Edith Cowan University
Research Online
Theses: Doctorates and Masters
2000
Attitudes Towards Female Sports Stars As
Endorsers
Kevin R. James
Edith Cowan University
Recommended Citation
James, K. R. (2000). Attitudes Towards Female Sports Stars As Endorsers. Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1519
This Thesis is posted at Research Online.
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Theses
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Attitudes towards
Female Sports Stars as
Endorsers
Presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Degree of Master of Business (Marketing), Edith Cowan
University.
EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
By Kevin Richard James
(BEe.)
Student Number 0968507
Faculty of Business and Public Management
June 2000
1
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2
Attitudes T awards Female
Sports Stars as Endorsers
A-Pstrut
Successful and popular sports people have often been utilised as celebrity endorsers to
encourage consumers to purchase goods and services. While male sports stars have a
well-documented history as product endorsers, their female counterparts have been
infrequently used, rarely studied and occasionally mismanaged.
Using the dimensions that influence the credibility of a celebrity endorser, this study
specifically examines consumer attitudes towards female sports stars as endorsers.
Respondents intention to purchase was measured for three different products. As well, the
attitude towards perceived attractive and non-attractive female sports stars was also
explored. A three stage design, comprising of focus groups, specific target group surveys
and a final large sample survey of university students was employed to capture public
attitudes. T-tests and analysis of variance were used in the data analysis.
The differing attitudes in regards to attractiveness was the highlight of the study. While
gender affected some attitudes and the perceived attractiveness of the sports star
produced some significant results, the findings suggested that expertise was a much more
important factor to induce consumers to purchase products.
3
J)e.c.tA,rA,tiun
I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material
previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any institution of higher education; and
that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text.
nate:
Signed:
4
c;n(o
1
Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
Abstract ................................................................................................. 2
Declaration
Acknowledgements
Introduction .............................................................................. ·4
1.1
Background to the Study ............................................................ 9
1.1.1 - Source Credibility
1.1.2 -Women in Sport
1.1.3 - Women, Beauty & Sport
1.2
Significance of the Study ........................................................... 12
1.3
Purpose of the Study ......................... :........................................ 14
1.4
Research Questions ................................................................... 15
Literature Review ................................................................................. 16
2.1
A Brief History of Women in Sport .................................... 16
2.1.1 Attitudes Towards Women in Sport
2.2
Using Sports Stars as Product Endorsers .......................... 19
2.2.1 Credible Source
2.2.2 Source Credibility vs. Source Attractive Models
2.2.3 The Match Up Hypothesis
2.2.4 Ohanian's Model
2.2.4.1 Trustworthiness
2.2.4.2 Expertise
2.2.4.3 Attractiveness
2.3
Female Sports Stars and Attractiveness ............................ 25
2.4
Conclusion ..................................................................... 26
Methodology .......................................................................... 28
3.1
Sample .......................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Use of a student sample
3.1.2 Restrictions on residency
3.2
Stage One - Gathering Female Sports Stars ....................... 30
3.3
Stage Two- Examining Attractiveness and Awareness ........ 31
3.4
Stage Three - Focus Groups - Selecting Products ............... 33
5
~
-------------
3.5
4.0
Stage Four- Quantitative Study ........................................ 34
3.5.1 Research Implement
3.5.2 Sampling and Data
3.5.3 Sample Demographics
3.5.4 Data Analysis
3.5.5 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3.5.6 Independent Sample T-tests
Findings ................................................................................. 39
4.1
Attitudes toward each sports star across the three product
types ............................................................................. 39
4.1.1 Steffi G raf
4.1.2 Anna Kournikova
4.1.3 Melinda Gainsford Taylor
4.1.4 Cathy Freeman
4.1.5 Martina Navratilova
4.1.6 Fraser
4.2
Attitudes toward different products across the
six sports stars ............................................................... 51
4.2.2 Sports Plus Sports Drinks
4.2.1.1
'Attractive' vs. 'Neutral'
4.2.1.2 'Attractive' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.1.3 'Neutral' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.2 Holden Cars
4.2.2.1
'Attractive' vs. 'Neutral'
4.2.2.2 'Attractive' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.2.3 'Neutral' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.3 Capilano Honey
4.2.3.1
'Attractive' vs. 'Neutral'
4.2.3.2 'Attractive' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.3.3 'Neutral' vs. 'Un-Attractive'
4.2.4 Conclusion
5.0
4.3
Intention to Purchase ..................................................... 61
4.4
Gender Attitudes ............................................................. 63
4.4.1 Sports Drinks
4.4.2 Cars
4.4.3 Honey
Discussion and Conclusion ...................................................... 68
5.1
6
Summary of Findings ...................................................... 68
5.1.1 Products & Sports Stars
5.1.2 Intention to Purchase
5.1.3 Gender Attitudes
5.2
Contribution to Marketing ................................................ 74
5.3
Limitations ..................................................................... 75
5.4
Further Research ............................................................ 76
6.0
References .............................................................................. 77
7.0
Appendices
7.1
7.2
7.3
Market Research Survey
List of Female Sports Stars
Tables
7
chapter One
Introduction
The development of organised sport as an integral part of Western culture
has evolved only over the last two centuries. Traditionally, most sports have
been designed for men and played by men (Messner 1992). However in the
last century, women have begun entering the sporting arena (Hargreaves
1990b, Humberstone 1990) something that occurred concurrently to women
entering occupations previously the domain of men (De Vries-Evans 1987;
Guttman 1991). Several conditions accelerated the growth of women's
participation in sport. Those most notable where the encouragement of
education for girls (Guttman 1991 ), changing medical attitudes (Eitzen &
Sage 1990; Ralston 1997) and the increasing career alternatives for women
(Hargreaves 1990b).
During the 1950's and 60's, the USA experienced a post-war sports boom
that spread to other nations and involved all social classes (Hargreaves
1990b). Sport gathered wide acceptance, attracted more spectators and
physical activities came to be highly regarded in education (Davies 1994,
Guttman 1991). The sports industry boomed and those at the top of their
sport began to gain national recognition and even international fame (Davies
1994). International travel and the electronic media opened up sporting
events to the world and companies began to find that not only could they tie
their names to big sporting events (Rajaretnam 1994) but it boosted profits
(Macnow 1989) and provided positive publicity when they tied their names
to sporting celebrities (McCracken 1988; Ryssel & Starnminger 1988;
Simpson 1994; Tripp, Jensen, and Carlson; 1994; Walker & Langmeyer
1992).
Throughout the 20th and into the 21st Century celebrity endorsers have been
a popular and successful way of promoting messages in advertising (Bradley
1996, Nikas 2000). Given the immense public interest in sport (Davies
8
1994), it was unsurprising to fmd that athletes became commonly used
(Truner et al 1995).
Success and the money that was subsequently earnt, demanded that attention
and research be undertaken to ensure that the sponsorship of sports stars particularly if they were product endorsers - was being utilised effectively.
(McDonald 1991, Marshall & Cook 1992; Miles 1990) Boyd (1998) noted
that few studies examined the effectiveness of sports star endorsers, which
he concluded was to the detriment of the industry itself, an opinion backed
by Sandra Greer, Head of Sponsorship Research for Ipsos-RSL. ·
"Surprisingly little research is done on fit and image before a sponsorship is
undertaken," (pp. 21, Tyler 1999).
The purpose of this present study is to focus on female sports stars and their
role as endorsers. The study utilises existing models used to measure the
source characteristics that influence intention to purchase (Ohanian 1991),
and examines respondents attitudes toward 'attractive' and 'un-attractive'
female sports stars.
9
This section covers the background of the study. It outlines the source credibility models
that are used in the research and an overview of women in sport.
Research that focused on the use of celebrity endorsers as a credible source - the more
credible a source of information, the more persuasive it is towards the target market - for
the imparting of information has concluded that among other things, celebrities are able
to make advertisements believable (Kamins et al 1989). Other research concluded that
credible celebrities aided in the recognition of brand names (Petty, Cacioppo & Schuman
1983), enhanced message recall (Friedman & Friedman 1979) and created a positive
attitude towards the brand (Kamins et al., 1989).
In order to better evaluate the effectiveness of endorsers, a number of research models
were developed. These models were divided into two groups, one that focused on the
credibility of the source (McCrocksey 1966; Bowers & Phillips 1967; Whitehead 1968;
Berlo, Lemert & Metz 1969; Applbaum & Anatol 1972; Simpson & Kahle 1980-81) and
a second group that focused on the attractiveness of the source (DeSarbo & Harshman
1985; Wynn 1987). The most recent model, developed by Ohanian (1990), measured
source credibility by three dimensions; expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness.
Ohanian's model was the first to comprehensively connect the source-credibility and
source-attractiveness models together (Ohanian 1991).
t.t..z Wutnen in 5rurt
Up until the 1970's there had been few publicly acclaimed female sports stars (Condon
1991). Suzanne Lenglen, Peggy Fleming and Billie Jean King were three who had
achieved fame and recognition prior to this time and provided their successors with
tangible career opportunities. Lenglen parlayed her skill as a major attraction into the first
real professional sports career for a woman (Englemann 1998; King 1988), while
Fleming became the first female sport star to earn a substantial fortune from her sport
and the endorsing of products (Condon 1991; Guttman 1991). King was a cornerstone in
10
the creation of the first professional sporting tour for women. The Women's Tennis
Association was the first sporting body to prove that the mass market would pay to watch
women play sport in a continuous international circuit (Bellamy 1989; Evans 1988).
By the 1980's and 90's, women's involvement in sport was generally accepted by
society. More women played sport (ABS 1995), more people watched women play sport
(ABS 1995), and more female athletes became well known and respected than had done
so previously (Birrell & Cole 1994). Yet, female sports stars have not become as
prominent as male sports stars as endorsers of consumer products. In 1995 for instance, in
52 issues of Sports Illustrated, only three ads featured a female sports star. Miles (1990)
suggested that this was partially due to the fact that, prior to the last two decades, most
decisions in regards to sponsorship had been made by men, based on information collated
by men. Miles suggested that the absence of clearly justified data and investigative
research might mean that women's attitudes towards sport and sports stars were indeed
different from men's.
With social acceptance for women in sport came the ability to attract more sponsors.
Swimmers, tennis players, ice skaters, golfers, gymnasts and others became sources for
companies to reach the increasing number of female participants in sport (Billard 1998;
Daum 1998; Lane 1994; Petkovski 1991; R.E 1994, Ryan 1995). However, female sports
stars, while they have garnered generous attention by corporations, have often been
unable to match their male counterparts. Male sports stars received higher salaries for
endorsements and endorse more products (Lane & McHugh 1995). In addition, male
sports stars have been seen as attractive and credible to male consumers, often more than
other celebrities (Boyd 1998).
Research has hypothesised however, that female endorsers are becoming more prominent
(Goldman 1995), traditional male sporting celebrities are no longer attracting positive
audience response (Hess 1999; Horovitz 1999) and suggested that female consumers
might react better to sports sponsorship then men do (McDaniel 1999), providing the
opportunity to use female sports stars in endorsements. A case to point is ice-skating, the
second-highest rating sport on US TV with a predominately female audience. (Billard
1998, Ryan 1994). Recent surveys have also found that the seven most popular sports at
the Olympics have a prominent female participation (MacPherson 1998) and that as a
11
result of numerous scandals involving male sports stars, female sports stars were viewed
as more likely to influence consumers in purchase decisions (Stead 1998). Thus the
possibility for female sports stars as credible and popular endorsers is real.
Research into this area has been mostly in the commercial domain, unavailable publicly
and task-orientated, because of the interest held by marketing research firms and
advertising agencies in their client's privacy. There
ar~
suggestions that female sports
stars be used for companies aiming their products towards female consumers, with the
view that women dominate the attendance's at women's sports (ABS 1995; Bednarksi
1993; Gallagher 1997; Jensen 1995; Shani et al. 1992; Steinauer 1997). In contrast, the
majority of sports fans are male (ABS 1995), so female sports stars could be used to
attract the attention of male consumers. This may involve female sports stars being used
to promote products with images of sexual beauty - a stereotypical role for a female
endorser (Evans 1988; Hahn 1989, Ryan 1995).
Marketing female sports and sport stars to men by using typical 'feminine' beauty is
controversial. Research suggests that beautiful endorsers only work with beauty products
(Maddux & Rogers 1980; Kamins 1990). Despite these findings, companies and
advertising agencies may still insist that a marketable female sports star must be beautiful
and talented (Carbon 1998; Feinstein 1991; Lefton 2000b; Thompson 1990). Endorsing
firms do have some grounds for this belief. The attractiveness of endorsers has been
noted to improve the recall of(Joseph 1982; Kahle & Homer 1985), and attitudes towards
(Baker & Churchill 1977), products.
