Romanesque art
For other uses, see Romanesque (disambiguation).
13th century, or later, depending on region. The precedRomanesque art is the art of Europe from approxi- ing period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period. The
term was invented by 19th-century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many
basic features of Roman architectural style – most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses,
and acanthus-leaf decoration – but had also developed
many very different characteristics. In Southern France,
Spain and Italy there was an architectural continuity with
the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first
style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, from
Sicily to Scandinavia. Romanesque art was also greatly
influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by
the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular
art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a
highly innovative and coherent style.
Carving from Maria Laach Abbey, in the Eifel, Rhineland.
1 Characteristics
Outside Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterised by a very vigorous style in both
sculpture and painting. The latter continued to follow
essentially Byzantine iconographic models for the most
common subjects in churches, which remained Christ in
Majesty, the Last Judgement and scenes from the Life of
Christ. In illuminated manuscripts, for which the most
lavishly decorated manuscripts of the period were mostly
bibles or psalters, more originality is seen, as new scenes
needed to be depicted. The same applied to the capitals
of columns, never more exciting than in this period, when
they were often carved with complete scenes with several
figures. The large wooden crucifix was a German innovation at the very start of the period, as were free-standing
statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the high relief was
above all the sculptural mode of the period.
Colours, which can be seen as bright in the 21st century only in stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts,
tended to be very striking, and mostly primary. Stained
glass became widely used, although survivals are sadly
few. In an invention of the period, the tympanums of
important church portals were carved with monumental
schemes, often again Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement, but treated with more freedom than painted versions, as there were no equivalent Byzantine models.
Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be
flexible to be squeezed into the shapes of historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums; the tenmately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the sion between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the
The “Morgan Leaf”, detached from the Winchester Bible of
1160−75. Scenes from the life of David.
1
2
Master of Pedret, The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the
Adoration of the Magi, apse fresco from Tredòs, Val d'Aran,
Catalonia, c. 1100, now at The Cloisters in New York.
composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in
Romanesque art. Figures still often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if
attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than
realism - as in the trees in the “Morgan Leaf”. Portraiture
hardly existed.
3 SCULPTURE
Stavelot Triptych, Mosan, Belgium, c. 1156–58. 48×66 cm with
wings open, Morgan Library, New York
the names of more makers of these objects are known
than those of contemporary than painters, illuminators
or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in
enamel, became very sophisticated. Many spectacular
shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the
best known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne
Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun and others (ca 1180–
1225). The Stavelot Triptych and Reliquary of St. Maurus are other examples of Mosan enamelwork. Large
2 Background
reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden
frame, but smaller caskets were all metal and enamel. A
During this period Europe grew steadily more prosperfew secular pieces, such as mirror cases, jewellery and
ous, and art of the highest quality was no longer conclasps have survived, but these no doubt under-represent
fined, as it largely was in the Carolingian and Ottonian
the amount of fine metalwork owned by the nobility.
periods, to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries. Monasteries continued to be extremely important, The bronze Gloucester candlestick and the brass font of
especially those of the expansionist new orders of the 1108–17 now in Liège are superb examples, very differperiod, the Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian, which ent in style, of metal casting. The former is highly inspread across Europe. But city churches, those on pil- tricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting,
grimage routes, and many churches in small towns and while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classivillages were elaborately decorated to a very high stan- cal and majestic. The bronze doors, a triumphal column
dard - these are often the structures to have survived, and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathedral, the Gniezno
when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt. No Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di San Zeno in
Verona are other substantial survivals. The aquamanile,
Romanesque royal palace has really survived.
a container for water to wash with, appears to have been
The lay artist was becoming a valued figure – Nicholas
introduced to Europe in the 11th century. Artisans often
of Verdun seems to have been known across the contigave the pieces fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving exnent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay, and lay
amples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from
painters such as Master Hugo seem to have been in the
impressive seals survive on charters and documents, almajority, at least of those doing the best work, by the end
though Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesof the period. The iconography of their church work was
thetic interest.
no doubt arrived at in consultation with clerical advisors.
The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucifix,
with complex carving including many figures of prophets
and others, which has been attributed to one of the rel3 Sculpture
atively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo,
who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces
3.1 Metalwork, enamels, and ivories
it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen
are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which
Precious objects in these media had a very high status many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques,
in the period, probably much more so than paintings — pectoral crosses and similar objects.
