CarlyGoodman
February26,2016
[email protected]
ResearchReport:BushfallingtoNoMan’sLand:TheU.S.DiversityVisaLotteryinCameroon
Theofficewasonthesecondfloorofabuilding,upametalspiralstaircase,ona
dustystreetinYaoundé,thecapitalofCameroon,acountryinCentralAfrica.Abanner
decoratedwithabrightAmericanflaghungoutside,andproclaimed,inEnglish,“American
DVLottery,”and,inFrench,“playandwinherewiththeprofessionals.”1Amanwithalaptopatthefrontoftheshop,exposedtothenoiseandairofthestreet,assistedalineof
peoplewhohadcometoenterthegreencardlottery,aprogramrunbytheU.S.
governmentaspartofitslegalimmigrationpolicy.Aspeopleappliedandpaidafee,they
receivedaprint-outwiththeirconfirmationnumberonit,andthemanonthelaptopalso
savedacopytohisPC.Themanincharge,BenghaInnocent,hadgrownupintheEnglishspeakingNorthwestRegionofCameroon,buthadcometobilingual,butmajority
francophone,Yaoundéin2004toattenduniversity.
Innocenthadknownaboutthelotteryforaslongashecouldremember.Earlyin
highschool,hesaid,“Ijustheardthatthere’sthiscontestwhichislikeagame,thatwhen
youplay,ifyouwin,youwillprobablyhaveavisatogotoAmerica,andyouliveinAmerica
likeanAmerican.”2Althoughhismainprofessionwasworkingasateacherofinformation
managementandcommunications,eachautumnhesetupshoptoassistCamerooniansin
enteringthelottery.“Somanypeopleareinterestedinleavingthecountry.Theybelieve
thatoutthereisbetterthanhere,”hesaid.“Mostofthemcomehereandtellmethey’ve
gonetotheembassytimeandagain…sotheybelievethisistheonlywayforthemtogo.”
Headdedthathisclientstrustedhimtoimprovetheirchancestowinthelottery.“There
arepeoplewhocome,theylookatme,andtheytellmeIamamagician.Becausewhenthey
wanttoplay,Isay,ohyouaregoingtowin.Anditjusthappens!”
InOctoberandNovember2015,IconductedaresearchtriptoCameroonwiththe
supportofagenerousgrantfromtheHistoryProject/InstituteforNewEconomicThinking.
DuringthemonthIspentinthecountry,IconductedresearchattheNationalArchivesof
CamerooninYaoundé,attheuniversitylibraryoftheUniversitédeYaoundé1,andatthe
universitylibraryattheUniversityofBuea.Inthesecollections,Ifocusedonfinding
evidenceofpastlotteriesinnewspapers.Ialsoconducted45shortoralhistoryinterviews
withcybercaféoperatorsinlargercitiesthroughoutthecountry,inbothEnglishand
French.IwasalsoabletoobservetheDVlotteryinoperationforthefirsttime.Duringmy
stay,IvisitedYaoundé,Douala,Kribi,Bamenda,Buea,andLimbe.IamsogratefultoThe
HistoryProjectandtheInstituteforNewEconomicThinkingforsupportingthisresearch
trip.MyexperienceinCameroonissomethingIwillneverforget.Mydissertationismuch
richerfortheinclusionofthevoicesofCameroon’scybercaféoperators.
1Photographbyauthor,October29,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.(Author’spossession.)“GatesSolutionCenter:
AmericanDVLottery20152017.Jouezetgagnericiaveclesprofessionnels.”
2BenghaInnocent,interviewwithauthor,October29,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.(Alltranscriptsinauthor’s
possession.)
1
MydissertationarguesthattheDVlotteryhasreshapedglobalmigration,making
possibleforthefirsttimesignificantvoluntaryimmigrationfromsub-SaharanAfricatothe
UnitedStates,andservingU.S.publicdiplomacyintheregionbysustainingtheAmerican
DreaminAfrica.Myresearchfocusesbothonthelegislationoftheimmigrationpolicy,and
itsimplementationinAfrica.Inparticularmyresearchfocusesontherolesplayedby
privatevisaservicesentrepreneursinAfricawhoseizedtheprogramasaneconomic
opportunityinatimeofrelativeprivationasAfricanstatesadoptedstructuraladjustment
programs,limitedstateservices,anddevaluedcurrencies.Theseagentsplayedakeyrole
amplifyingthelottery,transformingitfromanabstractdreamtoaconcretepossibility,and
promotingpositiveimpressionsoftheUnitedStates.
