J. KAU: Mar. Sci., Avol.
Three-Dimensional...
13, pp. 3-17 (1422 A.H. / 2002 A.D.)
3
A Three-dimensional Hydrodynamic Model to
Predict the Distribution of Temperature, Salinity and
Water Circulation of the Red Sea
ALAA M.A. AL-BARAKATI*, ALEC E. JAMES** and GöKAY M. KARAKAS,**
*King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Marine Sciences,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
**Department of Chemical Engineering, Environmental
Technology Centre, UMIST, P.O. Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, U.K.
ABSTRACT. A modified version of 3D- model is applied to study the
distribution of temperature, salinity and water circulation in the Red
Sea. Monthly means of observed temperature, salinity and wind stress
data are used as initial conditions. The results represent the contours
of average temperature, salinity and water circulation for the months
of January and July. The surface temperature distribution shows
regional variations with an area of high temperature in the central region during winter, which shifts towards south under the influence of
the north-westerly winds that dominate the entire Red Sea in summer.
Other synoptic observations such as the northward increase of salinity
are also successfully simulated. Vertical distributions of temperature
and salinity show seasonal variability. In winter, the mixed layer is
deepest whereas there is strongly stratification in summer. At depths
greater than 200 m the temperature and salinity are almost constant
throughout the year (22.0ºC and 40.4 ppt respectively). The surface
water circulation is strongly affected by the wind stress. In the southern Bab Al-Mandab region the model shows a two layers system
during winter. In shallow areas, where there are transverse winds, cyclonic eddies are traced.
1. Introduction
The Red Sea can be divided into two main regions according to the prevailing
winds. North of 19ºN north-westerly winds blow throughout the year, whereas
to the south of 19ºN the winds are north-westerly during summer and south3
4
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
easterly during winter. There is an intermediate zone that exists only during
winter at about 19ºN (Morcos, 1970; Patzert, 1974a; and Quadfasel and Baudner, 1993).
The rate of evaporation from the Red Sea is much higher than the other
oceanic regions at the corresponding latitudes, (Ahmad and Sultan, 1987; Bunker and Goldsmith, 1979; Hastenrath and Lamb, 1979; Morcos, 1970; and
Patzert, 1974b) being slightly greater in winter than in summer. The average annual evaporative heat flux is currently thought to be about 180 W.m–2 (Sultan et
al., 1995) and the rate of evaporation exceeds that of precipitation by more than
2 m.a–1 (Privett, 1959). The fresh water input through precipitation can be
ignored as there are no large river flows (Patzert, 1974b).
Morcos (1970) reported that there is a linear relationship between the surface
water temperature and the air temperature, and that the wind regime is also important in controlling the temperature distribution. During summer, the surface
water temperature increases towards the south reaching a maximum (~32ºC) at
about 14ºN. It then decreases towards the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab. During early winter this region of high surface water temperature moves toward the north
until it reaches 19ºN (Eshel et al., 1994; Maillard and Soliman, 1986; Patzert,
1974a and Quadfasel and Baudner, 1993).
The Red Sea is characterised by its three water layers (Edwards and Head,
1987). The mixed layer is formed immediately beneath a thin surface water
layer. During summer the mixed layer is about 50 m deep. Increased wind stress
deepens the mixed layer in winter. The thermocline layer, which is formed beneath the mixed layer, extends from 50-100 m to about 700 m. During winter
this layer deepens as well because of increased vertical mixing in the upper
layers. Below these layers the deep layer is formed which extends from 700 m
to the sea bottom with a constant temperature.