3.2
Architectural sculpture
3
later set up on a beam below the chancel arch, known in
English as a rood, from the twelfth century accompanied
by figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist to
the sides.[2] During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative
sculpture strongly revived, and architectural reliefs are a
hallmark of the later Romanesque period.
3.2.1 Sources and style
Figurative sculpture was based on two other sources in
particular, manuscript illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. The extensive friezes sculpted on
Armenian and Syriac churches have been proposed as another likely influence.[3] These sources together produced
a distinct style which can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and
Italy.
The Gloucester candlestick, early 12th century
3.2
Architectural sculpture
Man and confronted animals, Cahors Cathedral
The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy, France, 1130s, has
much decorative spiral detail in the draperies.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze
died out, as it effectively did (for religious reasons) in
the Byzantine world. Some life-size sculpture was evidently done in stucco or plaster, but surviving examples are understandably rare.[1] The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe
is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–65, apparently the
prototype of what became a popular form. These were
Images that occurred in metalwork were frequently embossed. The resultant surface had two main planes and
details that were usually incised. This treatment was
adapted to stone carving and is seen particularly in the
tympanum above the portal, where the imagery of Christ
in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists is
drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval Gospel
Books. This style of doorway occurs in many places and
continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the “Prior’s Door” at Ely Cathedral. In
South-Western France, many have survived, with impressive examples at Saint-Pierre, Moissac, Souillac,[4] and
4
La Madeleine, Vézelay – all daughter houses of Cluny,
with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and
other buildings. Nearby, Autun Cathedral has a Last
Judgement of great rarity in that it has uniquely been
signed by its creator, Giselbertus.[5][6]
A feature of the figures in manuscript illumination is that
they often occupy confined spaces and are contorted to fit.
The custom of artists to make the figure fit the available
space lent itself to a facility in designing figures to ornament door posts and lintels and other such architectural
surfaces. The robes of painted figures were commonly
treated in a flat and decorative style that bore little resemblance to the weight and fall of actual cloth. This feature
was also adapted for sculpture. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet
Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of
Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130.[6]
3 SCULPTURE
twined animals, often used to superb effect in capitals
(as at Silos) and sometimes on a column itself (as at
Moissac). Much of the treatment of paired, confronted
and entwined animals in Romanesque decoration has
similar Insular origins, as do animals whose bodies tail
into purely decorative shapes. (Despite the adoption of
Hiberno-Saxon traditions into Romanesque styles in England and on the continent, the influence was primarily
one-way. Irish art during this period remained isolated,
developing a unique amalgam of native Irish and Viking
styles which would be slowly extinguished and replaced
by mainstream Romanesque style in the early 13th century following the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland.[7] )
One of the most significant motifs of Romanesque design, occurring in both figurative and non-figurative sculpture is the spiral. One of the sources may be Ionic capitals. Scrolling vines were a common motif of both Byzantine and Roman design, and may be seen in mosaic on
the vaults of the 4th century Church of Santa Costanza,
Rome. Manuscripts and architectural carvings of the
12th century have very similar scrolling vine motifs.
Judas Iscariot hangs himself, assisted by devils, always a
favourite subject of carvers. Autun Cathedral
3.2.2 Subject matter
This capital of Christ washing the feet of his Apostles has strong
narrative qualities in the interaction of the figures.
Another source of the spiral is clearly the illuminated
manuscripts of the 7th to 9th centuries, particularly Irish
manuscripts such as the St. Gall Gospel Book, spread into
Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission. In these illuminations the use of the spiral has nothing to do with vines
or other plant forms. The motif is abstract and mathematical. The style was then picked up in Carolingian art
and given a more botanical character. It is in an adaptation of this form that the spiral occurs in the draperies
of both sculpture and stained glass windows. Of all the
many examples that occur on Romanesque portals, one of
the most outstanding is that of the central figure of Christ
at La Madeleine, Vezelay.[6]
Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and Biblical in
subject. A great variety of themes are found on capitals and include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man,
episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes which prefigure his Death and Resurrection,
such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions’
den. Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three
Kings being particularly popular. The cloisters of Santo
Domingo de Silos Abbey in Northern Spain, and Moissac
are fine examples surviving complete.