QQQ
Cameroon’sgovernmentpromotesthecountryas“Africainminiature”duetoits
geographicanddemographicdiversity.3Positionedjustatthecurveseparatingwestfrom
centralAfrica,CameroonbordersNigeria,stretchesnorthtowardsChad,easttowardthe
CentralAfricanRepublic,andsouthtoEquatorialGuinea,Gabon,andtheRepublicofCongo.
ThecountryboaststhehighestmountaininwesternAfrica,denseforests,lovelybeaches,
andSaheliansavannahinthenorth.MostofitsterritorywasonceaGermancolony,which
wasdividedafterWorldWarIbetweenFranceandGreatBritainasmandates,andlater
trustees.Whenthecountrygainedindependencein1960and1961,itbecameafederal
republicthatwasofficiallybilingualwithFrenchandEnglishbothofficiallanguagesin
additiontohundredsoflocallanguages.Sinceindependence,Cameroonhashadtwo
presidents,AhmadouAhidjountil1982,andPaulBiyaeversince.Incontrasttosome
neighboringcountries,includingNigeriaandGhana,Cameroonhasnodirect,nonstop
flightstoNorthAmerica,andveryfewhistorictiestotheUnitedStatesofAmerica.In1990,
onlyaround3000CamerooniansresidedasimmigrantsintheUnitedStates.Todaythe
numberisover33,000,aneleven-foldincreaseinjustovertwentyyears.4
Easilyhalfofthenewarrivals–15,000people–camethroughtheU.S.DiversityVisa
(DV)lottery.5Eachyear,beginningin1994,theUnitedStateshasheldanopen,cost-free
lottery,invitingmillionsofapplicantsaroundtheworldtosubmittheirnamesforachance
atagreencard,thedocumentthatgivesapersonlawfulpermanentresidentstatusinthe
UnitedStates.ThelotteryhasbeenespeciallypopularinAfrica,fromwhichfewimmigrants
hailedpriorto1990.In1989,forexample,only187Camerooniansreceivedimmigrant
visastotheUnitedStates.6Inthe2013DiversityVisaprogram,theUnitedStatesreceived
3Cameroon’spopulationwasestimatedtobe12millionin1990,and22.25milliontoday.DatafromWorld
Bank,visualizedbyGoogle’sPublicDataproject,accessedat:
https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=d5bncppjof8f9_&ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&m
et_y=sp_pop_totl&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=region&idim=country:CMR&ifdim=region&hl=en&dl=en&in
d=false
4JosephTakougang,CameroonianImmigrantsintheUnitedStates:BetweentheHomelandandthe
Diaspora(Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2014).
5EulaliaAmaboNchang,“15,000CamerooniansinUSonDVLotteryTickets–Consul:InterviewwithVice
ConsulConnorO’Steen,”CameroonPost,October12,2015.
6ImmigrationStatistics:YearbookofImmigrationStatistics1996,Table3,ImmigrantsAdmittedbyRegion
andCountryofbirth,1986-1996.http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/yearbook/statyearbk96.zip
2
224,509qualifiedentriesfromCameroon,selected3,858lotterywinners,andissued1,619
Camerooniansdiversityvisas.7BecauseimmigrantswhoentertheUnitedStateswitha
diversityvisacanbringtheirimmediatefamilies,andlaterpetitionforotherrelativesto
jointhem,overtimethevisalotteryintroducesnew,sustainedchainsofmigrationfrom
underrepresentedcountries.ThelotteryhasdramaticallytransformedCameroonian
emigrationtotheUnitedStates,bothincreasingthenumberofCameroonianimmigrants,
anddrawingbroadlyfrombothanglophoneandfrancophonecommunities;previouslythe
majorityofimmigrantswereEnglishspeakers.