In general, the salinity (down to 100 m) decreases towards the south throughout the year. In the north, the surface salinity is between 40 ppt - 41 ppt. In contrast in the south, close to the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab, it is between 36 ppt - 37
ppt. The seasonal variation in the surface salinity in the north and the south of
the Red Sea is about 1 ppt. In the middle the surface salinity decreases by 1 ppt
during winter (January) from that of the summer (July) high value. This is because south-easterly winds drag through the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab the relatively low salinity water from Gulf of Aden towards the central region (Morcos,
1970).
Thermohaline and wind forcing are the main causes of water circulation in
the Red Sea. During the period between October-May the Red Sea is influenced
by the two main wind systems mentioned earlier. The strong south-easterly
A Three-Dimensional...
5
winds induce a north-westerly flow thorough the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab with
an average speed of 15-20 cm.s–1. At about 26ºN the wind-driven surface currents veer to north-east direction under the weak opposing north-westerly winds
(Bethoux, 1988 and Shapiro and Meschanov, 1991). From June to September
north-westerly winds dominate the entire Red Sea reversing the surface flow to
south-east through the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab toward the Gulf of Aden (Maillard and Soliman, 1986; Patzert, 1974a and Souvermezoglou et al., 1989).
Neumann and McGill (1962) and Phillips (1966) suggest that, the circulation
of the upper layer can be entirely attributed to the thermohaline forcing. As the
surface inflow of warm water from the Gulf of Aden moves northward it cools
and becomes more saline, largely due to the greater evaporation. As a result of
the density increase, the water sinks to form a cool high salinity outflow of subsurface water (Neumann and McGill, 1962 and Phillips, 1966). Eshel et al.
(1994) also consider wind forcing as secondary because in winter the surface
water flows against the synoptic wind direction in the northern Red Sea.
The water in the north is believed to be the source of the Red Sea Deep
Water. During winter, it is thought that water sinks close to the Sinai Peninsula
to form a southward flowing deep current. Some upwelling occurs as the deep
current flows south and some of the water returns with the northerly current at a
depth of about 500 m. This water sinks again in the north becoming part of the
deep circulation (Cember, 1988; Eshel et al., 1994; Mailard, 1974; Manins,
1973; Morcos, 1970 and Vercilli, 1927).
During winter there is a two layer flow at Bab Al-Mandab. The upper layer
flows to the north under the influence of south-easterly winds and the deep
layer water flows outward to the Gulf of Aden. During summer the water
column is divided into three layers: a surface outflow linked to the northwesterly winds, a subsurface northward flow to compensate the outflow water
and a bottom high salinity outflow to the Gulf of Aden (Morcos, 1970).
A three-dimensional hydrodynamic model is used to study the water characteristics and the circulation patterns of the Red Sea. The results are presented
only for the months of January and July as these are representative of winter
and summer conditions respectively.
2. Model Description
MOM 2 (Modular Ocean Model, Version 2) is used in this study. It is a three
dimensional finite difference discretisation of the equations governing ocean
circulation based on the Bryan's approximations (Bryan, 1969). MOM 2 is described comprehensively by Pacanowski (1995).
6
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
2.1. The Governing Equations
In MOM 2 the equations are formulated in spherical co-ordinates with λ, φ
and z being longitude, latitude and depth respectively. The equations are (Pacanowski, 1995):
1
∂u
∂p ∂
∂u
u v tan φ
+ Γ (u) –
– f v=–
+ (K m ) + F ( λ )
a
∂t
∂z
a ρ 0 cos φ ∂λ ∂z
(1)
1
∂v
∂p ∂
∂v
u 2 tan φ
+ Γ ( v) –
+ f u=–
+ (K m ) + F (φ )
∂t
∂z
a
a ρo cos φ ∂φ ∂z
(2)
∂T
∂
∂T
+ Γ (T ) =
(K h
) + ∇( Ah ∇ T )
∂t
∂z
∂z
∂S
∂
∂S
+ Γ( S ) =
(K h
) + ∇ ( Ah ∇ S )
∂t
∂z
∂z
 ∂u ∂