The absence of any follow-up research and Ohanian's own written conclusions (e.g.
regardless of gender, respondents had similar perceptions of what attractiveness was),
would preclude researchers from assuming that there are differences in regard to gender.
However a recent study examining gender attitudes across endorsing athletes found
different attitudes towards the attractiveness and trustworthiness of the athletes depending
on the gender of the respondent (Boyd 1998), suggesting that this issue is worthy of
examination.
12
The unique position which female athletes fmd themselves (Lenskyj 1986), balancing
between 'assumed' masculine and feminine behaviour (Buchwald et al, 1993; Burke
1996) - something not examined by Ohanian - suggests to this researcher that there is a
need to closely monitor the product types that the female sports stars endorse.
From a marketing perspective, it is important to understand how consumers view female
sports stars as product endorsers in the market place. This is important for organisations
seeking to market their products by using female sports stars as well as organisations
devoted to marketing female sports and those who produce sporting goods used by
female athletes.
Celebrity product endorsers are featured in between 10 and 20% of all commercials
(Bradley 1996; Turner et. al 1995) on American televisions and celebrity endorsers are
often seen as being more credible then non-famous endorsers when used in advertising
(Atkins & Block 1983). Credible endorsers are " ... found to produce more positive
attitude changes toward the position advocated and to induce more behavioural
changes ... " (pp. 46, Ohanian 1991) than less credible sources do (Craig & McCann 1978;
Woodside & Davenport 1974).
Agrawal and Kamakura (1995), and Mathur, Mathur & Rangan (1997) assessed the
impact of celebrity endorsement contracts on expected profitability of a firm by using
event methodology. Both studies concluded that the announcement of a celebrity
endorsement contract (such as Michael Jordan and Nike (Lane & McHugh 1995)) is used
as information by market analysts to evaluate the potential profitability of endorsement
expenditures, thereby affecting the firm's expected return. They found that, on average,
the impact of these announcements on stock returns is positive, and suggested that
celebrity endorsement contracts are generally viewed as a worthwhile investment in
advertising.
A number of papers concluded that firms involved in sponsoring either sports or sports
people often did not go to great lengths to evaluate their arrangements (Abratt & Grobler
1989; Abratt & Pitt 1987; Armstrong 1988, McDonald 1991). Mickiak & Shanklin
13
( 1994) concluded after interviewing a large number of advertising agencies and
corporations that most do· not undertake adequate research to prepare themselves for
celebrity endorsers. While the respondents could analyse how to effectively choose an
endorser, most admitted they didn't always follow this method. The writers also
mentioned that an Ogilvy & Mather study found that only one in five sponsors was happy
with the end result of a celebrity endorser. Therefore, this study will assist in
understanding the attitudes of consumers towards female sports stars as product
endorsers.
14
This study is a qualitative and quantitative investigation aimed at achieving an
understanding of attitudes in the evaluation of female sports stars used in the
endorsement of products. The evaluation consists of the respondent rating each sports
star's perceived level of expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness. In addition,
respondents 'intention to purchase' both prior to and after exposure to the sports stars
endorsement was measured. The model used was developed by Ohanian (1990) and then
tested to measure 'intention to purchase' (Ohanian 1991). General demographic and
lifestyle characteristics are examined.
15
1. Using the Ohanian model of 1991 to measure the perception of female sports stars,
how are they seen when endorsing products?
2. What is the relationship between intention to purchase and the perceived image of
female sports stars when endorsing the brands advertised?
3. Do male and female respondents evaluate female sports stars endorsers differently?
16
chapter Two
Literature Review
As a background to understanding the female sports market and the issues facing female
sports stars, one has to understand the development of women in sport. The dearth of
research into consumer attitudes towards female sports stars as product endorsers means
that some fundamental issues are un-discussed. To better understand how female sports
stars can be effective as product endorsers, this literature review· briefly discusses the
history of women in sport and the changing attitudes toward women in sport. The review
will also include relevant research into product endorsers.
Historically, sport was thought to be the preserve of males in society (Deford 1996),
women were barred from even watching the Ancient Olympics (Deford 1996) though
records of female Olympics actually pre-dated the male version (Creedon
1994b).~
not until
emerg~~Las a__ S_Qc_ially acceptable
--- -- the l~t~_ 19th century that women's sport
--- .~ty (Birrell & Cole 1994), with the bicycle leading to the first dramatic increase in
'
-
--
-
-
-
---
-
~·
~~
female participation (Burton-Nelson 1996). In addition, the increasing number of women
in sport were due to the improvement in education for girls in segregated schools
(Guttman 1991), changing beliefs regarding health (Eitzen & Sage 1989) and the
increased wealth - and subsequently leisure time - of the middle classes in England and
America (Ralston 1997).
Social acceptance of women in sport has, in the past, been couched in specific terms.
"The sports that women play are as important as the general attitudes towards them,"
suggested Eleanor Metheny ( 1972). Her essay posed that socially accepted female sports
were individual pursuits such as swimming, tennis and gymnastics, all with some degree
of aesthetic qualities. A later study found no reason to disagree with Metheny's views,
fmding sports, when assessed by both men and women, were often sex-typed as
17
L
masculine (Colley 1987). A similar study concluded that sport did not carry high social
status for girls and that the attitude towards most sports being seen as masculine remained
(Riemer & Feltz 1995). Even a study of elite athletes suggested that female sports
participants are still viewed as participating in a masculine activity (Kolnes 1994}
Sporting activities that support a patriarchal view of women were generally the most
accepted by society pre-1970's (Thompson 1992). Accordingly, women were able to
participate in individual sports but only those in which athletes did not physically interact
with other females (Metheny 1972). Team sports, which were felt to be more directly
competitive (i.e. basketball) were viewed to be less acceptable for female participation
(Birrell & Cole 1994).
The social upheaval in the 1970's allowed the range of sports available for women to
expand to include team sports (Burton Nelson 1994). However sports with the 'aesthetic'
qualities remained the more acceptable and consequently the more publicised. Even today
Thompson (1990) suggests, female sports stars most often result from sports with the
'aesthetic qualities' such as tennis, swimming and ice skating.
1,~},
The growth of women's sport has been phenomenal, but it would be re'iniss to suggest
that equality had been achieved (Birrell & Cole 1994). Women still face the
proble~ of a
......________.~---
society not truly being built around encouraging them to play sport (Marketing
-------------.
.
-- ------ --
-
--
Diagnostie&.J9]f9~-Thomp~onJ990).-Examples
supporting this view include; the lack of
child minding facilities available at sporting venues and studies suggesting that women
have less leisure tim~ and--eGenomic power than men, therefore less time-to play sport
'--
.
--:;___
~/-----
-----
-- --------------
(Department of Tourism, Sport and RaCirig-1993; Sale 1989; Shaw 1991). 1
In modem times however, the increasing financial strength of women, their positive
reaction towards sports (Kane 1999) and sportswomen as role models (Millman 1997),
has opened legitimate opportunities for female sports stars to endorse products (Cohen
1999). This has been both assisted by, and damaged by a demand for female sports stars
to be personality based- in marketing terms often translated as 'sexy' -rather than being
purely athletically based (Hyman 1999). Prior to the last decade, women's sport carried
such a stigma that an athlete often found herself defending her femininity (Lichtenstein
1988).
18
This construction of a 'non-existent femininity in sport' came from two sources. The first
source was physical education in schools and attitude education in family environments
and school classrooms (Sizrom 1988). From research gathered in the 70's to that gathered
in the mid 1980's, it suggested that attitudes had not developed to accept females in a
sporting arena (Lenskyj 1986, Talbolt, Scraton & Oliver 1986). Schools, despite a
majority of female teachers, present an environment that" ... children learn that boys are
aggressive and physically capable, while girls are submissive and passive," (Heaven &
Rowe 1990; Sadker & Sadker 1985; Selby & Lewko 1976).
The disproportionate amount of media coverage given to men's sports versus women's is
a second reason for this construction of 'non-existent femininity in sport,' (Pringle &
Gordon 1995). Women's sports are often viewed as a 'poor relative' of the men's game
(Duncan, Messner et al. 1994; Halbert & Latimer 1994) and receive gender-biased
coverage, when they received coverage' at all, in the Australian media (Duncan &
Hasbrook 1988). The highest percentage of media coverage recorded for women's sports
in Australia was 4.5% of total sports, at a time when 44.6% of all participating athletes
were female and 40% of all Olympic gold medals were won by women, even though they
competed in only 25% of the total number of Olympic events (Phillips 1996; Pringle &
Gordon 1995).
Messner (1992) argues strongly against the belief that sport is " ... a natural realm within
which some essence of masculinity unfolds. Rather, sport is a social institution that, in its
dominant forms, was created by and for men." Those dominant forms include the
encouragement of sports (the 'big' sports such as football) in which men's physical
characteristics - higher levels of testosterone, height and higher percentage of body
muscle - are athletically superior, to the detriment of other sports.
Today, exercise is claimed less as a sole male prerogative. Statistics indicate that
Australian women live healthier lives then Australian men (Schiavello 1995) and aided
by high-earning and celebrity-like female sports stars (Smith 1999), women find that
physical activity opens opportunities and shatters myths. Women have found that sports
allow them to adopt masculine attitudes without compromising their feminine selves
19
L
(Heaven & Rowe 1990). Women have found that they have become a vital part of the
sports market and an important target audience (Kane 1999).
Sports stars have a long history as celebrity endorsers, their appearance in western society
matching the growth of mass-market advertising in the 1920's (Davies 1994).
The growth of advertising and marketing after the Second World War was a major
contributing factor in the increased use of celebrities to influence consumers (Atkins &
Block 1983; Slinker 1984). In the 1970's research began to focus on the persuasion
needed with high and low involvement goods, and the influence that a credible source
such as a celebrity presenter could provide (Petty & Cacioppo 1984). A highly credible
source of information in contrast to a less credible source was found to produce more
positive attitude changes towards the position advocated by the advertiser, and to induce
more behavioural changes (Craig & McCann 1978, Woodside & Davenport, 1974).
Research was needed to understand how an endorser influenced (or did not influence) the
consumer's attitudes. The first step was to determine scales to measure the impact of
celebrities and their influence as a method of source credibility. Scales to measure the
effectiveness
of spokespersons
examined
if the
spokesperson
increased
the
persuasiveness of the message. These studies came originally from the field of speech
communication. McCroskey's (1966) dimensions of 'authoritaritiveness' and 'character'
was the first such model to attempt to define the dimensions of a credible source.
Ohanian ( 1991 ), offered the most comprehensive study of past scales to assist the
construction of her own model. The history of source credibility models is displayed on
the following table.
20
L
IA.-"bte. t.
Previous Studies (1966 - 1987)
(Adapted from Ohanian, 1991: pp.40)
Authoritaritiveness
(Expertise)
Character
Bowers and Phillips (1967)
Trustwortltiness
Competence
Whitehead (1968)
Trustworthiness
Dyn_amism
Competence
Objectivity
Berlo, Lemert & Metz_(1969_}_
Safety
Dynamism
Qualification
AppJbaum and Anatol (1972)
Trustworthiness
Objectivity
Expertness
Dynamism
Simpson and Kahle (1980-81)
Believability
Dynamism
Competence
Objectivity
DeSarbo and Harshman (1985)
Expertness
Likeability
Attractiveness
Trustworthiness
Wynn (1987)
Expertness
Dynamism
Believability
Sociability
Ohanian_119901
Expertness
Attractiveness
Trustworthiness
McCroskey (1966)
~
I
NB: The highlighted words indicate when the three dimensions cited by Ohanim1 were first mentioned.
Source credibility was defined by Ohanian (1991, pp.41) as being" ... a communicator's
positive characteristics that affect the receiver's acceptance of a message." The
assumption behind this definition is that the three dimensions measured - Expertise,
Attractiveness and Trustworthiness - cover all aspects of personality that affect the
receiver.
21
Ohanian's model was created by merging two previously distinct studies of source
effectiveness. Early models for measuring
perceived images were based solely on what
I
was labelled the 'source-credibility' m'odel. The source-credibility model (Hovland et al,
1953) concluded that two factors, expertise and trustworthiness, defined the credibility of
a communicator. The second model was labelled 'source-attractiveness'. A recent
development, the model looks at the 'familiarity', 'likeability', 'similarity' and
'attractiveness' of the source and had its origins in social psychology (McGuire 1985).