Myresearchcontextualizestheoperationofthevisalottery,andconsidersboth
domesticCameroonianandinternationaldynamicssurroundingemigrationfrom
CameroontotheUnitedStates.Incontrasttoothersub-SaharanAfricannations,Cameroon
enjoyedrelativepoliticalandeconomicstabilitythroughintothe1980s,withthestate
usingoilrevenuestofundhealth,education,infrastructure,andalargenumberofpublicownedenterprises.WhenCameroonadoptedstructuraladjustmentprogramsinthelate
1980s,reducingstateprogramsanddevaluingthecurrency,standardsoflivingandincome
plummeted.EconomichardshipwithinCameroonandaninternationalwaveofprodemocracymovementsafterthecollapseoftheSovietUnionexacerbatedpolitical
problemsinCameroon,particularlythelinguisticdividebetweenFrenchandEnglishspeakingCameroonians-whatcametobeknownasthe“anglophoneproblem.”8
Theneweconomiclandscape,alongwithcoincidentpoliticalfractures,creatednew
pressureonCameroonianstodepartthecountryinsearchofbetteropportunitiesabroad.
AnewlywidespreadCamerooniandesireformobilitywasbolsteredbyforcesof
globalizationthatexposedCameroonianstoimagesoflifeabroadwhilereinforcingasense
ofstasisanddeclinewithinCameroon.Moreover,Camerooniansfacedtherealityand
rhetoricofincreasinglyrestrictiveimmigrationpoliciesinEurope,whichhadpreviously
beenapreferreddestinationforAfricansseekinggreenerpastures.Inthiscontext,theDV
lottery–andtheUnitedStates–providedanalternativethateventuallyattractedmany
applicantsfrombothEnglishandFrench-speakingcommunitiesinCameroon.
Atfirst,itwasanglophoneswhoseizedthelotterymostenthusiastically.
AnglophonesweremorelikelytogotoAmericaforlinguisticreasonsandtowanttodepart
CameroonpermanentlyduetotheirsenseofmarginalizationinCameroon.Aseconomic
andpoliticalpressuresmountedinthe1990s,English-speakersinCameroon,whofelt
thesepressuresmostacutely,increasinglysoughttogoabroad,andtodosopermanently.
ThisphenomenonbecamesowidelydiscussedthatCameroonianscreatedanew
expressiontodescribegoingabroadtotheWest.Theexpressions“bushfalling,”“tofall
bush,”and“bushfaller”alldrawonPidginwords.“Bush”isawordforfarmthatindicates
7ImmigrationStatistics:“DiversityVisaProgram,DV2007-2013:NumberofEntriesReceivedDuringEach
OnlineRegistrationPeriodbyCountryofChargeability,”accessedat
http://travel.state.gov/content/dam/visas/DV_Applicant_Entrants_by_Country_2007-2013.pdf;“DV2013-
SelectedEntrants”accessedathttp://travel.state.gov/content/visas/english/immigrate/diversityvisa/dv2013-slected-entrants.html;“TableVIIImmigrantNumberUseforVisaIssuancesandAdjustmentsof
StatusintheDiversityImmigrantCategoryFiscalYears2004-2013,”accessedat
http://travel.state.gov/content/dam/visas/Statistics/AnnualReports/FY2013AnnualReport/FY13AnnualRep
ort-TableVII.pdf.
8PietKoningsandFrancisB.Nyamnjoh,“TheAnglophoneProbleminCameroon,”TheJournalofModern
AfricanStudies,35no.2(1997):207-229.
3
foodandbounty.Theword“fall”meansto“jumponto”or“rushinto”something.