1
∂w
=–
+
( v cos φ )

∂z
α cos φ  ∂λ ∂φ

∂ p
= –ρ g
∂z
ρ = ρ (T , S , P )
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
where, u, v and w are the zonal, meridional and vertical velocities, a is the mean
radius of the earth (6370 × 105 cm), g is the mean gravitational acceleration
(980.6 cm.sec–2), ρo is the mean ocean density profile (1.025 gm.cm–3), ρ is the
potential density, p is the pressure, Km is the vertical viscosity coefficient
(cm2.sec–1), Kh is the vertical diffusion coefficient (cm2.sec–1). Ah is the lateral
diffusion coefficient (cm2.sec1), T is the potential temperature, S is the potential
salinity and the advection and diffusion terms Γ(u) and Γ(v) are:
1
∂
∂
( v α cos φ ) + ( w α )
∂z
a cos φ ∂ φ
here α is an arbitrary variable.
Γ(α ) =
(8)
F(λ) and F(φ) are the horizontal friction terms, these vary with longitude and
latitude respectively and are:
2 sin φ
∂v 
 (1 – tan 2 φ ) u
F (λ ) = ∇( Am∇ u) + Am 
− 2

2
2

a
a cos φ ∂λ 
(9)
2 sin φ ∂u 
 (1 – tan 2 φ ) v
− 2
F (φ ) = ∇( Am∇ v) + Am 

2

a
a cos 2 φ ∂λ 
(10)
A Three-Dimensional...
7
where Am is lateral viscosity coefficient (cm2.sec–1), f is Coriolis parameter ( f
= 2 Ω sin φ) with Ω being the angular speed of rotation of the earth.
2.2. Initialisation of the Model
In this model, the minimum and maximum longitudes and latitudes of the
Red Sea are chosen to be 32ºE, 45ºE, 10ºN and 30ºN respectively. In order to
resolve circulation details in the Strait of Bab Al-Mandab and the Gulfs of Suez
and Aqaba, the horizontal grid is 0.1º × 0.1º (10 km × 10 km). The model has
41 layers of varying depth. Variable layer thickness reduces the need for the excessive number of equal depth layers that would be necessary if the model is to
resolve the sharp changes in temperature and salinity that have been reported in
the upper 500 m (Morcos, 1970). In the deeper layers, the temperature and
salinity are nearly constant so the layers can be thicker. Initial temperatures and
salinities are taken from NODC (National Oceanographic Data Centre, Washington, DC 20235). Wind stress data were obtained from Hellerman and Rosenstein (1983). It is assumed that the water exchange between the Red Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal is very small compared to the water
exchange between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden through the Strait of Bab
Al-Mandab. Therefore, the Gulf of Suez is considered to be closed at Suez and
the open sea boundary conditions are only specified at the entrance of the Red
Sea from the Gulf of Aden.
3. Results and Discussion
The monthly means of horizontal distribution of each variable for the surface
layer and vertical section averaged in January and July are presented in Figs. 14.
3.1. Horizontal Features
The model results show that the distribution of the surface temperature in the
Red Sea is strongly related to the prevailing wind system. In January (Fig. 1a)
the surface temperature increases from the Gulf of Aden towards the north
reaching a maximum of about 28.6ºC nearly at 19ºN, where it starts to decrease
towards the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba. Evidently, there is a zone of high sea surface temperature in the central region. During winter, north of 19ºN the winds
are north-westerly and to the south of 19ºN the south-easterly monsoon winds
dominate. Further model results (Al-Barakati, 2000) suggest that, between February and May, the cell of high sea surface temperature moves southwards as
the south-easterly monsoon winds die out and the north-westerly winds
strengthen. Accordingly, the minimum sea surface temperature 26.5ºC occurs in
April.
8
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
FIG. 1. Surface distribution of (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) density (as σt) and (d) water circulation in January.
A Three-Dimensional...
9
FIG. 2. Surface distribution of (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) density (as σt) and (d) water circulation in July.
10
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
FIG. 3. Vertical distribution of (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) density and (d) water circulation in
January. Maximum current speed is set to 5 cm/s for clarity of presentation of circulation.
A Three-Dimensional...
11
FIG. 4. Vertical distribution of (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) density and (d) water circulation in
July. Maximum current speed is set to 5 cm/s for clarity of presentation of circulation.
12
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
In July (Fig. 2a), the centre of high sea surface temperature cell reaches the
latitude of 14ºN as the entire Red Sea basin is influenced by the north-westerly
winds. In October, the same model predicts a maximum sea surface temperature
of 31.6ºC (Al-Barakati, 2000). The high temperature cell continues moving
during November and December until it reaches the central region in January
(Fig. 1a).
Over the year, salinity in general tends to increase in summer (Figs. 1b and
2b for January and July respectively). The minimum salinity of 36.7 ppt is
found in winter, while the maximum of 40.6 ppt is observed in summer. During
September and October the sea surface salinity is higher than the other months.
The minimum sea surface salinity is found during December (Al-Barakati,
2000).
During January (Fig. 1d), the south-easterly currents that dominate the region
north of 23ºN, and north-westerly currents that occur south of 16ºN reflect the
main features of the wind field. The westerly transverse currents found to the
north of latitude 16 ºN are linked to the weak westerly winds. As the transverse
currents move to the west, the direction of these currents are shifted to the north
due to the combined effect of Coriolis force and pressure gradient related to the
northerly increase in density (Fig. 1c). The effect of the pressure gradient on the
surface water circulation appears only when the wind stress is weak. Towards
the west, a cyclonic eddy is generated under the influence of the south-westerly
monsoon winds between latitude 14ºN to 16ºN. It is suggested that the increase
in bottom friction in the shallow water causes a gradient of velocity shear and
the weakened current interacts with the weak westerly currents resulting in the
formation of a surface gyre (Fig. 1d). The main features of the water circulation
in January are characteristic of the winter-spring period from October to May.
However, the surface gyre decreases in size and disappears entirely in May, and