A feature of some Romanesque churches is the extensive
sculptural scheme which covers the area surrounding the
portal or, in some case, much of the facade. Angouleme
Cathedral in France has a highly elaborate scheme of
sculpture set within the broad niches created by the arcading of the facade. In Catalonia, an elaborate pictorial
scheme in low relief surrounds the door of the church of
Santa Maria at Ripoll.[6]
Another influence from Insular art are engaged and en- The purpose of the sculptural schemes was to con-
3.2
Architectural sculpture
5
being beaten by his wife or seized by demons. Demons
fighting over the soul of a wrongdoer such as a miser is
another popular subject.[8]
Around the upper wall of the chancel at the Abbaye d'Arthous,
Landes, France, are small figures depicting lust, intemperance
and a Barbary ape, symbol of human depravity.
vey a message that the Christian believer should recognize wrongdoing, repent and be redeemed. The Last
Judgement reminds the believer to repent. The carved Pórtico da Gloria, Santiago Cathedral. The colouring once comor painted Crucifix, displayed prominently within the mon to much Romanesque sculpture has been preserved.
church, reminds the sinner of redemption.
3.2.3 Late Romanesque sculpture
Ouroboros, single and in pairs at Kilpeck, England
Often the sculpture is alarming in form and in subject
matter. These works are found on capitals, corbels and
bosses, or entwined in the foliage on door mouldings.
They represent forms that are not easily recognizable today. Common motifs include Sheela na Gig, fearsome
demons, ouroboros or dragons swallowing their tails, and
many other mythical creatures with obscure meaning.
Spirals and paired motifs originally had special significance in oral tradition that has been lost or rejected by
modern scholars.
The Seven Deadly Sins including lust, gluttony and
avarice are also frequently represented. The appearance
of many figures with oversized genitals can be equated
with carnal sin, and so can the numerous figures shown
with protruding tongues, which are a feature of the doorway of Lincoln Cathedral. Pulling one’s beard was a symbol of masturbation, and pulling one’s mouth wide open
was also a sign of lewdity. A common theme found on
capitals of this period is a tongue poker or beard stroker
Gothic architecture is usually considered to begin with
the design of the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, north
of Paris, by the Abbot Suger, consecrated 1144. The beginning of Gothic sculpture is usually dated a little later,
with the carving of the figures around the Royal Portal
at Chartres Cathedral, France, 1150–55. The style of
sculpture spread rapidly from Chartres, overtaking the
new Gothic architecture. In fact, many churches of the
late Romanesque period post-date the building at SaintDenis. The sculptural style based more upon observation and naturalism than on formalised design developed
rapidly. It is thought that one reason for the rapid development of naturalistic form was a growing awareness of
Classical remains in places where they were most numerous and a deliberate imitation of their style. The consequence is that there are doorways which are Romanesque
in form, and yet show a naturalism associated with Early
Gothic sculpture.[6]
One of these is the Pórtico da Gloria dating from 1180,
at Santiago de Compostela. This portal is internal
and is particularly well preserved, even retaining colour
on the figures and indicating the gaudy appearance of
much architectural decoration which is now perceived as
monochrome. Around the doorway are figures who are
integrated with the colonnettes that make the mouldings
of the doors. They are three-dimensional, but slightly
flattened. They are highly individualised, not only in appearance but also expression and bear quite strong resemblance to those around the north porch of the Abbey of St.
Denis, dating from 1170. Beneath the tympanum there
is a realistically carved row of figures playing a range of
different and easily identifiable musical instruments.
6
4
4
Painting
PAINTING
cant, and illumination, and books generally, became more
widely available to both laity and clergy.
4.2 Wall painting
Life of St. Eldrado, abbot. 11th century fresco in Novalesa
Abbey
The Three Magi from the St. Albans Psalter, English, 12th century.
4.1
Manuscript illumination
A number of regional schools converged in the early Romanesque illuminated manuscript: the “Channel school”
of England and Northern France was heavily influenced
by late Anglo-Saxon art, whereas in Southern France the
style depended more on Iberian influence, and in Germany and the Low Countries, Ottonian styles continued
to develop, and also, along with Byzantine styles, influenced Italy. By the 12th century there had been reciprocal influences between all these, although naturally regional distinctiveness remained.