Traditionally,to“fallbush”meantjumpingintoorrushingtoafarmtodothenecessary
workofharvesting,sowingseeds,andprovidinglaboratkeytimesforthefarm.“Onenever
returnsfromthebushwithemptyhands,”theanthropologistMichaelaPelicanhas
explains.9Inthe1990s,Camerooniansbeganusingtheexpressiontomeantravelingtoan
industrializedcountrytodolaborandreapmaterialrewardsforit;thetermisassociated
withadventure-seeking.ThescholarMaybrittJillAlpeswrote,“Apersonwhohastraveled
tobushhastohustle,whichmeansthatheorshewillacceptanykindofworktobeableto
makemoney.”10Inthewordsofanaspiringemigrant,“fallingbush–itmeansthatyouare
goingtothewhiteman’sworld.”11Theverb“rapidlyshoveditswayintooursonorous
linguafrancainthe1990s,whenthephenomenonofCamerooniansemigratingtotheWest
attainednewproportions,”aCameroonPostmagazinearticleexplained.12
AnglophonesandfrancophoneshadlongassessedtheirplacesinCameroon
differently,giventhecentralityoftheFrenchlanguageandstrongdiplomaticandbusiness
tieswithFrance,andthesenseofmarginalizationfeltbymanyEnglishspeakers.Different
politicalcircumstanceswithinCameroonalsoshapedattitudesaboutinternational
migrationintheearly1990s.TheanthropologistMichaelaPelicanhasrefinedapictureof
aspiringAfricanemigrantsthatistoooftenhomogenous,drawingattentiontoAfrica’s
diversity,andthenon-uniformexperiencesandoptionsforAfricanemigrants.Anglophone
Cameroonians,reactingtoparticularlydifficultcircumstancesathome,usedpositive,
adventure-seekinglanguagetodescribegoingabroadandseekingfortune:bushfalling.The
languagefrancophonesusedtodescribeemigrationshowedmoreambiguity.Withhigher
expectationsabouttheirplaceinCameroon,intheattitudesoffrancophoneCameroonians,
Pelicanexplains,“migrationisseeninamorecriticallight.”13Insteadofbushfalling,
francophoneterminologyforinternationalmigrationtendedtoborrowfrommilitaristic
language.Francophonesusedtermslike“alleraufront”and“allersebattre”todescribe
travelingabroad,meaning“togotothefront,”and“togointobattle.”14Thesewords
associatedgoingabroadwithhardshipandstruggle,ratherthanmaterialopportunity.
Divergentattitudesaboutemigrationresultednotonlyfromdifferentexperiencesof
bilingualisminCameroon,butfromdifferentmigrationdestinations.Inthe1990s,previous
avenuestoFrance,aswellastootherEuropeancountries,wereclosing.Sincethe1970s,
Francehadtighteneditsbordersandendedlabormigrationprograms,andin1993,
France’sinteriorministerCharlesPasquaendorsedtheideaof“zeroimmigration”and
enactedlegislationthattoughenedrequirements,limitedvisas,andexpandedborder
enforcement.15Approvalratesforasylumapplicationsplummeted.Adestinationonce
9MichaelaPelican,“InternationalMigration:VirtueorVice?PerspectivesfromCameroon,”JournalofEthnic
andMigrationStudies39,no.2(2013):242.
10MaybrittJillAlpes,“BushfallingatAllCost:TheEconomyofMigratoryKnowledgeinAnglophoneCameroon
AfricanDiaspora,”AfricanDiaspora5(2012):95.
11Innocent,interview.
12ClovisAtatah,“Aproposdebushfalling,”PostNewsMagazine,September2006,accessedat:
https://web.archive.org/web/20070326142333/http://www.postnewsmagazine.com/pages/editor03.htm.
13Pelican,241.
14Ibid.
15KimberlyHamilton,PatrickSimon,ClaraVeniard,“TheChallengeofFrenchDiversity,”MigrationPolicy
Institute,November1,2004,accessedat:http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/challenge-french-diversity;
4
associatedwithmakingdreamscometruehadbecomesodifficult,itwaslikenedinthe
francophoneCameroonianpresstoahellinwhichimmigrantsweresubjecttodetention
andhomelessness.16Bytheendofthedecade,aCamerooniannewspaperestimatedthat90
percentofCamerooniansinFrancewereconsideredillegal.17Duetothepresenceof
EuropeanandinternationalNGOsinYaoundé,thecity’sresidentshadaccesstoimagesand
policiesaboutmigrationpromulgatedbyEuropeangovernmentsthatframedAfrican
immigrationasaproblem,asillegal,andassomethingEuropeangovernmentscouldnot
sustain.18Asaresult,francophonestendedtospeakaboutgoingabroadinnegativeor
ambivalentterms.