Ohanian (1990) compiled her scale by combining the source-credibility and sourceattractiveness models. Her model is similar to DeSarbo and Harshman's (1985), who
included a 'likeability' characteristic, which is merged with 'attractiveness' in Ohanian's
model. Ohanian ( 1991) purports the lack of reliability & validity checks on previous
scales and presents her model as one to use consistently to achieve validity & reliability
measures.
Both the 'source-credibility' and 'source-attractiveness' models were criticised by
McCracken (1989) and Kamins (1994) for their apparent inability to explain why some
celebrity endorsers that were credible and successful for some products but had failed for
others. Their point was that 'source' models intimated that if the source were credible
then it would be persuasive for any message. There are numerous examples that suggest
this is not the case. Jennifer Capriati drove Diadora's awareness up but was unable to do
anything for Oil of Olay (Fein 1994). Reebok dropped unsuccessful marketing
personality Shaquille O'Neal due to poor sales figures despite his large media presence
(Bhonslay 1998; The West Australian 14/6/98).
McCracken (1989 pp. 312) writes" ... the effectiveness of the endorser depends, ... upon
the meanings he or she brings to the endorsement process." The source-credibility and
source-attractiveness models do nothing to explain this transfer of meaning, believes
McCracken, instead he developed the 'Meaning Transfer Model'. Kamins (1990: pp. 5)
supports this, asserting that " ... the image of the celebrity must fit or be congruent with the
product."
22
The 'Match-Up Hypothesis' as it is called (by creating a match between the celebrity
endorser and the product such that the meaning is transferred) is important in this present
study of female sports stars. Female sports stars undertake a masculine activity by
competing in sport and asserting their right to play and win (Lenskyj 1990; Messner
1992). Gender psychology defines this as androgynous behaviour (Burke 1996; Masters
& Johnson 1982). Because so much of advertising demands the reiteration of stereotypes
(Joseph 1982, Worth 1992), ferrt,ale sports stars are often stepping outside traditional
boundaries in acknowledging their sport occupation. According to the 'Match-Up
Hypothesis' the celebrity must 'own' their image, which they pass onto the product and
then onto the consumer, demonstrated by the diagram below.
Meaning Movement and the Endorsement Process
Culture
Objects¢
Celebrity
Endorsement
Celebrity ¢
Product
Consumption
Product ¢
Consumer
Persons¢
Context ¢
Stage I
Stage 2
Stage 3
(McCracken 1989 pp. 315)
Ohanian (1991), although not directly referring to the 'Match-Up Hypothesis', did agree
in principal as her focus groups were instructed to match celebrity endorsers with
appropriate products.
Kamins (1990) took the 'Match-Up Hypothesis' a step further in examining attitudes
toward attractive celebrities. Research had indicated that physically attractive sources
influence attitude change (Kahle & Homer 1985), however Kamins suggests that beauty
would only be influential when the product was beauty related. In relation to female
sports stars, Kamins research would indicate that the attitude of 'beauty then sporting
achievement' within the sports industry, would be useful only when endorsing products
involved in the beauty and body-care industries (Thompson 1990).
23
L
When Ohanian tested her model with the 'intention to purchase' of consumers (Ohanian
1991), she found only 'expertise' could be found to have any recognised affect on an
intention to purchase. This fmding supports the 'Match-up' hypothesis. Ohanian's model
is the most conclusive that has been developed in order to measure the effectiveness of
celebrity endorsers. Her model was used as the basis for this study. The 'Match-up'
hypothesis was addressed by the research design which matching each sports star with a
range of product types. Each of the dimen~ions examined in Ohanian's ( 1991) model will
be discussed in the following paragraphs.
This study will use Ohanian's model to measure the impact of the female sports stars
perceived image.
How much confidence a listener has in a source and their level of acceptance of the
message, defines the trustworthiness of the speaker. It can not be measured alone as a
construct since past research has linked trustworthiness to such terms as, 'how liked the
celebrities are,' their 'expertise,' and the similarity between ' ... the source and the
respondent,' (Ohanian 1991 pp. 41).
Friedman and Friedman (1976) concluded that 'liked' celebrities were also trusted and as
well, their trustworthiness was linked to how similar they were to the respondent's
perceived image. In addition, McGinnies and Ward (1980) manipulated the source's
expertise and trustworthiness and measured the communicator's persuasiveness.
Indicated in their findings were the views that an 'expert' and 'trustworthy' source
proved to be the most likely to generate opinion change. If the source was trustworthy,
they were persuasive.
Lk.4...t. ]:.x!'ertise
Suggested by Ohanian (1991) to be the only influential factor, it has appeared under
different names in earlier models. McCrocksey (1966) labelled it 'authoritaritiveness' and
Whitehead (1968) called it 'competence.' Its link to 'credibility' is reinforced by research
24
confirming the positive relationship between consumers actions and the opinions of
expert sources. Khalo & Homer (1985) used a similar style to Crano (1970) when
manipulating the dimensions of expertise. Those in the sample exposed to an expert
source were more likely to agree with the advocated position than those exposed to a
"low-expertise' source.
~r
Crisci and Kassinove ( 1973) indicated that the perceived level of communicator expertise
and the strength of advice related directly to the level qf behavioural compliance.
Consumers were more likely to actually carry out their intention to purchase if they felt
that the source was an expert.
Ohanian (1991) found expertise as the only 'significant factor' explaining her
respondents intentions to purchase. A more recent study (Till & Busler 1998) suggested
that the expertise dimension is more important than physical attractiveness for matching a
brand with an appropriate endorser as undertaken with the 'Match-up' hypothesis.
J!.1..+.7 Attrutive.ne.ss
Controversially, there is no consistent view of the importance of the "attractiveness'
dimension for female sport stars or any celebrities for that matter. But this was concluded
by drawing assumptions regarding how respondents analyse attractiveness, especially in
regards to sources of their own gender. This is an area, especially when involving female
sports stars, that needs further research.
The importance that beauty carries in our society can be shown by previous research.
Joseph ( 19 82) concluded that attractive rather than un-attractive communicators were
consistently liked and projected a more positive image onto the products they were
associated with. Dion (1972) concludes that physically attractive models of both sexes
were viewed as'" ... more sensitive, interesting, kind, strong, modest, poised and outgoing
and to be of better character than individuals of lesser attractiveness." Stephens et al
(1994) concluded that '" ... attractive communicators appear to be better at persuading
others, perhaps because they are imbued with socially desirable traits."
25
There is, perhaps a need to understand the difference between gaining attention and
selling products. The past decade in Australia has seen the furore over the Golden Girls
calendar, the Australian women's soccer team posing nude, the reigning world champion
Australian netball and hockey teams discard baggy outfits for form-fitting lycra, women
volley-ballers being 'forced' into bikini's with a maximum hip width of 6cm among
many examples. All of this has been done with the agreement (albeit sometimes
reluctant) of the athletes such as volleyballer Natalie Cook who blithely remarked, "Sex
sells," (Harari 1999).
However, nudity and eroticism and beauty have been found to encourage attention but
were not found to influence recall nor product purchasing (Alexander & Judd 1986) and
attitudes towards beauty are also influenced by the age and gender of respondents
(LaTour, Pitts & Snook-Luther 1990).
In regards to female sports stars, there has been a consistent history of the importance of
attractiveness in order for them to attract sponsorship and media attention (Tugwell
1995). A number of researchers involved in examining the role of women in sport
(Burton-Nelson 1991, Hall 1988 and Messner 1992) all assert that there is a need for
female sports stars to be attractive in order to enjoy commercial success. In 1994,
Gabriela Sabatini had an almost winless year but found her way onto the Forbes 40
richest athletes list thanks to $4 million in endorsements (Lane 1994), while in 1999
Anna Koumikova - who was ranked outside the top ten and without a tournament win eamt $10 million in endorsements from companies as diverse as Adidas, Yonex, Berlei
(sports bra), Namco (video game) and Charles Schwab (financial services) (Smith 1999).
The fascination with physical attractiveness by companies who use female sport stars as
communicators for their products, is not surprising. The literature, however reveals an
interesting dilemma. Research has suggested that physically attractive models of both
sexes were viewed as more sensitive, interesting, kind and so on (Dion 1972, Stephens et
al 1994). Taking this a step further, Baker & Churchill (1977) examined what impact
these physically attractive models had on the evaluations of advertisements. The results
26
suggested that while the physital attractive models did lead to increased attentio~ they
were ineffective in getting the ads message any more accepted by the audience. Maddux
& Rogers (1980) concluded similarly with a 'What is beautiful is good,' philosophy but
noted that it failed to affect persuasion during their study. Baker & Churchill ( 1977)
pondered that if the individual was a spokesperson for the product, their credibility would
be more important than their attractiveness. Do attractive people in advertisements, they
wondered, distract consumers from recalling the ad?
The questions that Baker & Churchill (1977) posed are still being answered today. And
while a growing number of researchers are suggesting that the importance of
attractiveness is less than that of expertise (Ohanian 1991, Till & Busler 1998), the
contemporary media still records the demand for 'attractive' female sport stars (Harris
1990; Tugwell 1995).
The importance of attractiveness seems most relevant in the discussion over the 'MatchUp' hypothesis. Kahle & Homer (1985) found that the manipulation of celebrity sourceattractiveness altered the attitUdes and purchase intentions of the sample. They supposed
that physical attractiveness could affect attitudes by increasing arousal, which would in
tum alter information processing (Dienstbier 1978). However the crux of this
'attractiveness,' was that these altered attitudes came with products that were directly
related to beauty and 'good looks.' Kamins (1990) would use this research to assist in the
development of his own paper, which focused specifically on the 'attractiveness' side of
the 'Match-up' hypothesis. Attractiveness is examined in this current research by
grouping the female sports stars according to the samples perception of their
attractiveness .
.Z.4 6(1nc..tusi(1n
From very humble beginnings in the late 19th century, women have moved into sport,
removing much of the attitude that sports were ' ... invented solely for men' (Messner
1992). As professional sportspeople, women have achieved unforeseen heights. As
celebrity endorsers, female sports stars have gained significance in the market place with
American female soccer players now earning more than their male counterparts
27
(Williams 2000) and six women tennis players earning $2 million a year or more from
their clothing contracts alone (Smith 1999).
Much of the research to date however has centred around celebrity product endorsers.
There is a lack of research specifically exa.Il,lining female sports stars. By using Ohanian's
~I
(1991) model and addressing the 'Match-up' process highlighted by Kamins (1990) and
Kahle & Homer (1985), this study aims to further assist in understanding perceptions
toward female sports stars as product endorsers. The following chapter outlines the
methodology used in the study.
28
chapter Three
Methodolog_y
P.O Intr11~-uc.tim
The methodology for this study combines the use of qualitative and quantitative data
collection methods.
The sample for this study was a convenience sample of university students from Edith
Cowan University; Joondalup, Mt- Lawley and Churchlands Campuses; Curtin
University; The University of Western Australia and South Metropolitan College of
TAFE, Fremantle Campus. No restrictions were placed on the year or course of study a
student was undertaking.
Traditionally, student samples stem from convemence and cost constraint reasons
(Morgan 1979, Cunningham et al 1974). The use of a student sample in this present
research was founded on cost constraints and the inability to reach a sufficiently large
number of consumers in a short period of time.
The practice of using student samples has been questioned with regard to its external
validity (Morgan 1979; Cunningham et al 1974). Research and experiments testing the
ability of students to function as effective surrogates have had mixed results (Morgan
1979; Vinson 1974; Enis, Cox & Stafford 1972). However these studies have centered
around comparisons with businessmen (Morgan 1979) and housewives (Cunningham et
al 1974). In certain cases a student sample may be appropriate if the context is taken into
consideration (Enis, Cox & Stafford 1972; Kherea & Benson 1970). The content of this
study allows for students to be a valid sample frame.
29
·-
l
This research has endeavored to ensure that the student sample can be properly used in
the context provided. By using the focus groups of university aged respondents, products
where chosen that university students would see as likely purchase items. In addition, it
was felt that it was not unlikely that students of either gender would be a target market for
a company using female sports stars in their advertising campaigns.
There is now substantial evidence that companies view the student market as attractive
and viable (Burns 1996; Mohr 1995) and also as market innovators (Nikas 1999). This
adds further strength towards the usage of a student sample, provided this is noted for
future study.
? .1.-Z [(e.strictitln if [<.e.sit{e-nct;
A check question was inserted into the surveys to ensure that only students who had been
a resident in Australia for two years answered the survey. Because most universities in
Australia attract a strong contingent of overseas students it was felt that students who had
on1y recently arrived in Australia may have different views - due to a lack of interaction
with the products advertised or the sportswomen endorsing them - and this may distort
the data.
