical
dimensions or the contextual stressors
• Interventions that are contextual in nature, addressing
not only an adolescent’s individual factors
Treatment Considerations (cont’d)
• Development of job skills as a motive to
participate in programs
• Interventions need to be focused on the first few
years that immigrant youths arrive in the United
States
• Expand use of alternative medicine and nonWestern approaches
In treatment of Families…
• Stress may be exacerbated
• Respect for parental beliefs is key
• Enable parents to experience a sense of control
over pace of acculturation of their children
Specific Treatment Modalities
• CBT interventions
• Ethnotherapy
• Structural Family Therapy
• Brief Strategic Family Therapy
• Culturally Informed and Flexible Family-Based
Treatment for Adolescents
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Traumatic Stress
• Bicultural Effectiveness Training (BET)
IMMIGRATION FAMILY ASSESSMENT GUIDE
1. Pre-immigration assessment issues
A. Assess: Family Life Cycle Developmental Stage
B. Assess: Pre-immigration Family Norms: (Homeostasis/Hierarchy/Boundaries)
C. The extent of disruption or trauma caused by pre-immigration war, persecution or genocide
Pre-immigration expectations/reactions to immigrant
A. Assess: The motivations/reasons for immigration
B. Assess: The ambivalences surrounding immigration
C. Assess: How the family functionally/emotionally prepared for the transition.
2. Psychological impact of immigration period
A. Assess: Family's strengths/resiliency
B. Assess: Level of Separation/Loss/Conflict
C. Assess: Acute Anxiety/Depression/Adjustment Reaction Disorder/PTSD
3. The post-immigration clinical challenges
A. Assess: Family's strengths (Motivation/capacity/opportunity)
B. Assess: Family's coping and adaptation strengths
C. Assess: Psychological challenges of loss and adaptation
D. Assess: Family's post-immigration structure and patterns
(Homeostasis/Hierarchy/Boundaries)
E. Assess: Family's unique emotional needs
F. Assess: The rates of acculturative stress and acculturative dissonance in each family
member
Beckerman & Corbett, 2008
IMMIGRATION FAMILY INTERVENTION
GUIDE
1. Engage (empathically join) with each family member and with the
family system
2. Provide opportunity for ventilation of the emotional experiences
around immigration feelings of loss and trauma)
A. Identify emotional reactions to the immigration experience
B. Foster alliances and empathic responses between family
members about their immigration experiences
3. Identity and reflect on the adaptive family patterns (Homeostasis,
Hierarchy, Boundaries, Feedback Loops)
4. Identify and reflect maladaptive family patterns (Homeostasis,
Hierarchy, Boundaries, and Negative Feedback loops)
5. Identify alternative ways of interacting that are more adaptive to
family (communication tools, behavioral adjustments)
6. Foster the consolidation of new, more adaptive communication and
behavioral patterns.
Beckerman & Corbett, 2008
New Jersey Mental Health Institute: Changing
Minds, Advancing Mental Health for
Hispanics’
• The primary goal of Changing Minds, Advancing
Mental Health for Hispanics is:
– To understand the belief systems, attitudes and
barriers facing the at-risk Hispanic population in
need of mental health services and to implement
effective strategies to address the identified
barriers
• http://www.lsnjlaw.org/english/governmentaid/resources/s
panishresources/
– Resources for Spanish-Speaking People in NJ
New Jersey Immigrant Youth Project
• School-based mental health services, promoting
not only improved educational outcomes, but also
healthier youth self-images, better family
relationships, and stronger bicultural identity.
– The Project will design targeted interventions that will:
• Facilitate the adaptation of immigrant children
• Utilize resources in a systemic, preventive manner
• Generate relevant data for future policy evaluation and
reform.
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