QQQ
TheUnitedStatesDiversityVisa(DV)lotterywasdifferent.Incontrastto
contemporarymigrationpoliciesinFrance,acrossEurope,andintheUnitedStates,theDV
lotterycreatedanewinstrumentthatencouragedimmigration.WhileCameroonians
seekingtemporaryvisastotheUnitedStatestendedtoberefusedattheConsularsectionof
theembassy,thoseselectedintheDiversityVisalotteryencounteredamuchwarmer
receptionandmuchbetterodds.19TheDVlotterywouldbecomethemostimportant
channelCamerooniansusedtocometheUnitedStates.20Inthefirstyearalone,theUnited
Statesselected908winnersfromCameroon,andultimatelyissued312diversityvisasto
Cameroonians.21
Theearliestparticipantsinthelotteryhailedfromtheanglophoneregions,where
peopleweremorelikelytohavecontactsintheUnitedStates,andwherepeoplespoke
enoughEnglishtounderstandtheprogram’sprocedures.TheUnitedStatesinitially
focuseditsoutreachonEnglish-speakingaudiences.22Butfrancophonesalsoplayed,andin
increasingnumbersovertheyears.23AsJosephTakougangargues,thelottery“has
ChristineO’Connell,“PlightofFrance’sSans-PapiersGivesaFacetoStruggleoverImmigrationReform,”
HumanRightsBrief,1996,accessedathttp://www1.american.edu/ted/hpages/human/pasqua41.htm.
16JacquesBlaise,“L’enferparisiendesimmigrés,”LaNouvelleExpression,May30–June2,1995.Universityof
BueaArchives.
17Takougang,24.
18Pelican.
19CameroonianFrancesNkamguessedthattheU.S.Embassy“hasabouta1percentvisa-grantingrate.For
every1,000peoplewhoactuallyapplyforavisa,you’llbeluckyif10peoplefromthatnumbergetavisa.That
isalmostimpossible.”AliWatkins,“U.S.immigrationoverhaulmaywalloffpathwaysfromAfrica,Caribbean,”
McClatchyWashingtonBureau,July5,2013,accessedathttp://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/politicsgovernment/congress/article24750739.html.
20Takougang,29.
21AbouttwiceasmanyDVlotterywinnersareselectedeachyearthancanreceivethevisa,becausesomeof
thepeopleselectedwilleithernotqualifyforthevisa,orwillchoosenottofollowthroughonapplying.Office
oftheSpokesman,U.S.DepartmentofState,“FinalDV-1InformationfromStateDepartment,”October19,
1994.OfficeofPolicyandPlanning,AnnualReport:LegalImmigration,FiscalYear1997.
22EdmundF.Scherr,USIADiplomaticCorrespondent,“UnitedStatesNotifyingWinnersofNewVisaLottery
Program*Safeguardssystemeliminatesfraudulentapplication,”CameroonPost,WeeklyEdition,December613,1994,Author’scollection;EdmundF.Scherr,USIADiplomaticCorrespondent,“USAnnouncessecond
lotteryfor55,000immigrantvisas,applicationsdueinFebruaryforrandomselection,”TheHerald,December
12-14,1994,Author’scollection.
23“Anglophonesjouentpluslonguesquelesfrancophones.”KannaLandry,interviewwithauthor,October28,
2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon(French).
5
singularlyaccountedforthetremendousincreaseinthenumberofFrench-speaking
CamerooniansintheUnitedStates.”24
IncontrasttothelanguagefrancophonesusedtodescribetravelingtoEurope,a
contextinwhichAfricanmigrantswerecriminalizedasillegal,andvictimized,
francophonesdiscussedtheDVlotteryandemigrationtotheUnitedStatesinmorepositive
terms.AfrancophoneAfricanwebsitepostedabouttheprogramin2001asthelotteryof
theAmericanDream,thatmadeitpossibletoliveandwork“inthecountryofUncleSam
totallylegally.”25ThattheDVlotteryofferedanexplicitlylegalpathtotheUnitedStates
dampenedthesense,amongfrancophoneCameroonians,thattravelingabroadwaslike
goingintobattle.OneFrenchspeaker,SergesNgueffang,ina2005articleexplainedwhy
thevisalotterywassoappealing:“Onehasabetterchancewithit.TheEuropeansalready
closedtheirdoors.Withthiscard,wearenotillegal.”26Insteadofframingemigrationas
‘goingtothefront’inamilitarymetaphor,theCameroonTribuneusedtheverbsebousculer
whichmeans“torush”or“toscramble,”languageoftenusedinanglophoneAfricanwriting
todescribegoingabroad.27TheopportunitytogolegallytotheUnitedStatesratherthan
clandestinelytoEurope,howeversmalltheoddsofwinningthelottery,madetheUnited
Statesamoreattractivedestination.28AnanglophoneCameroonianaffirmedthis
comparison:“Peoplehavetoldme,fromallindications,fromallinformation,theytoldme
goingtoAmericaislike,theyarefreethere,whentheygouptoEurope,theychasethem
there,thereisalotofpolicechasingthemaway,becauseinAmerica,ifyougetyourlegsin
America,itisafreezone.”29
TheUnitedStates’shift,in2003,toanonlinesystemfurtherbroadened
participationopportunities,particularlyforfrancophones.In2000,perhaps20,000of
Cameroon’s16.5millionpeoplehadaccesstotheInternet,butthatnumbergrewquickly,
to370,000in2006,to725,000in2009,andoveronemillion(outof20million
Cameroonianstotal)in2012.30Asaccesstotheinternetspread,enterprisingCameroonians
openedsmallcybercafés.Managersatthesecafésrealizedthattheannualvisalotterywas
anexcellentwaytodrawinbusiness,sincehomeaccesstotheinternetwasexceedingly
rareinCameroon.AspokespersonfortheU.S.embassy,BoubaMonglo,toldaFrenchlanguagenewsoutletthattheshifttoanonlinesystemhadresultedinmoreFrench
24Takougang,29.