30
The first stage involved determining a list of female sports stars. Based on methodology
used by Ohanian (1991) students were required to name as many "female sports stars" as
they could within a specified time limit.
They were informed that there was no
restrictions placed on what female sports stars they could list. They could be historical,
participating in any sports, Australian or international sports women.
Sports science students were asked to participate under the belief that they would be
likely to produce a more comprehensive list. 72 students participated in the exercise.
When the data was collated, 164 names had been suggested. These were ranked in order
from the most frequently mentioned to the least. At the top of the list was Cathy Freeman
who was mentioned 57 times out of the 72 respondents. Of those, 42 sports stars were
mentioned five times or more and these were taken for further examination. (See
Appendix 2).
31
In order to further define the female sports stars, we needed to ascertain from the target
market which female sports stars they rated as attractive and those they did not rate as
attractive. A further sample of 100 students - 50 male and 50 female - were required to
rate the attractiveness and their awareness of 21 of the 42 female sports stars chosen.
Female sports stars who recorded less than 50% recognition from the sample or were
unable to evaluate their attractiveness, were discarded since any examination of the data
received concerned attractiveness. The list was reduced to 16, as indicated below in
Table 3.
Female Sports Star
Steffi Graf
Cathy Freeman
Martina Navratilova
Monica Seles
Sam Reily
Hayley Lewis
Lisa Curry Kenny
Dawn Fraser
Susie 0 'Neil
Martina Hingis
Jane Flemming
Susie Maroney
Anna Kournikova
Arantxa Sanchez-Vicario
Melinda Gainsford-Taylor
Jane Torvill
Percentage
(%)of
Awareness
96.0
88.9
86.7
84.4
84.0
82.0
80.0
75.6
75.6
75.6
73.3
70.0
68.0
60.0
60.0
56.0
Attractiveness or unattractiveness was a definition left up to each respondent. There were
no directions or indications as to what classified the categories. Each respondent made
the choice on the basis of their own cultural and social conditioning.
32
The respondents views on attractiveness were then examined by using t-tests to see if the
results proved to be significant with a a < 0.05. Those that were rated significantly
attractive or unattractive were taken out. As a control group, athletes that produced
results with a high a - the sample rated them very equally across the continuum of
unattractiveness to attractiveness - were also extracted.
Due to sample size requirements and time constraints it was determined to limit the
number of sports stars to two attractive, two neutral and two unattractive. Similar studies
had also chosen such numbers of celebrities. In Ohanian (1991), two male and two male
celebrities and with Boyd (1998), two male and two female athletes.
Attractive
Steffi Graf
Anna Kournikova
Neutral
Cathy Freeman
Melinda Gainsford-Taylor
Unattractive
Martina Navratilova
Dawn Fraser
From this point onwards, these six female athletes will be referred to as "Female Sports
Stars."
33
Focus groups were presented with magazine adverts featuring female sports stars and
asked to chose a product to which they felt a sports star was highly related to, one in
which there was a low relationship between the endorser and the product and one in
which they felt that there was neither a strong relationship, nor a weak relationship.
While Ohanian ( 1991) had focus groups directly match the endorsers to the highly related
products, Kamins (1990) created a matrix, by asking respondents to chose attractive and
non-attractive celebrities and also to find products both highly related and lowly related
to attractiveness. This research follows a similar pattern.
For the product that sports stars had the strongest relationship with, the focus group chose
a sports drink. For a product with a weak relationship to the sports stars, the focus group
chose a car. The neutral product chosen was honey. The initial choice was milk, a choice
also made by previous studies (Boyd 1998) but the focus group felt that honey
represented a similar market position as milk.
34
The table below shows the 3 x 6 matrix which represents the 18 combinations. Six
separate ·surveys were conducted. Each survey featured one non-attractive, one neutral
and one attractive sports star with each of them endorsing a different product.
r~'J,te 4High Related
Sports Star
Martina Navratilova
Dawn Fraser
Cath_y Freeman
Melinda Gainsford
Steffi Graf
Anna Kournikova
Sports Plus
Non-Attractive
¢
Low Related
Holden Cars
Neutral
¢
Neutral
Capitano Honey
Attractive
A quantitative data collection method was constructed. The surveys were conducted
during class time at universities and technical colleges and were handed to the students
who completed and returned them as they left the class. Students were informed that they
survey was totally voluntary and confidential.
?.J".t f{e.se~rc.k Itn-rtefft,t.nt
The first section of the questionnaire asked respondents if they were residents for a year
or more in Australia - if they answered no, then the questionnaire was terminated - and
then secondly asking them the likelihood they would purchase the three particular brands
the next time they purchased a product of that nature.
The major part of the questionnaire came from Ohanian's (1991) examination of
Attractiveness, Trustworthiness and Expertise. Consistent with previous attitude research
(Churchill1991) the Likert method of summated ratings was used. Each respondent was
presented with three different adverts, each advert featuring a sports star and a product
and no respondent getting more than one product or sports star of the same type.
Respondents were asked to measure the sports star over a Likert scale of 1 to 5 for the 15
item source credibility scale that Ohanian (1991) and Boyd (1998) used (See table 5).
35
IA-Ple7
Unattractive
1
Not an expert
1
Not Classy
1
Unknowledgeable
1
Not sexy
1
Undependable
1
Inexperienced
1
Dishonest
1
Ugly
1
Insincere
1
Untrustworthy
1
Unqualified
1
Unreliable
1
Plain
1
Unskilled
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
2
3
4
Attractive
5
Expert
5
Classy
5
Knowledgeable
5
Sexy
5
Dependable
5
Experienced
5
Honest
5
Beautiful
5
Sincere
5
Trustworthy
5
Qualified
5
Reliable
5
Elegant
5
Skilled
5
The next section of the questionnaire measured intention to purchase. Based on a research
paper that similarly used university students as its sample (Kahle & Homer 1985), the
questions were posed, "Are you likely to consider purchasing a product of this nature in
the next six months?" and then, "How likely is it that you will purchase the brand
advertised the next time you need a product of this type?"
The final part of the survey consisted of demographic questions, including questions
inquiring about the level of sport participation and the level of interest in sport and
women's sport. They survey questionnaire is presented in Appendix 1.
36
The sampling and data collection procedures were consistent for all classes and faculties.
The respondents handed the completed survey to the presenter as they left class. ·
In total 1105 useful surveys were returned and the data entered. (See table 6 below).
37
Sample Demographics
All figures in %
Male
Female
48.7
51.3
Aged 18-20
Aged 21-26
Other
48.1
24.1
27.8
Business/Commerce
Other"'
Did not respond
39.3
39.9
20.8
Full time
Part time
89.6
10.4
Disagree (1 or 2)
Undecided
Agree (1 or 2)
10
17.4
72.6
Disagree (1 or 2)
Undecided
Agree (1 or 2)
19.8
32.4
47.8
Disagree (1 or 2)
Undecided
Agree (1 or 2)
Watch or Listen to sports
16.9
17.0
66.1
% of total respondents """ who
AFL Football
Tennis
Swimming
59.4
58.8
47
>once a week
2-3 times a week
3<aweek
24
51
25
Personal enjoyment
Club level
State or National
58.7
30.8
Gender
Age
Course Studied
Method of Study
Interest in Sport
Interest in Women's Sport
answered positively
Interest in specific sports
Frequency of sport participation
Level of participation
***
* Others - human movement, education, science, engineering, arts, mathematics and fashion.
** This was followed by cricket on 39.1 %, soccer, basketball, athletics, golf, netball and gymnastics.
*** Club level broken into club level (20.5%) and high club level (10.3%)
**** State or National broken into state (7.1%) and national (3.3%)
38
10.4 ****
?.7.4 PA-tA- A-nA-tf.Jsis
Following editing and coding, the data was analysed with the help of the Statistical
Package for the Social Science version 9 (SPSS) (Nie et al 1975; Norusis n.d). Two
analytical techniques were used.
?.!.4·.1 A'nA-tfjsis cfVA-riA-nu (A1{l)VA->
For comparison of the means between the products endorsed by one particular sports star
and the comparison of one product being endorsed by different sports stars, analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was undertaken.
?.7.4·-k Imf.e.J'e.nt{ent 1A-Itl-J'te. t-tests
The mean responses for each of the attitudinal statements were analysed separately for
each of the 18 different combinations in the matrix. A 0.05 confidence level was used.
For example, each Sports Star compared how respondents had rated their attractiveness
across the three product categories.
If differences were determined through the ANOVA's then independent sample t-tests
were conducted to provide more accurate examination across sports stars or products. For
example, if the product was kept constant, then each of the Sports Stars were analysed
with t-tests to determine where the differences occurred.
The results of these analyses are presented in the next chapter.
39
chapter Four
Findings
4.0 Intru~uc.tiun
This chapter presents the findings of the study. The chapter is divided into sections, each
dealing with a different research question. The first analysis examines the research
question "Are there different attitudes toward perceived 'attractive' and 'non-attractive'
female sports stars as product endorsers?" In order to answer this question, a number of
steps must be taken. First, each female sports star is compared across the three product
types, sports drinks, cars and honey. Then each product is held constant and the different
athletes results are compared against each other. The 'attractive' vs. neutral, 'attractive
vs. 'non-attractive' and finally neutral vs. 'non-attractive' sports women are discussed.
We examine the respondents attitudes when the athlete remains constant.
By examining Graf' s ANOVA between the 15 attitude statements and each product type,
we can see that there were significant differences between the means of the products in
all the five categories of attractiveness (attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant) and
mixed results in regards to expertise (expert and knowledgeable) and trustworthiness
(sincere and trustworthy). (See ANOVA 1).
By examining the t-tests (see tables 46-48, Appendix) we can see that Graf's 'attractive'
scores are significantly higher when the product is honey. More importantly, no product
recorded significantly higher results when compared to honey. This suggests that
respondents felt comfortable with the compatibility of Graf' s image and honey's image.
As explored later, honey's non-aggressive image matches well with the high esteem to
which Graf as a sports person and a sports star has been viewed (Petkovski 1991 ).
40
ANOVA 1 - STEFFI GRAF
ATTRACT
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCED
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
l
SKILLED
Between Grol.lQS
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Grou_Q_s
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Grou_Qs
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between GroUQ_s
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within GrouQS
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
20.911
617.923
638.834
15.955
599.919
615.875
15.039
624.722
639.761
13.674
642.453
656.127
34.399
680.557
714.956
5.051
491.897
496.949
1.134
579.008
580.141
.284
500.818
501.102
17.132
501.899
519.032
5.284
459.819
465.102
9.540
465.944
475.484
.433
647.016
647.449
Mean
Square
10.455
1.098
5.160
544.925
550.085
23.176
601.194
624.369
1.564
491.998
493.562
F
Sig.
9.526
.000
7.978
1.066
7.487
.001
7.520
1.110
6.777
.001
6.837
1.141
5.991
.003
17.199
1.209
14.228
.000
2.526
.874
2.891
.056
.567
1.028
.551
.577
.142
.890
.160
.852
8.566
.891
9.609
.000
2.642
.817
3.235
.040
4.770
.828
5.764
.003
.217
1.149
.188
.828
2.580
.968
2.666
.070
11.588
1.068
10.852
.000
.782
.874
.895
.409
41
When examining Kournikova's ANOVA, the five 'attractiveness' factors (attractive,
classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant) as well as the five 'expertise' factors (expert,
knowledge, experience, qualified and skilled) and the trustworthy factor - sincere, were
seen to have significant differences across the products (See ANOVA 5).
What can also be seen is that four 'trustworthy' characteristics, dependable, honest,
trustworthy and reliable do not differ across products. This may suggest that
'trustworthiness' is not a notable aspect ofKournikova's image- so respondents do not
rate it higher or lower, despite a change of product. However many of the other sports
stars also did not experience a shift in 'trustworthy' characteristics either, perhaps
indicating that trustworthiness does not carry as much importance in a consumers
attitudes than 'attractiveness' and 'expertise' do.
Kournikova was seen as more 'expert' when the product was sports drinks by examining
the t-tests, and more 'attractive' when the product was cars (See tables 49-51, Appendix).
This presents an interesting scenario in light of previous literature discussing the matchup hypothesis (Kamins 1994). When the product was related to her occupation- tennisKournikova's significant results were from expertise. When the product was male~
orientated and traditionally reliant on attractive spokeswomen (Elliot, Eccles & Hodgson
1992), then the characteristics with more significant results were attractive ones.