The typical focii of Romanesque illumination were the
Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large
historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials
were similarly illuminated. In both cases more lavish
examples might have cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page,
in compartments. The Bibles in particular often had a
very large page size, and might be bound into more than
one volume. Examples include the St. Albans Psalter,
Hunterian Psalter, Winchester Bible (the “Morgan Leaf”
shown above), Fécamp Bible, Stavelot Bible, and Parc
Abbey Bible. By the end of the period lay commercial
workshops of artists and scribes were becoming signifi-
Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll, a Catalan fresco by the Master of
Taüll, now in Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.
The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the
Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration.
Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have
been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In England, France and the
Netherlands such pictures were systematically destroyed
or whitewashed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. In
Denmark and elsewhere many have since been restored.
In Catalonia (Spain), there was a national campaign to
save such murals in the early 20th century (as of 1907)
7
by removing them and transferring them to safekeeping
in Barcelona, resulting in the spectacular collection at the
National Art Museum of Catalonia. In other countries
they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.
Province of Burgos, Spain, though from a monastery,
are secular in subject-matter, showing huge and vigorous
mythical beasts above a frieze in black and white with
other creatures. They give a rare idea of what decorated
Romanesque palaces would have contained.
A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a
church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic,
had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ
in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a
mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols
of the Four Evangelists, comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel
Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee
of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse
walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of the saint to whom
the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were
figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "elders of
the Apocalypse", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or
his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north
wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the
Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Last Judgement,
with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top.[9]
The painted crypt of San Isidoro at León, Spain
One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at SaintSavin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of
the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is
decorated with scenes of the Old Testament, showing the
Creation, the Fall of Man and other stories including a
lively depiction of Noah’s Ark complete with a fearsome
figurehead and numerous windows through with can be
seen the Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on
the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh’s army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom
of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in
the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colours
employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia,
Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France.[10]
Stained glass, the Prophet Daniel from Augsburg Cathedral, late
11th century.
5 Other visual arts
5.1 Embroidery
Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux
Tapestry, but many more closely worked pieces of Opus
Anglicanum (“English work” - considered the finest in the
West) and other styles have survived, mostly as church
The now-dispersed paintings from Arlanza in the vestments.
8
9
5.2
Stained glass
The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained
glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest
intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff
and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in
design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the
glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed
to the medium. At Le Mans, Canterbury and Chartres
Cathedrals, and Saint-Denis, a number of panels of the
12th century have survived. At Canterbury these include
a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth
from a series of Ancestors of Christ. Adam represents a
highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure
of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period. Glass
craftsmen were slower than architects to change their
style, and much glass from at least the first part of the 13th
century can be considered as essentially Romanesque.
Especially fine are large figures of 1200 from Strasbourg
Cathedral (some now removed to the museum) and of
about 1220 from Saint Kunibert’s Church in Cologne.
EXTERNAL LINKS
7 Notes
[1] Some (probably) 9th century near life-size stucco figures
were discovered behind a wall in Santa Maria in Valle,
Cividale del Friuli in Northern Italy relatively recently.
Atroshenko and Collins p. 142
[2] G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II,1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, pp.
140–142 for early crosses, p. 145 for roods, ISBN 085331-324-5
[3] V.I. Atroshenko and Judith Collins, The Origins of the Romanesque,p. 144–50, Lund Humphries, London, 1985,
ISBN 0-85331-487-X
[4] Howe, Jeffery. “Romanesque Architecture (slides)". A
digital archive of architecture. Boston College. Retrieved
2007-09-28.
[5] Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages’’.
[6] Rene Hyughe, Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and
Medieval Art
[7] Roger A. Stalley, “Irish Art in the Romanesque and
Gothic Periods.” In Treasures of Irish Art 1500 B.C.
Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, includto 1500 A.D., New York: Metropolitan Museum of
ing the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th
Art/Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.
century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the
12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a [8] “Satan in the Groin”. beyond-the-pale. Retrieved 2007remarkable composition which rises through three stages,
09-28.
the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St
Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifix- [9] James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art,
p154, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-4
ion and the upper stage showing the Ascension of Christ
in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already [10] Rolf Toman, Romanesque, Könemann, (1997), ISBN 3showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by
89508-447-6
George Seddon as being of “unforgettable beauty”.[11]
Many detached fragments are in museums, and a win- [11] George Seddon in Lee, Seddon and Stephens, Stained
Glass
dow at Twycross Church in England is made up of important French panels rescued from the French Revolu[12] Church website
tion.[12] Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible (in
that it could be added to or re-arranged) and seems to
have been often re-used when churches were rebuilt in the
Gothic style - the earliest datable English glass, a panel in 8 References
York Minster from a Tree of Jesse probably of before
1154, has been recycled in this way.