25“Laloteriedurêveaméricain”“aupaysdel’oncleSam,entoutelégalité.”“Laloteriedureveamericain”
afrik.com,July18,2001,accessedathttp://www.afrik.com/article3061.html.
26“Onaplusdechanceainsi.LesEuropéensnousfermentdéjàleursportes.Aveccettecarte,nousnesommes
pasdansl'illégalité.”DorineEkwè,“LeBoomdelalotterieAméricaineauCameroun,”Mutations,November2,
2005,accessedathttp://www.bonaberi.com/article.php?aid=1390.
27“LesCamerounaissebousculentdéjàpourcettenouvelleéditionetdesbusinesssontnésenmarge.”
FelicietBahaneN.,“Plusde1.400Camerounaisgagnentl’ameriquealaloterie,”CameroonTribune,October
27,2010,http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201010280326.html.Seeforexample,AustinAvwode,“MadRushto
America,”TheWeek,March11,1996,
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.temple.edu/docview/198929055?accountid=14270.
28Awomanwhohelpedherhusbandrunavisashopdiscussedhowimportantitwastobeabletogoin“le
manierlegal”–thelegalmanner.“Mireille,”interviewwithauthor,October30,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon
(French).
29NkonghoWaltersMbu,interviewwithauthor,October29,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.
30“CameronInternetUsageandPopulationStatistics,”WorldBank&InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion,
accessedatInternetWorldStats,http://internetworldstats.com/af/cm.htm.
6
speakingapplicantsforthelotteryprogram.“Beforetwoyearsago[2003],itwasmorethe
peopleintheEnglish-speakingpartofthecountrywhoapplied.Inaddition,itwasmore
difficulttomanagebecauseithadtobedonebymail.TheadventoftheInternethas
facilitatedthediscoveryofthismediumbyfrancophoneCameroonians.”31
BringingthevisalotterytolifeasaninstrumentofmigrationinCameroonwasan
emergingcohortofAfricanprivatevisaservicesentrepreneurs,includingtravelagents,
photographers,andavarietyofothersseekingpersonalprofit,whobecameimportant
enactorsoftheprogram.32Facingashrinkingpublicsector,fallingwages,andhigh
unemploymentinAfrica-consequencesofstructuraladjustment-onemethodofsurvival
inCameroonwascreatingsmallenterprises,inthiscaseservingAfricans’emigration
aspirationsbysellingvisaservices.33AstheanthropologistCharlesPiotargues,the
momentofextremeprivationinAfricaaftertheColdWarwasalsoproductiveinthe
Foucaultiansense,“spawninganewroundofextraordinarilyinventivebricolage.”34Small
businessesofferedvisalottery-relatedservices,takingvisaphotographs,fillingout
governmentforms,andacquiringnecessarypaperworkandcertificationsfortheirclients.
TheDVlottery,withitslowthresholdforentry,offeredaperfectopportunityforthesevisa
entrepreneurs.Motivatedbyprofit,visaservicesagentsnotonlyearnedincomeduringthe
lotteryregistrationperiod.TheyalsoservedastransmittersoftheU.S.policy,bringingitto
audiencesnotreachedbyofficialU.S.announcements.35Throughtheirbusinesses,posters,
advertisements,andlater,accesstotheinternetincybercafés,theyhelpedspreadakindof
“lottofever”throughthecitiesofsub-SaharanAfrica.36
Likeotherpromisingyoungpeople,onemancamefromanglophoneNorthwest
RegiontothecapitaltopursuehisstudiesattheUniversitédeYaoundéII.Hetookajobat
CyberCity,acybercafé,wherehisworkwas“makingtheworldaglobalvillage.”Duringthe
visalottery,heassistedbothanglophoneandfrancophoneclientstoenterthevisalottery.