42
ANOVA2-ANNAKOuremKOVA
ATTRACT
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCE
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
SKILLED
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
60.750
525.809
586.559
49.911
773.113
823.024
20.878
667.228
688.107
12.088
671.563
683.65l
91.710
760.197
851.906
.810
536.812
537.622
41.322
696.022
737.344
3.454
490.256
493.709
80.757
1414.57
1495.32
11.126
526.993
538.120
3.571
472.765
476.336
32.745
652.664
685.409
2.290
534.114
536.404
55.715
634.772
690.488
24.198
667.531
691.729
30.375
.854
35.585
.000
24.956
1.255
19.884
.000
10.439
1.083
9.638
.000
6.044
1.090
5.544
.004
45.855
1.234
37.157
.000
.405
.871
.465
.628
20.661
18.286
.000
1.727
.796
2.170
.115
40.378
2.296
17.583
.000
5.563
.856
6.503
.002
1.785
.767
2.326
.099
16.373
1.060
15.453
.000
1.145
.867
1.321
.268
27.858
1.030
27.034
.000
12.099
1.084
11.165
.000
1.130
43
From Freeman's ANOVA (See ANOVA 6, following page), significant results can be
seen in the 'attractive' factors (attractive, sexy, and elegant) and in the expertise
characteristics (expert, knowledge, experience and qualified). Freeman's 'attractive'
characteristics, in a similar pattern to Graf, had significantly higher mean scores when the
product was honey.
Freeman was seen as more knowledgeable when the test involved sports drinks over cars,
more expert, experienced, qualified and skilled when the test was sports drinks over
honey but interestingly, significantly more knowledgeable with honey than sports drinks
(See tables 52-55, Appendix).
Freeman also recorded no differences across the products for the five trustworthy
characteristics, indicating as for Kournikova, that opinion on her trustworthiness did not
alter over the product range.
44
ANOVA3-CATHYFREEMAN
ATTRACT
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCED
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
/
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
SKILLED
Between Grou:Q_s
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Group_s
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Grou}J_s
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Group§
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
11.631
577.018
588.649
12.677
674.440
687.118
2.660
548.676
551.336
6.601
573.621
580.222
9.568
560.634
570.201
1.332
518.815
518.828
9.362
555.352
564.715
4.097
528.718
528.759
4.554
520.803
525.356
3.314
505.652
505.685
.412
481.588
482.000
9.565
638.866
648.431
1.764
519.817
521.580
9.498
551.620
561.!"18
5.855
607.876
613.731
Mean
Square
5.816
1.083
F
Sig.
5.372
.005
6.339
1.265
5.009
.007
1.330
1.029
1.292
.276
3.300
1.076
3.067
.047
4.784
1.052
4.548
.011
6.659
.973
.007
.993
4.681
1.042
4.493
.012
2.049
.992
.021
.980
2.277
.977
2.330
.098
1.657
.949
.017
.983
.206
.904
.228
.796
4.782
1.199
3.990
.019
.882
.975
.904
.406
4.749
1.035
4.589
.011
2.928
1.140
2.567
.078
45
In examining the ANOVA for Melinda Gainsford-Taylor, the 'attractive' factors (attract,
classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant) and the expertise factors (expert and knowledgeable)
produced significant results (p:::; 0.05).
Gainsford-Taylor, mimicked Graf by sconng significantly higher means with the
'attractive' factors when endorsing honey when compared to sports drinks. When
compared to cars, Gainsford-Taylor had significantly higher means for her expertise
characteristics. It is an notable result, which suggests that the respondents viewed
Gainsford-Taylor more attractive and expert when endorsing cars and honey, rather than
a product directly related to her profession (See tables 55-57, Appendix).
46
ANOVA 4- MELINDA GAINSFORD-TAYLOR
ATTRACT
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGEABLE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCED
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
SKILLED
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
17.017
543.636
560.652
7.176
619.115
626.291
21.843
475.979
497.823
10.655
535.784
546.440
19.265
623.069
642.333
3.925
472.564
476.489
2.725
566.892
569.617
2.235
488.721
490.956
11.098
467.214
478.312
4.586
436.854
441.440
4.141
403.469
407.610
6.660
624.659
631.319
1.643
461.179
462.823
25.650
501.988
527.638
5.052
560.920
565.972
F
Sig.
8.780
.000
3.588
1.104
3.251
.039
10.922
.848
12.873
.000
5.328
.955
5.578
.004
9.632
1.111
8.673
.000
1.962
.842
2.330
.098
1.362
1.011
1.348
.261
1.117
.871
1.283
.278
5.549
.833
6.663
.001
2.293
.779
2.945
.053
2.071
.719
2.879
.057
3.330
1.113
2.991
.051
.822
.822
1.000
.369
12.825
.895
14.333
.000
2.526
1.000
2.526
.081
Mean
Square
8.508
.969
47
In the ANOVA ofNavratilova (See ANOVA 5, following page), the 'expertise' factors
(expert, experienced, qualified and skilled) and the 'attractive' factors (sexy and
beautiful) were noted to have altered significantly when the product endorsed was
changed.
When the t-tests were conducted (See tables 58-60, Appendix), Navratilova recorded
significantly higher scores for expert, experienced, qualified and skilled when the product
was sports drink. Navratilova was also seen as more sexy and beautiful when the product
was honey or cars. This second result is more revealing. Even an athlete such as
Navratilova (Petkovski 1994) is seen as significantly more 'attractive' when the product
is non-sports related. This may suggest that there are still strong social stereotypes
existing to promote the idea that a sports woman cannot be sexy or beautiful (Birrell &
Cole 1994; Messner & Sabo 1990).
48
ANOVA 5- MARTINA NAVRATll.OVA
ATTRACTIVE
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGEABLE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCED
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
SKILLED
Between Grou_l)_s
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Grol!})s
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups'
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Grou_Qs
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
2.964
466.034
468.998
15.146
739.074
754.219
.582
607.234
607.816
1.607
649.285
650.892.
15.439
441.562
457.002
1.706
541.207
542.913
16.726
637.320
654.046
2.591
473.745
476.336
5.142
460.946
466.088
.207
432.479
432.686
3.056
462.120
465.175
17.521
670.188
687.710
4.114
537.149
541.264
2.297
556.100
558.396
20.428
623.796
644.223
F
Sig.
1.787
.168
7.573
1.315
5.758
.003
.291
1.080
.269
.764
.803
1.155
.695
.499
7.720
.786
9.825
.000
.853
.965
.884
.414
8.363
1.134
7.375
.001
1.295
.843
1.537
.216
2.571
.820
3.135
.044
.104
.771
.134
.874
1.528
.822
1.858
.157
8.761
1.193
7.346
.001
2.057
.956
2.152
.117
1.148
.990
1.160
.314
10.214
1.110
9.202
.000
Mean
Square
1.482
.829
49
4-.t.t PA-Wn rr?vser
In the ANOVA of Fraser (See ANOVA 6, following page), the factors that were found to
be of significance were the 'expertise' factors (expert, knowledge, experienced and
qualified), the 'attractive' factors (clas,sy and sexy) and the trustworthy factor
(dependable). Those characteristics that proved not to be significant included trustworthy
and beautifuL
Fraser's 'expertise' characteristics were most prominent when the product endorsed was
honey. She was also seen as more 'trustworthy' and 'attractive' when the product was
honey. Fraser's image perhaps gels well with that of honey, her role as an Australian icon
to the respondents (Gordon 1997), as well as the previously mentioned supposition of
female sports stars seen as more 'attractive' when endorsing a non-sports product. Fraser
conceivably, is seen as less of a sports star and more as a motherly-iconic figure (See
tables 61-63, Appendix).
50
ANOVA 6- DAWN FRASER
ATTRACTIVE
EXPERT
CLASSY
KNOWLEDGE
SEXY
DEPENDABLE
EXPERIENCED
HONEST
BEAUTIFUL
SINCERE
TRUSTWORTHY
QUALIFIED
RELIABLE
ELEGANT
SKILLED
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
2.620
456.306
458.926
13.401
825.153
838.554
7.178
563.971
571.148
15.387
668.028
683.415
20.384
355.799
376.183
6.394
546.515
552.909
13.215
658.334
671.548
Mean
Square
1.310
.850
5.506
529.492
534.998
2.558
500.218
502.776
3.949
504.822
508.770
.899
497.027
497.926
22.832
712.768
735.600
3.802
494.798
498.600
2.620
543.306
545.926
5.820
660.217
666.037
F
Sig.
1.542
.215
6.701
1.537
4.361
.013
3.589
1.050
3.417
.034
7.694
6.185
.002
10.192
.663
15.383
.000
3.197
1.018
3.141
.044
6.607
1.226
5.390
.005
2.753
.986
2.792
.062
1.279
.932
1.373
.254
1.974
.940
2.100
.123
.450
.926
.486
.615
11.416
1.327
8.601
.000
1.901
.921
2.063
.128
1.310
1.012
1.295
.275
2.910
1.229
2.367
.095
1.244
51
--
Sports drinks are the product chosen to have the closest match-up by the focus groups to
the image of female sports stars. The ANOVA test for all sports stars resulted in
significant differences (p
=
0.05) in all 15 attributes. (See ANOVA 7, Appendix 3.) To
examine these differences further a number oft-tests (See tables Appendix 3) were
performed.
+..Z..t.t 'Attrt«.tive.' vs. '1(e.1AtrPvl'
Graf vs. Freeman
From the results shown in t-test table 1 (See Appendix 3) Grafis seen by the respondents
to be more attractive, expert, classy, knowledgeable, beautiful, elegant and skilled than
Freeman with a p value
~
0.05. Freeman scored a significantly higher mean value only
for trustworthiness (3 .34 Graf vs. 3.53 Freeman, t = -2.058, p = 0.041 ).
Kournikova vs. Freeman
When companng Kournikova and Freeman, the 'attractive' Koumikova scored
significantly higher in all of the 'attractive' categories, attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful
and elegant. In contrast, Freeman was seen as significantly more dependable,
experienced, honest, sincere and reliable than Kournikova. (Table 2 Appendix 3).
The significant results in the 'attractiveness' segments simply confirm the earlier
selection ofGraf and Koumikova as 'attractive' athletes. Freeman's higher scores in the
'trustworthy' segments over Koumikova is not surprising since Kournikova is the
youngest of the sports stars and has a somewhat variable media profile (McPherson
1997).
Graf vs. Kournikova
A comparison between the two attractive sports stars resulted in highlighting that while
Kournikova produces significantly higher scores for the attractiveness components attractive (3.08 Graf vs. 3.84 Kournikova, t
52
=
-6.967, p
=
0.000), sexy, beautiful and
elegant - the older, more successful and more experienced Graf scored significantly
higher and is seen as more expert, more dependable, more experienced, more honest,
more sincere, more qualified, more reliable and more skilled. In this situation, where an
obviously more 'experienced' sports star who is still rated 'attractive' is matched with a
more 'attractive' counterpart, the 'experienced' athlete proves to be more 'trustworthy' as
well. (See table 3, Appendix 3).
Furthering the examination, we now turn to the second 'neutral' sports star, Melinda
Gainsford-Taylor.
Graf vs. Gainsford-Taylor
Kournikova vs. Gainsford-Taylor
By examination of the 'attractive' sports stars versus Gainsford-Taylor we can see that
both were seen as more expert, more
clas~y
and more skilled than Gainsford-Taylor when
it came to sports drinks. Gainsford-Taylor was seen as more experienced (3.74
Kournikova vs. 3.94 Gainsford, t
=
-2.074, p
=
0.039), more dependable and more
reliable than Kournikova but less experienced or qualified than Graf. (See tables 4 & 5,
Appendix 3).
Freeman vs. Gainsford-Taylor
Comparing Gainsford-Taylor to Freeman shows that Gainsford-Taylor was seen as more
attractive, sexy and beautiful while Freeman was seen as significantly more of an expert,
more sincere, trustworthy and qualified. (See table 6, Appendix 3).
Graf vs. Navratil ova
Graf vs. Fraser
The comparison between Graf and Navratilova found that Graf scored significantly
higher scores on only the five 'attractive' segments, attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful and
elegant. Navratilova had no results significantly higher than Graf. (See table 7, Appendix
3). When Fraser, the oldest athlete used in the sample, was compared to Graf, she had a
significantly higher mean in regards to trustworthiness (3.34 Graf vs. 3.67 Fraser, t
3.443. p
=
= -
0.001) and honesty. Graf, on the other hand, was seen as more attractive,
53
classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant, as well as being more skilled and expert. (See table 8,
Appendix 3).