• Legner, Anton (ed). Ornamenta Ecclesiae, Kunst
und Künstler der Romanik. Catalogue of an exhibition in the Schnütgen Museum, Köln, 1985. 3 vols.
6
See also
9 External links
• Romanesque architecture
• Regional characteristics of Romanesque architecture
• Metropolitan Museum Timeline Essay
• crsbi.ac.uk (Electronic archive of medieval British
and Irish Romanesque stone sculpture)
• List of Romanesque artists
• Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain and Ireland
• Spanish Romanesque
• Romanes.com Romanesque Art in France
9
• Círculo Románico: Visigothic, Mozarabic and Romanesque art’s in all Europe
• Romanesque Sculpture group on Flickr
10
10
10
10.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
Text
• Romanesque art Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanesque_art?oldid=697271306 Contributors: William Avery, Mervyn, OwenBlacker, Rosarino, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ham II, Stbalbach, Bender235, Art LaPella, Bobo192, Alansohn, Clubmarx, WadeSimMiser, Mandarax, Sparkit, Eubot, PKM, Chwyatt, Wavelength, RussBot, Fabartus, Pigman, EEMIV, Closedmouth, Xareu bs, Fram, Garion96, SmackBot, ProveIt, Srnec, Gilliam, Skizzik, Jeffro77, Chris the speller, Static Universe, Epierre, WikEditor, Addshore, Kazov, MrRadioGuy,
Zrulli, Makyen, Keahapana, Iridescent, TwistOfCain, MJO, Pryderi, Ewulp, Bonás, Tlumaczek, MC10, Amandajm, Odie5533, Alaibot,
Mattisse, Sry85, Garcilaso, Mojo Hand, Tirkfl, Insiriusdenial, P.iva, Mentifisto, RobotG, Exteray, Modernist, JAnDbot, JamesBWatson,
Catgut, Allstarecho, Anaxial, Zacheus, Bus stop, J.delanoy, Johnbod, Ipigott, MadMaster~enwiki, Wes Pacek, Irish Pearl, FinnWiki, Insanity Incarnate, Why Not A Duck, Steven Weston, Dawn Bard, Radon210, Wmpearl, Jordi Roqué, Prof saxx, ClueBot, Havelock the
Dane, Fobizan, Parkwells, Magedark, Hegvald, Mattissa, Egmontaz, Catgirl, Addbot, USchick, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ched, Лев Дубовой, Omnipaedista, Uk-art-online, Venerock, LucienBOT, Goodness Shamrock, Pe-Jo,
Sideways713, EmausBot, Eyadhamid, Kippelboy, Cheluco, ClueBot NG, Ahahahahahahaification, Círculo Románico, Oddbodz, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Thoughtfortheday, Joydeep, Vvven, Khazar2, Ogmudchildren, Newbie1988, Yakikaki, Bunet1981, Jomateix ripoll, F. .MAN
STXN, KasparBot and Anonymous: 96
10.2
Images
• File:'The_Virgin_and_Child_in_Majesty_and_the_Adoration_of_the_Maji',_Romanesque_fresco_by_the_Master_of_Pedret_from_the_apse_of_the_
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/%27The_Virgin_and_Child_in_Majesty_and_the_Adoration_of_the_
Maji%27%2C_Romanesque_fresco_by_the_Master_of_Pedret_from_the_apse_of_the_Church_of_Saint_Joan_at_Tredos%2C_
Lleida%2C_Spain%2C_c._1100.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Collections of The Cloisters, New York City Original artist:
wmpearl
• File:02_Basilique_Ste-Marie-Madeleine_de_Vézelay_-_Tympan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
c4/02_Basilique_Ste-Marie-Madeleine_de_V%C3%A9zelay_-_Tympan.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Jean-Pol GRANDMONT
• File:Albanipsalter_DreiKoenige.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Albanipsalter_DreiKoenige.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Photo Card Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
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• File:Autun_Cathedrale_Chapiteau_pendaison_de_Judas.jpg Source:
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Autun_Cathedrale_Chapiteau_pendaison_de_Judas.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://flickr.com/photos/lespetitescases/
1128206095/in/photostream/ Original artist: La case photo de Got / Gautier Poupeau
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