“Mostoftenit’stheEnglish-speakingpeoplewhodoit.Thefrancophones,oncetheyhave
anideaaboutit,theyalsogiveitatry,”hetoldme.37Anothervisaagent,toldme,“Theirony
aboutitisthattheFrench,too,areinterested.AmericaisanEnglishcountry,butthe
French,everybodywantstogo.TheFrench,too,theyareplayingevenmore.Itissomehow
31“Avantcesdeuxdernièresannées,c'étaitdavantagelesgensdelazoneanglophonedupaysquipostulaient.
Enplus,c'étaitplusdifficileàgérerparcequ'ilfallaitlefaireparlaposte.L'avènementdel'Internetafacilité
ladécouvertedecemoyenparlescamerounaisfrancophones.”Ekwè,“LeBoomdelalotterieAméricaineau
Cameroun.”
32The1990ssawanuptickinaglobalcommercialmigrationindustry,whichemergedtomanage
migrationflowsinaneraofrecentglobalization.Visalottery-relatedentrepreneurswerepartofthislarger
trend.SeeThomasGammeltoft-HansenandNinnaNybergSorenseneds.,TheMigrationIndustryandthe
CommercializationofInternationalMigration(NewYork,NY:Routledge,2012).
33CharlesPiot,NostalgiafortheFuture:WestAfricaaftertheColdWar(Chicago,IL:Universityof
ChicagoPress,2010);JamesFerguson,GlobalShadows:AfricaintheNeoliberalWorldOrder(Durham,NC:
DukeUniversityPress,2006).
34Piot,3.
35Andengagingin“AtlanticAfrican”economicpracticesthathavelongcharacterizedAfrican
economicactivity.JaneGuyer,MarginalGains:MonetaryTransactionsinAtlanticAfrica(Chicago,IL:
UniversityofChicagoPress,2004).
36MelissaBlock,“ImmigrationLotteryDrawsMillionsofApplications,”NPR,June10,1994,accessed
athttps://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-27998063.html;JamesButty,“U.S.toHoldVisaLottery,”West
Africa,June19,1994;and“LotteryFeverinFreetown,”WestAfrica,March2,1997.
37AllomonwingJosephNgochi,interviewwithauthor,November4,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.
7
funny–peoplewhodon’tevenunderstandEnglish,too,theyplay.”38Manyofthecapital’s
internetcaféswherethevisalotteryismostfamouslyadvertisedareinananglophone
neighborhood,wherevisaagentslongexperiencedwiththeDVlottery-oftenanglophones
themselves-advertisetheirservicestobothEnglish-andFrench-speakersresidingin
Yaoundé.39
TheonlineDVlotterywasgoodfortheinternetbusiness–perhapsbetterforthe
caféownersthanforlotteryapplicants.Manypeopledidnotunderstandhowtoaccessthe
Internetorhowtoenterthelottery.AsoneInternetcaféoperatorinYaoundéexplained,
“Wehelpthemtakepicturesandcompletetheonlineregistrationform.Andtheypayus
1,000CFAtoenter,”Mr.Bodoexplained.Whileenteringthelotterywasofficiallyfree,café
operatorscouldprofitfromcustomerswithoutInternetaccess.40Thisbusinesscrossedthe
languagedivide,ascybercaféoperatorsseizedtheprogramasabusinessopportunity,and
promoteditinbothFrenchandEnglish.AsonebloggerdescribedYaoundéduringthe
lottery,“bannersandbillboardsareprominentlydisplayed,directingpassers-bytoa
nearbyInternetcaféwheretheywould,orcould,byastrokeofluck,automaticallybecome
Americancitizenswithout‘spendingmuch.’”41Onewomanworkingatacybercaféwithher
husbandtoldme,“Anglophonescommefrancophones–lesgensseinteressent.”42The
entrepreneurialactivityaroundthegreencardlottery“instil[ls]inonethefantasyofone
daybecomingUncleSam’scountryman”,abloggerargued.43
Duetotheeffortsofprivatevisaservicesagents,eachyearthemonth-long
registrationperiodinspiredenthusiasticparticipationofbothanglophoneandfrancophone
Cameroonians.WhenIarrivedinOctober2015toobservethatyear’sDVlotteryinaction,I
foundbannersandsigns,flyersandpostcards,proclaimingthelotteryopen.Aposterof
BarackObamaholdingagreencardappearedononeposter.AbannershowedBarack
Obamawithanamendmenttohisfamouscatchphrase:YesYouCanWin.44Anotherbanner
featuredaportraitoftheObamafamily.Someinternetcaféoperatorsprovidedlegitimate
servicesforreasonablefees,whileotherscheatedtheircustomers,providedfalse
information,andperpetuatedfraud.TheU.S.governmenttriedtointerveneagainst
unscrupulousvisaservicesproviders,publishingawarningagainstfraudinFrenchlanguagenewspaperstargetingFrench-speakinglotteryapplicants,anaudienceithadnot
paidmuchattentiontoatfirst.“Pleasenote,”theU.S.EmbassyinYaoundéstatedina
38MenkanKari,interviewwithauthor,October30,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.