Kournikova vs. Navratilova
Kournikova vs. Fraser
Against the older and more experienced Navratilova & Fraser, Kournikova was seen as
significantly more attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant Understandably,
Navratilova was considered more expert, more knowledgeable, more dependable, more
experienced, more trustworthy, more qualified, more reliable and skilled than
Kournikova. (See table 9, Appendix 3). Fraser produced higher mean scores in relation to
trustworthiness and honesty than Kournikova. (See table 10, Appendix 3). Kournikova
was also seen as more skilled and expert than Fraser.
Navratilova vs. Fraser
When the product is sports drinks, the recently retired and younger Navratilova scored
significantly higher in the categories of attractive, expert, classy, knowledgeable, sexy,
experienced, qualified and skilled. In comparison, Fraser was seen as more honest,
sincere and trustworthy than Navratil ova. (See table 11, Appendix 3 ).
+.k.f.? 'Ne.utra.t' v.s. 'Un-a.ttreu.tive.'
Freeman vs. Navrati1ova
Freeman vs. Fraser
When compared, Freeman was seen as more 'attractive', with significantly higher means
in the five 'attractive' segments to both Fraser and Navratilova while Navratilova in turn
was seen as more 'expert', producing significantly higher means in all segments. The
only other result was Freeman being seen as more sincere (3.49 Freeman vs. 3.28
Navratilova, t = 2.172, p = 0.031) than Navratilova (See table 12, Appendix 3). Freeman
was also seen as more expert, qualified and skilled than Fraser (See table 13, Appendix
3).
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Navratilova
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Fraser
Almost replicating Freeman, Gainsford-Taylor was seen as more attractive, classy, sexy,
beautiful and elegant than both Fraser and Navratilova. Navratilova rated significantly
54
higher in expert, knowledge, experience, qualified and skilled (See table 14, Appendix 3)
as did Fraser in regards to honest, sincere and trustworthy (See table 15, Appendix 3).
Gainsford-Taylor also scored significantly higher scores in regards to expert and skilled
than Fraser. All results proved to be significant for a p
~
0.001.
Holden cars were chosen by the focus groups as a product that the sports stars had a low
'match-up' relationship with. The ANOVA test for all sports stars resulted in significant
differences (p = 0.05) for the majority of factors. two of the 'trustworthy' characteristicsRELIABLE & SINCERE- however, the mean proved not to be significantly different
between the sports stars on these attributes. (See ANOVA 8, Appendix 3.)
4-..Z..Lf (A-ttrA-c..tive.' v5. ('We.tAtrA-t'
Graf vs. Freeman
When comparing Graf and Freeman, Graf was seen as more attractive, classy, sexy,
experienced and skilled than Freeman, showing similar results as to when the product
was sports drinks (See table 16, Appendix 3).
Kournikova vs. Freeman
With Freeman and Koumikova, Freeman was seen as more expert, knowledgeable,
qualified, experienced, dependable and honest then Kournikova, but this time not
significantly more sincere, trustworthy or reliable. Koumikova was again more attractive,
scoring significantly higher in the five segments (See table 17, Appendix 3).
Graf vs. Koumikova
As with sports drinks, Kournikova was seen as significantly more attractive, classy, sexy,
beautiful and elegant than Graf In return, Graf scored significantly higher means in
regard to expert, knowledge, dependable, experienced, qualified, reliable and skilled (See
table 18, Appendix 3 ).
Graf vs. Gainsford-Taylor
Kournikova vs. Gainsford-Taylor
Gainsford-Taylor produced a surprising change in the results when she proved to be
significantly more attractive (3.08 Graf3.51 vs. Gainsford, t = -4.10, p = 0.000), sexy and
55
-beautiful than Graf when cars were the product. Graf was seen as significantly more
expert, knowledgeable, dependable, experienced, qualified and skilled than GainsfordTaylor (See table 19, Appendix 3). In almost a reversal, Gainsford-Taylor was seen as
significantly more expert, experienced and qualified but Koumikova was still seen as
more attractive in all five segments (See table 20, Appendix 3).
Freeman vs. Gainsford-Taylor
In common with sports drinks, Gainsford-Taylor was seen as significantly more
attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant than Freeman. In contrast to sports drinks,
Freeman had no significant! y higher means (See table 21, Appendix 3 ).
Graf vs. Navratilova
Graf vs. Fraser
The notable difference in the comparison between 'attractive' and 'un-attractive' sports
stars when it came to cars, was the more significant results that Graf had. When sports
drinks were the product, Graf had only 'attractive' characteristics that produced
significantly higher scores than Navratilova. This time, Graf was seen to be significantly
more honest ( 4.17 Graf vs. 4.04 Navratilova, t
=
2.00, p
=
0.046), sincere, -trustworthy
and skilled than Navratilova, more expert, knowledge, quallfied and skilled than Fraser in
addition to being seen as more attractive, classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant than both her
older counterparts (See table 22- 23, Appendix 3).
Koumikova vs. Navratilova
Kournikova vs. Fraser
Koumikova, when matched against Navratilova and Fraser, produced significantly higher
means in the 'attractiveness' categories (attract, [4.54 Kournikova vs. 1.92 Navratilova, t
=
30.80, p = 0.000; 4.54 Koumikova vs. 1.91 Fraser, t = 30.39, p = 0.000] sexy, beautiful,
classy and elegant) again. Navratilova was seen as more expert, knowledgeable,
experienced and qualified while Fraser was seen as more dependable, experienced and
trustworthy (See tables 24-25, Appendix 3).
56
Navratilova vs. Fraser
When examining the two un-attractive sports stars against each other whist endorsing
cars, Navratilova was seen as having significantly higher means than Fraser on expertise,
knowledge, experience, qualifications and skills. Fraser in line with sports drinks was
seen to be more honest, sincere and trustworthy (See table 26, Appendix 3).
Freeman vs. Navratilova
Freeman vs. Fraser
Freeman was seen as significantly more attractive? classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant
than Navratilova and Fraser. Differing from when the product was sports drinks, both unattractive sports stars produced no significant results, instead Freeman was seen to be
significantly more honest, sincere and trustworthy than Navratilova and rated
significantly higher in the five 'expertise' categories than Fraser (See tables 27-28,
Appendix 3).
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Navratilova
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Fraser
Gainsford-Taylor recorded highly significant means (p
~
0.001) with the five 'attractive'
segments over Navratil ova and Fraser. Gainsford-Taylor had a significantly higher mean
for trustworthiness (3.45 Gainsford-Taylor vs. 3.24 Navratilova, t
=
2.532, p
=
0.012)
over Navratilova, and significantly higher means in such categories as expert (3.78
Gainsford-Taylor vs. 3.20 Fraser, t
=
4.44, p
0.000), qualified and skilled when
=
compared to Fraser. Navratilova was seen by the respondents to have a significantly
higher mean for experience (See tables 29-30, Appendix 3). It can be noted here that the
I
difference of products - from sports drinks to cars - did indeed make a change. The unattractive sports stars scored much lower means when the product was not sports-related.
Honey was chosen as a neutral product, meaning that neither males nor females would be
any more likely to purchase it and there was neither a strong relationship nor a weak one
57
when female sports ,stars endorsed it. In the ANOVA, all segments proved significant
results (P ~ 0.05).
+.k.?.t 'Attrtte.tive.' vs. '1ie.utr~t!'
Graf vs. Freeman
The most notable aspect of the examination when honey was the product chosen, was that
there were a great many more significant results than before. Graf swept the five
segments of 'attractive' as well as producing significantly higher means over the five
'expertise' categories and also in dependable (3.70 Grafvs. 3.38 Freeman, t
=
3.423, p =
0.001) and reliable. Freeman produced no significantly higher results (See table 31,
Appendix 3).
Kournikova vs. Freeman
Kournikova proved to have significantly'higher scores in the five 'attractive' segments
but in measuring her against Cathy Freeman, Freeman greatly increased the number of
categories that she rated significantly higher than Kournikova. Freeman had significantly
higher scores in the expert, knowledge, dependable, experienced, honest, smcere,
trustworthy, qualified and reliable (See table 32, Appendix 3).
Graf vs. Kournikova
Grafin particular produced significantly higher mean scores than most ofthe other sports
stars. She was considered significantly more 'trustworthy' and more 'expert' than
Kournikova in all of the five categories. Kournikova was able to produce significantly
higher scores in only four of the 'attractive' variables, attractive, sexy, beautiful and
elegant (See table 33, Appendix 3).
Grafvs. Gainsford-Taylor
Graf again scored significantly higher means in a number of categories, this time spread
across all three areas. Graf had significantly higher means in expert, classy, knowledge,
dependable, experienced, reliable and skilled. Gainsford-Taylor produced no significant
results (See table 34, Appendix 3).
58
Kournikova vs. Gainsford-Taylor
For the second time, Koumikova was not able to produce a significantly higher result in
the classy category, though she did in regards to attractive, sexy, beautiful and elegant
Gainsford-Taylor was seen by the respondents to be significantly higher in all five
'expert' categories and all five 'trustworthy' categories (See table 35, Appendix 3).
Freeman vs. Gainsford-Taylor
As with the other two products, Gainsford-Taylor scored significantly higher means in
regard to the five 'attractive' factors. She also rated higher over expert (3.67 Freeman vs.
4.03 Gainsford-Taylor, t
=
-3.381, p
=
0.001), qualified and skilled (See table 36,
Appendix 3).
Grafvs: Navratilova
Graf vs. Fraser
More than other products, honey seemed to result in higher scores for the attractive sports
stars. Graf had significantly higher scores in every segment against Navratilova - in
comparison to sports drinks, where she was able to score significantly higher scores only
over 'attractive' questions (See table 37, Appendix 3). Against Fraser, Graf produced
significantly higher scores for all five 'attractive' segments and for all 'five' expert
segments but Fraser was seen as significantly more honest (3.56 Grafvs. 3. 77 Fraser, t =
-2.251, p = 0.025) than Graf(See table 39, Appendix 3).
Koumikova vs. Navratilova
Koumikova predictably scored significantly higher in the five 'attractive' segments while
Navratilova did the same for the five 'expert' categories. Navratilova was also seen as
more sincere (3.06 Kournikova vs. 3.26 Navratilova, t
=
-2.052, p
=
0.041) than
Kournikova (See table 38, Appendix 3).
Koumikova vs. Fraser
Following the previous results, Kournikova was significantly higher in all five' attractive'
segments while Fraser did the same for the five 'trustworthy' categories. Fraser was also
59
-rated significantly higher over knowledge (3.04 Kournikova vs. 3.63 Fraser, t
=
-5.430,
p = 0.000), experienceand qualified (See table 40, Appendix 3).
Navratilova vs. Fraser
Navratilova rated significantly higher over expert, sexy and skilled while Fraser produced
significantly higher means over dependable, honest, sincere, trustworthy and reliable (See
table 41, Appendix 3).
+1..?.? 'Ne.utrA-t' vs. 'un-AttrA-C-tive.'
Freeman vs. Navratilova
Freeman vs. Fraser
Freeman produced highly significant results in regards to the five 'attractive' segments
over both un-attractive sports stars. Freeman was rated as more honest, sincere and
trustworthy than Navratilova. The American rated significantly higher in ski11ed (3.83
Freeman vs. 4.07 Navratilova, t
=
-2.136, p
=
0.033) while Fraser was seen as
significantly more sincere (3.47 Freeman vs. 3. 72 Fraser, t
=
-2.617, p
=
0.009) than
Freeman (See tables 42-43, Appendix 3).
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Navratil ova
Gainsford-Taylor vs. Fraser
Gainsford-Taylor predictably was seen as more 'attractive' in all categories than Fraser &
Navratilova. When compared to Navratilova, she was also seen as being significantly
more honest, sincere, trustworthy and reliable (See table 44, Appendix 3). Against Fraser,
she was seen as significantly more expert and skilled, while Fraser was seen as
significantly more honest and sincere than Gainsford-Taylor (See table 45, Appendix 3).
+..Z..4 &vnctusivn
To answer the research question, it can be noted that respondents attitudes towards
female sports stars, be they 'attractive', 'un-attractive' or 'neutral', depends greatly on
the product they are endorsing and the personal image of each athlete. The personalities
of the female sports stars encourage respondents to associate them with some specific
products more than others.
60
When the product was honey, a product perceived as being homely (Alreack 1994), those
female sports stars with a congruent image, Fraser and Graf(Gordon 1997; Heady 1995)
in this case, produced significantly higher scores in all three major characteristics. A
strong explanation of this result lies in a match-up between the product and the image of
the athletes (McCracken 1988).