starts to reappear again as the currents strengthen under the south-easterly monsoon winds in October (Al-Barakati, 2000).
Between June and September, when the south-easterly monsoon winds decrease in strength and the influence of the north-westerly winds is stronger, the
south-easterly currents intensify and flow further south. In July (Fig. 2d) the
main set of surface currents is south-east. Some easterly transverse currents are
formed during the summer in the central regions between latitude 15ºN and
19ºN. It is suggested that in these shallow areas velocity shear caused by increased bottom friction reduces current velocities.
Most of the previous studies (Cember, 1988; Eshel et al., 1994; Manins, 1973
and Morcos, 1970) imply that wind and/or density gradient forcing along the
axis of the Red Sea generate currents in the direction of the forcing rather than
13
A Three-Dimensional...
perpendicular to it. However, Quadfasel and Baudner (1993) noted that, hydrographic surveys, carried out in the period 1982-1987, indicated that the circulation may consist of a succession of four gyres about 200 km in diameter. These
authors claimed that the strongly rotational wind field drives the gyres. The
model results provide some evidence to support gyre formation in the shallow
shelf of the Bab Al-Mandab region. There are also suggestions of transverse
and curved water flows north of latitude 16ºN where the Rossby radius is less
than half the width of the basin (Table 1). Although the main currents flow
along the major axis of the basin, the model results suggest that gyres can form
in both shallow and deep regions of the Red Sea.
TABLE 1. Calculated Rossby Radius and Red Sea width at different latitudes.
Latitude (degrees)
Rossby radius (km)
Red Sea width (km)
14
186
143
16
162
358
18
136
322
20
110
393
22
103
232
24
79
322
26
69
268
28
69
197
3.2 Vertical Features
During winter the highest temperature occurs in the central region. Towards
the southernmost and northernmost extremes (Fig. 3a) there is a gradual
decrease in temperature. In summer, the region of high temperature extends
southwards as water is carried to the south by the predominant north-westerly
winds. Below 200 m the water temperature is almost constant throughout the
year (22ºC) and the model results show that in the north the mixed layer is generally deeper during winter. In summer, the water column is more stratified and
the mixed layer is shallower (Fig. 4a).
The predicted means of the longitudinally averaged vertical salinities for winter and summer seasons (Figs. 3b and 4b) suggest that, because of higher evaporation over the year, the salinity in the upper layer (100 m) increases towards
the north. Salinity increases from 37 ppt in the south to >40.0 ppt in the north.
In the deep layers the salinity is almost constant during the whole year (40.4
ppt).
14
Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
The vertical sectional circulation has been examined by averaging predicted
velocity components longitudinally across the Red Sea. In the present model,
the number of grid boxes in the northerly direction are 202 and there are 41 vertical layers. For clarity of presentation of the circulation the maximum current
velocity is set to 0.4 cm s–1. The predicted water circulation obtained in this
way indicates that the Red Sea basin can be divided into three regions during
the winter (Fig. 3c). To the north, water flowing from the Gulf of Suez sinks to
form the intermediate and deep southerly flows. The surface currents flow
southward to latitude 23ºN, where they meet the north-easterly surface current.
In the central region, between 15ºN to 23ºN, the upper layer currents are directed towards the north-east, converging with the south-easterly currents at 23ºN.
The intermediate southward currents start to rise to the upper layer at latitude
17ºN where they join the northwards current. These currents constitute an anticyclonic vertical circulation (i.e. rotational about a horizontal axis). In the Bab
Al-Mandab region, the model suggests two layers flow that is in agreement with
previous observations.
During summer (Fig. 4c) southerly currents dominate the entire basin in the
upper layers. Between 17ºN to 19ºN there is strong upwelling.
In contrast to the expected three layer flow structure in the Bab Al-Mandab
region during summer, the model results suggest a south-easterly flow throughout the water column toward the Gulf of Aden. In the present model, the vertical resolution is 20 m for the upper 500 m and 100 m depth intervals for the rest
of the water column. An increased vertical resolution is needed to fully investigate the postulated three-layer structure in the Bab Al-Mandab region.
4. Conclusions
The Red Sea model shows the seasonal shift in the extent of the area of high
surface temperature in the central region. The surface salinity increases from
south to the north throughout the year. The vertical distributions of the temperature and salinity indicate that the mixed layer is deeper in winter and shallower
in summer when the water column is stratified. Below 200 m, the vertical distribution of the temperature and salinity is almost constant and are 22.0ºC and
40.4 ppt respectively throughout the year. The effect of the wind stress and thermohaline forcing on the surface circulation varies from one region to another.
Thermohaline forcing is more obvious when the wind stresses is weak. In the
northern part of the Red Sea the surface water sinks and flows southward forming the intermediate and deep water. In the Bab Al-Mandab region there is two
layers flow during the winter monsoon. Cyclonic meso-scale eddies are predicted in the regions of transverse winds.
A Three-Dimensional...
15
Present model confirms many of the features of the Red Sea circulation and
water characteristics that have been proposed by other authors often based on
synoptic data. Some new features have been noted and it is likely that more
stable aspects will become apparent only when higher resolution model are
used.
References
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Alaa M.A. Al-Barakati, Alec E. James and Gökay M. Karakas,
Privett, D.W. (1959) Monthly charts of evaporation from the North Indian Ocean, including the
Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Q. Jl. R. met. Soc, Vol. 85, pp. 424-428.
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Annual Hydrographic Vol. 2, pp. 1-290.
A Three-Dimensional...
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**‘U«—U ÍUu , **fLO pO√ , *wUd« bL ¡ö
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17