With sports drinks, the athletes who have a strong affiliation with high athletic
performance recorded higher means. Navratilova (Teitelbaum 1987), who apart from
being seen as less attractive than others (which was in line with pre-testing) was usually
seen as more expert than her counterparts.
When the product was cars, the more 'attractive' athletes such as Koumikova (Coleman
1998) not only were seen as significantly more 'attractive' but also often more
'trustworthy' suggesting that there is a tacit understanding in our consumer culture about
what sort of women are commonly used to advertise cars (Allison, et al1979).
61
When examining whether respondents would purchase the particular brand the next time
they purchased a product of this sort (Question 3d, see survey, Appendix 3), respondents
who recorded a score of 1 or 2 were seen to have a low likelihood of purchasing the
product, those who recorded a 3 were noted as undecided and those respondents who
recorded a 4 or 5 were viewed as having a high likelihood to purchasing the brand.
Respondents were asked in question 2 as to their initial interest in purchasing the brand of
the product used prior to seeing the adverts. This was then used in correlation with
question 3d ("Now, having seen the advert, how likely is it that you will purchase the
brand mentioned the next time you need a product of this type?") in order to gain a better
understanding of intention to purchase after viewing the adverts.
I
,
In table 64, an examination of all respondents who recorded a high likelihood in question
3d can be seen (See table 64, Appendix 3).
In table 65, these results are then broken down by product and it can be seen that for
those respondents with a high likelihood of purchasing the product, they gave the highest
scores to the five 'expertise' factors. This does not necessarily infer that a conclusion be
drawn to suggest that 'expertise' characteristics are more important or influential than
others. It does however, indicate that in a situation where the advert may have had some
effect - the respondent has indicated that they may purchase the brand - the sports stars
used as an endorser, had higher means for 'expertise' characteristics than their mean
scores for 'attractive' and 'trustworthy' factors.
When examining those respondents whose response was positively altered after seeing
the advert (i.e. In question 2, they recorded a 1, 2 or 3 and in question 3d they recorded a
4 or 5) the result was similar. The characteristics with the highest means were the
'expertise' categories. In common with previous literature (Ohanian 1991) this suggests,
though does not confirm, that 'expertise' factors are more highly rated by those
consumers most likely to purchase the product. Even for products in which the sports
stars were not experts (cars and honey) most of the sports stars recorded high means for
62
'expertise' factors - higher than the means they recorded for 'trustworthiness' and
'attractiveness'.
When comparing the means of the respondents whose attitudes had been positively
altered by the adverts ( 11
=
540) to the entire sample of respondents, respondents
indicating they would be more inclined to purchase the brand recorded higher mean
scores over the 15 variables - indicating more positive feelings towards the endorser.
These positive feelings included all attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness
characteristics (See table 67 Appendix 3).
The next step is to examine the matrix of each sports star and each product with the
respondents who recorded a high likelihood of purchasing the brand. We can see from
table 66 (See Appendix 3) that most of the female sports stars have their highest means
when the characteristic is 'expertise' based, regardless of product. There are however,
several exceptions to this. While all sports stars had an 'expertise' segment as their
highest mean when the product was sports drinks, Koumikova had four 'attractive' and
Fraser three 'trustworthy' segments in their top six. This trend continued when the
products became less' sports related, Koumikova lent towards 'attractiveness' categories
and Fraser towards 'trustworthy' categories. The only other occurrence was Freeman and
honey where she recorded three 'trustworthy' characteristics as well as three 'expertise'
ones (the 11 was not sufficiently large to examine individual product and sports star
match-ups).
A further, more specific examination found that for Koumikova, there was no
outstanding difference in the ranking of the mean of the characteristics, regardless of
whether they intended to purchase the product or not. There was however, a much higher
mean for all segments when the respondent had indicated that they would chose the brand
the next time they bought a product of that sort.
In the examination of Fraser, similar to Kournikova, all means rose when comparing
respondents who would choose the brand and the sample as a whole. This time however,
the characteristics 'qualified' and 'expert', appeared higher up the list, while
'trustworthy' slipped. Fraser's results however, were still dominated by trustworthy
characteristics.
63
4.4 gent{erAttitut{es
Table 7 i1lustrates gender differences in relation to demographic inquiries which aid our
understanding of the respondents.
The data suggests that male respondents were significantly more interested in sport than
their female counterparts and also recorded a higher interest in watching or listening to
sport (See table 7). On the issue of women's sport however, the female respondents
recorded a significantly higher score than the male respondents. Though interestingly
enough, the mean was lower than that when the female respondents were asked whether
they were interested in sport. The means were also lower when comparing respondents
'watching of sport' compared to their 'interest in sport' (See table 8). Males also recorded
a higher level of 'participation in sport' and a higher 'level of sports participation' that
they competed at. ( * = P:::; 0.05;
** =
P :::;·0.001)
(
}pyp[e 7
Interest in sport, interest in women's sport, watching or listening to sport
Gender
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Male
538
4.3736
.9744
Female
567
3.8131
1.1650
Male
538
3.2268
1.0800
**
Female
567
3.6049
1.1461
I like to watch or listen
Male
536
4.2257
1.0640
Female
567
3.4550
1.3256
I am interested in sport
**
I am interested in
women's sport
to sporting events
64
**
Participation in sport & level of sport participation
Gender N
Frequency of sport
participation
Std. Deviation
Male
538
5.5725
1.7675
Female
567
5.2663
1.8546
Male
538
1.9517
1.1259
Female
567
1.5767
1.0537
*
Level of sport
participation
Mean
**
Gender attitudes across, the specific characteristics that proved to have significantly
differences were now examined (See table 70, Appendix 3).
4.4.1 5pC1rtS Prinks
When the sports star was 'attractive', a predictable pattern emerged that was notable
throughout most of the study. Male respondents viewed Graf as more classy (while the
female respondents viewed Graf, an attractive star, as more expert (4.25 males vs. 4.58
females, t
=
-2.786, p
=
0.006) and experienced. When Kournikova was the sports star,
the male respondents saw her as more classy (3.58 males vs. 2.44 females, t = 3.067, p =
0.002), sexy and elegant than female respondents.
Male respmidents were significantly more likely to purchase a sports drink in the next six
months and additionally, were more willing to purchase the specific brand used in the
advert when Kournikova was the endorser (2.35 males vs. 1.98 females, t
=
2.47, p
=
0.016).
With neutral female sports stars as the endorsers, the results continued in this vein.
Female respondents rated both Gainsford-Taylor and Freeman as more expert while they
saw Freeman as also more knowledgeable (3.09 males vs. 3.42 females, p
=
-2.27, p
=
0.019), sexy and beautiful and Gainsford-Taylor as more attractive (3.09 males vs. 3.44
65
females, t = -2.61, p = 0.010) and qualified than male respondents did. Male respondents
once again recorded their intention to purchase sports drinks more than female
respondents.
When the unattractive sports stars were examined, males were found to be more willing
to purchase sports drinks and were also more aware of Navratil ova. Females on the other
hand, rated Navratilova and Fraser higher when it came to attractive, sexy and beautiful.
They also rated Fraser as more qualified (3.47 males vs. 3.91 females, t = -2.722, p =
0.007).
Males were seen as more likely to purchase sports drinks, a male orientated product given
the still higher numbers of males participating in sport. In regards to the attractive
segments, female respondents chose a middle ground while male respondents were more
towards the extremes, seeing the attrac.tive sports stars as more attractive, and the
unattractive sports stars as less attractive.
The trend mentioned above was confirmed when attractive sports stars were used in the
endorsement of cars. Male respondents rated Graf classier (3.62 males vs. 3.29, t
p
=
=
2. 15,
0.033) and more elegant than female respondents. They also recorded - not
surprisingly - a significantly higher likelihood of purchasing a car, which also was noted
with Kournikova. The male respondents recorded a more intense reaction to Kournikova
and cars than other combinations. They saw her as significantly more attractive (4.72
males vs. 4.37 females, t
=
3.411, p
=
0.001), classy, sexy, beautiful and elegant - all
which could be expected, but they also saw her as more knowledgeable (3.41 males vs.
3.08 females, t
=
2.04, p = 0.043), dependable and trustworthy than their female
counterparts. The male respondents reaction to Kournikova was always strong, but
particularly so when the product was cars, a male orientated product (Alreack 1994).
When the female sports star was neutral, female respondents recorded significantly
higher scores for Freeman in regards to attractiveness, knowledge (3.32 males vs. 3.69
females, t
=
-2.16, p
=
0. 0 16) and qualified. They also rated Gainsford-Taylor as more
beautiful and attractive. Male respondents un-surprisingly showed more willingness to
66
purchase a car in the next six months and also proved to be more aware of GainsfordTaylor (3.93 males vs. 3.25 females, t = 3.17, p = 0.002) than the female respondents.
With Navratilova as the sports star, female respondents once again rated her higher, this
time in the categories of attractive, sexy, experienced (3.83 males vs. 4.21 females, t
= -
2.28, p = 0.024) and qualified. They also recorded Fraser as more attractive (1.75 males
vs. 2.07 females, t
=
-2.34, p
=
0.020) than their male counterparts did. However in both
situations, male respondents recorded a higher likelihood of purchasing the car,
suggesting perhaps, that with some products and with some target markets, the endorsers
influence is less specific.
When the product was honey, Grafwas seen as more sexy (3.52 males vs. 3.12 females, t
=
2.77, p = 0.006) and elegant by male respondents and more experienced (4.05 males vs.
4.41 females, t
=
-2.43, p
=
0.016) by females. Kournikova predictably recorded a
significantly higher score for male respondents over attractive, classy, sexy and elegant
!
characteristics. In addition, male respondents also recorded higher scores in regards to
Kournikova's sincerity, reliability and honesty. They also were more likely to purchase
the brand of honey in the advert (2.66 males vs. 2.01 females, t = 3.28, p = 0.001). While
male respondents reacted well to Kournikova and cars, Female respondents reacted to the
match-up of Freeman and honey. They rated Freeman as more attractive, expert, classy,
knowledgeable, sexy, experienced, beautiful, trustworthy, qualified, elegant and skilled
than their male counterparts did. They also recorded higher scores in regards to
purchasing honey (2.57 males vs. 3.07 females, t = -2.03, p = 0.044) and purchasing the
specific brand (2.02 males vs. 2.66 females, t
=
-3.48, p
=
0.001). The last note is not
surprising, given that female respondents also recorded a higher likelihood of purchasing
honey when Gainsford-Taylor was the sports star.
Unattractive sports stars endorsing honey proved to be little differentiated between male
and female respondents. Navratilova provided no significant differences while Fraser was
seen by female respondents to be more beautiful (2.01 males vs. 2.51 females, t
=
-3.516,
p = 0.001) and also more likely for females to purchase honey.
67
Female Sports Stars
Mean Results
5.0
4.5
4.0
Q)
:::J
Graf
3.5
Koumikova
ro
>c
3.0
ro
Q)
~
Freeman
2.5
Gains ford
2.0
Na\n"atilova
1.5
1.0
Fraser
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15
Characteristic
1
- Attractive
6
-Dependable
11
- Trustworthy
2
-Expert
7
- Experienced
12
-Qualified
3
-Classy
8
-Honest
13
-Reliable
4
-Knowledgeable
9
-Beautiful
14
-Elegant
5
-Sexy
10
-Sincere
15
-Skilled
68
chapter Five
Discussion & Conclusion
This section contains a summary of the study followed by a discussion of the studies
contribution to the marketing literature. The research is then concluded with a discussion
of the limitations of the study and recommendations for future research.
7.1 :5u~~A-r1f vffin~in1s
f'.t.t Pru~uc.ts ~ 5furts 5t~rs
When the product was 'Sport Plus' sports drink, a product with a strong relationship with
female sports stars, the attractiveness of'the respective sports stars had little impact on
overall means. Those sports stars that produced the higher means in most categories were
those that respondents judged as more expert, notably Graf and Navratilova. Most sports
stars were seen as more 'expert' when the product was a sports drink compared to cars or
honey, but in the comparison across sports stars, those with the strongest reputations as
'pure' or 'elite' athletes were seen as more expert and therefore perhaps appropriate for
the endorsement.
The sports stars used in this study all have several images that they could pass on to
products, so it is often a case of finding which image is most easily recognised by the
target market and that, the target market reacts to, in conjunction with, the product being
advertised. From a sports stars perspective it is therefore important to seek endorsements
for products in which their image( s) will form a match, since a successful endorsement of
a product will oftelflead to a higher net worth as an endorser (McCracken 1988, Kamins
1994).
When Holden cars were endorsed, the 'attractive' sports stars produced higher mean
scores in other categories than they had done when the product was a sports drink.
Perhaps because cars make so much more of an impact on male consumers - as noted in
their reaction when the data was separated according to gender - their involvement was
69
greater, not only how they viewed the sports stars, but also perhaps influencing how the
female respondents reacted. Even though the car advert had been constructed for a female
'
target audience -
it had appeared in a women's sport magazine - males were
significantly more likely to purchase cars in the future and they rated female sports stars
that were 'attractive' as also significantly more trustworthy and expert than they did
when the same sports star endorsed other products.
The success of the 'attractive' sports stars in endorsing cars does not alter the view of a
match-up hypothesis, it merely opens discussion on the concept of an 'expert' source.
While there seems to be importance placed on the celebrities expertise for endorsing a
product they have a strong involvement with - sports drinks in this instance - the
situation may be different amongst products where such strong relationships between the
product and the occupation or primary image of the endorser does not exist. If for
example, the sports stars are not experts on cars - and it is obvious that there is no such
link between the brand and the celebrities - then the sports star that is going to perform
best (though not necessarily excellent) is the one that can support a secondary image that
is favourable with the endorsing of cars. The more attractive sports stars seem to do better
overall when endorsing cars - even better than they did endorsing other products,
specifically the cases of Kournikova and Gainsford. This does not indicate that cars are a
masculine product - one that would encourage masculine feelings amongst all of us rather cars have a male appeal (Alreack 1994). In other words, cars are an item that are
supposed to interest males and society has accepted advertising being directed
specifically towards them. This suggests that we automatically accept cars as being
advertised with attractive females and so, even a more expert - but less attractive female does not generate the same positive reaction.
This does not suggest however that a female sports star or a female model who is
attractive would lead to a greater number of purchase decisions than would an expert on
cars, a formula one racing car driver for example. We are seeing our respondents reaction
strictly in a test where only female sports stars are proposed as endorsers. There is a
match-up between Anna Kournikova and cars but it lies beneath an obvious link of
'expert' and 'product'. Kournikova and cars are a match-up based on the use of sexually
attractive females and cars in previous advertising (Ford et al, 1991; LaTour et al, 1990).
70
What was once a method of grabbing our attention has now become what we may think is
J
a legitimate and understandable attempt to encourage us to buy a product.
Capilano honey produced different results but in a similar vein to the respondents
reaction towards Holden cars. Honey, a fast moving consumer good is ideal for celebrity
endorsements since consumers can be quite un-loyal to brands when it comes to
purchasing foodstuffs. Unlike cars, honey is not a big purchase decision and therefore
exists in a competitive market place (Percy & Rossiter 1992). Honey is a staple product
where the brands are not well known, unlike soft drinks. Therefore the creation of brand
awareness is important, so celebrity endorsers have been used in similar markets to raise
product awareness (Petty, Cacioppo & Schuman 1983). However, because of the
fickleness of consumers when purchasing honey, characteristics such as price and
avaihibility of the product are as likely to influence consumers as are positive emotions
passed from the endorser to the consumer..
This issue may partially explain why honey producers have not often used celebrity
endorsers in the past. A reasonable question would be, what sort of person is an expert on
honey, and what sort of person would influence a consumer to choose one brand over
another?
The female sports stars that produced the more favorable reaction amongst respondents
were Fraser, Graf and Freeman. Initially, they have few similarities in their respective
images. However, they are all seen as female sports stars, rather than sports stars who
happen to be female, if such a distinction can be made (Burton Nelson 1991). Fraser,
Graf and Freeman all recorded significantly higher results when the product was honey,
and were seen as more 'trustworthy' than the other female sports stars, all three
possessing great respect from the general community (Condon 1991, Heady 1995,
McGregor 1998).
Being a household and kitchen orientated product, honey has a degree of homeliness
associated with it (Alreack 1994). In the study, respondents may have felt that because
they saw Fraser, Graf and Freeman as female first and athletes second, as well as being
someone they could place trust in - these two factors may be connected - they were more
willing to believe in the sincerity of the endorser. The sample data suggest that for a
71
household product trustworthiness and expertise go hand in hand, as did attractiveness
and expertise for male orientated products- in this instance, cars.
In addition to this, it was also noted that all of the female sports stars that were used in
the survey recorded significantly higher means for the 'attractiveness' components when
the product was not directly related to sport- i.e. sports drinks. This suggests that there
may still be strong community attitudes that find female sports stars as un-attractive when
they are involved in sports - and more attractive when they are seen as celebrities, not
sports participants (Creedon 1994b, Burroughs 1995).
While it is acknowledged in previous research that expertise is the most important
characteristic of an endorser (Ohanian I 991 ), what the results from this research suggests,
is that if an obvious link between the endorser and the product is not established on the
basis of expertise, then the endorsers that perform better, will be those to which a
secondary image can be matched to the product or the brand. Few non-sporting
celebrities would match up as well as Martina Navratilova did when endorsing sports
drinks to a mass market, but Formula One driver Michael Schumacher will have more
impact than Anna Kournikova in endorsing cars, as would chef Stephanie Alexander over
Dawn Fraser, when the product is honey.
However, if the advertising is aimed at a target market that reacts positively to female
sports stars, then the secondary images of the endorsers must match up with images or
emotions that the product or brand itself possesses .
.f.t..Z. Intentwn tP Purc.Mse
The examination of intention to purchase confirmed the prominence of 'expertise' m
regards to the female sports stars and the products chosen. Those respondents who
recorded a high likelihood of purchasing the particular brand the next time they were
purchasing a product of that nature, recorded - except in the cases of Kournikova and
Fraser- the 'expertise' characteristics as having higher means than the 'trustworthy' or
'attractiveness' factors.
72
What this examination suggests, is that for most consumers, the characteristics that they
believe are more notable in a successful endorser, is for that celebrity to be an expert. The
cases of Kournikova and Fraser however, indicated a leaning towards attractive and
trustworthy characteristics respectively.
What these result,s showed, including the exceptions above, was a strong argument for the
match-up hypothesis advocated by Kamins (1994 ). Fraser and Kournikova it could
reasonably be asse-rted, are viewed by the respondents as less as athletes and more as
celebrities, possessing powerful images that pass from themselves to the products they
endorse. Unlike the other female sports stars used in the adverts, their image was not
primarily about athleticism or the sport they play or. have played. This does not
necessarily reflect poorly on Fraser and Koumikova. Fraser was an outstanding
Olympian, but to a sample of students she is seen as more of an Australian icon who is
trustworthy than one who is an expert on sport. Kournikova' s youthfulness and sexuality
also leads the sample to rate her higher on attractiveness, regardless of her sporting
prowess.
Obviously, as Ohanian (1991) and Boyd (1998) concluded, 'expertise' is influential but
'expertise' differs depending on the product endorsed. A product such as perfume or
cosmetics would inevitably have Koumikova seen as more of an expert than say,
Navratilova. A financial services product expert would probably also be a 'trustworthy'
endorser such as Fraser, rather than the more athletic- but not so reassuring, GainsfordTaylor. So while expertise is important, its real importance lies together with an
understanding of the transfer of image and information from the celebrity to the product
endorsed.
Of all the data collected, attitudes broken down by gender produced the most predictable
results. Males showed a greater interest in sport and played it more often and at a higher
level than women did, at least according to their own response. Women were more
interested than men in women's sport but still recorded a higher interest in men's sport
than for their own interest in women's sport.
73
Does gender influence the attitudes towards female sports stars? The sample suggests that
there is a great number of significant differences between male and female respondents.
Many of these have to do with what perhaps would be seen as expected differences
J
'
between gender. Males were seen as more likely to purchase sports drinks and cars than
females while the reverse was true for honey. Regardless of product, female respondents
often rated the unattractive or neutral female sports stars as higher in 'attractive'
categories than males. Female respondents were also more likely to see the sports stars as
more 'expert' than their male counterparts, a fact that might be linked together with
female respondents significantly higher interest in women's sport.
The two notably skewed performances were Kournikoya endorsing Holden cars with
males and Freeman endorsing Capilano honey with females. These combinations suggest
a strong match-up with images that the sports stars present. Kournikova's looks are in
line with the gender-biased advertising of cars (Elliot, Eccles & Hodgson 1992) while
Freeman perhaps presents a favourable image that lies congruently with honey's image of
homeliness (Alreack 1994).
74
This research has created several important points to be noted and recorded for the
marketing industry. This is the first paper to examine the match-up hypothesis for
celebrity endorsements with solely female sports stars as the chosen celebrities. While
there was previous research that implied that the match-up hypothesis was useful in the
case of all celebrities (McCracken 1989), there was a strong impression that such diligent
research was not undertaken when the endorsers were female sports stars (Mickiak &
Shanklin 1994, Tyler 1999). In respect to the belief that expertise was the sole important
characteristic of a celebrity endorser (Ohanian 1991), there was also little evidence that
expertise was the major factor that companies sought when choosing female sports stars
to endorse their products (Lefton 2000b ).
This paper concludes that not only should companies seek female sports stars who the
target market sees as experts - or in other words, who are seen to possess a match-up
with the product, but female sports stars should also choose only to become associated
with products in which they possess this match-up.
A celebrity who develops a strong and profitable relationship with a product - Lisa
Curry-Kenny and Uncle Toby's to chose an Australian example - is much likely to
continue in this relationship and profit from it. A celebrity who endorses a product in
which the relationship and match-up is not strong, as in the Jennifer Capriati and Oil of
Olay debacle, is likely to head for disaster (Fein 1993). In Curry-Kenny's case, an athlete
who retired after the 1992 Barcelona Olympics has had her relationship continued into
the 21st century (Shoebridge, 1997).
75
To record the limitations of this study is to offer future research the opportunity to refine
itself. There were two major areas in which the research limited itself.
The question and examination of intention to purchase was taken in such a way as to get
the most information out of the sample of tertiary students. By doing this however, it
limited the extent to which the intention could be researched. All that the respondent was
inquired over was whether the next time they purchased a product of that nature, would
they purchase the brand advertised. Their response may therefore be inaccurate given the
number of factors that may influence them by the time the respondent is ready to
purchase the product. To make more accurate predictions on consumers attitudes towards
products, the sample would have to be chosen from consumers who had already indicated
an intention, and are now actively seeking to purchase a product of that nature.
The first limitation links closely to the second, the use of a student sample. While noted
previously, that a student sample can be taken and used to reflect on a larger population
(Enis, Cox & Stafford 1972; Kherea & Benson 1970), appropriate considerations must
still be taken. Student samples are not necessarily representative of the age group, nor of
consumers as a whole, so to provide more accurate data, the adverts should be shown to a
sample at which they have been intended to be aimed. It is relatively unimportant to find
out consumers attih1des towards product advertising that is not aimed at them and
products they are not interested in purchasing. The most accurate results will come from
examining adverts which are constructed with a specific target market in mind- and this
specific target market is used as the sample.
76
In part, this research has confirmed the match-up hypothesis by examining it in a specific
environment. The match-up hypothesis was tested in a unusual setting (female sports
stars) and has concluded that female sports stars are evaluated in much the same way as
any other celebrity. It would be of no great value to extend this research by examining
male sports stars - the popular use of male sports stars as endorsers would probably
indicate that the match-up hypothesis was similarly used. A comparison between male
and female athletes has already been undertaken (Boyd 1998) but the adverts were not
identical, making a direct comparison harder to evaluate. Examining characteristics such
as 'trustworthiness' and 'attractiveness' over different gendered athletes would be
unlikely to produce significant findings, since the match-up hypothesis merely indicates
that consumers seek a match-up between the celebrity and the product, regardless of
gender. There is room however for further research as to whether male and female
celebrities are seen as equally effective, depending on the product endorsed.
Because the match-up hypothesis establishes a theoretical framework in which to create
celebrity endorsements, the next step would be to examine how or if, this framework is
used in contemporary marketing practice. Reebok and Nike for example, have both talked
about the 'ideal' athlete they choose to represent them (Nikas 2000, Hidgon 1996) but
both brands have also admitted times and in some cases suffered financial failure
because, they did not follow such a framework (Hidgon 1996, The West Australian
1998).
An examination into successful (and unsuccessful) advertising campaigns using female
sports stars - any celebrities for that matter - would provide ground for confirming the
relevance of the match-up hypothesis. This would demand using a sample of the relevant
target market as discussed in the limitations, researching respondents perception of the
image of the product and the image of the endorser, and then an in-depth examination of
intention to purchase (which could be balanced with actual sales figures). This would
produce an analysis as to whether companies do use a 'Match-up' hypothesis to chose the
celebrities that endorse their products and that are successful endorsers.
77
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