39YerimaKiniNsom,“CarrefourObili:SavouringtheCitadelofAnglophoneEuphoria,”CameroonPostOnline,
September10,2010,http://www.cameroonpostline.com/carrefour-obili-savouring-the-citadel-ofanglophone-euphoria/.
40“Eneffet,dansnombredecybercaféàYaoundé,desaffichesinvitentaujeu.JulesBodo,gérantd'un"cyber"
aulieuditcarrefourMvanexpliquequecetteloterieestunbonmoyenpourd'arrondirlesfinsdemois.Selon
lui,"ilyabeaucoupdecandidatsmaistousnecomprennentpascommentçamarche.Onlesaideàfairedes
photosetàremplirlafiched'inscriptionenligne.Etilpaye1.000Fpourl'opération",affirme-t-il.Pourtant,la
soumissiond'unedemanded'inscriptionestgratuite.Maiscommebeaucoupdepostulantsontdumalavec
Internet,lesgérantssefontdebeurre...”BahaneN.,“Plusde1.400Camerounaisgagnentl’ameriqueala
loterie.”
41MirabelAzamgehTandafor,“USLotteryfevergripsYaoundéastherushincreases,”L’EffortCamerounais,
December11,2005,http://www.leffortcamerounais.com/2005/12/us_lottery_feve.html.
42“Mireille,”interview.
43Tandafor,“USLotteryfevergripsYaoundé.”
44Photographbyauthor,October30,2015,Yaoundé,Cameroon.
8
French-languagemessagein2012,“thatthereisnofeeforparticipatingintheDiversity
Visaprogram.”45TheU.S.consularsectioninYaoundébecameconcernedaboutfraudinDV
lotterycases,warninginaconfidentialcableabout“rampantcorruptionandfraud”
associatedwithitsimmigrationscreening.46
Yet,despitetheexistenceoffraudandopportunism,anddespitethelongoddsof
winning,thelotteryremainedoneofthefewavenuesforlegalimmigrationof
CameroonianstotheUnitedStates.AcablefromtheU.S.EmbassyinYaoundérecounted,
theDVLottery“remainsanalluringopportunitythatembodiesmuchofwhatdraws
CameroonianstoimmigratetotheU.S.”Evenafterparticipatinginalong,heateddiscussion
in2007aboutDV-relatedfraudandthedifficultyCamerooniansfaceingettingatourist
visatotheUnitedStates,ayoung,foreign-educatedCameroonianjournalistin2007told
theEmbassy“thatperhapsthisyearshetoowouldplaytheDVlottery.”47Atthesametime
thatthelotteryreinforcedpositiveimageryoftheUnitedStatesinFrenchandEnglishspeakingCameroonians,itfacilitatedagrowingstreamoflucky,hopefulCamerooniansto
theUnitedStates.
45“Veuilleznoterqu'iln'yaaucunfraisàpayerpourparticiperauProgrammedeVisaDiversité.”Georges
Ndenga,“Laloterieamericaineaccessibleatous,”AfricaInfo–Cameroun,October14,2012,
http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201210130672.html.
46Cable,CameroonYaoundé,ToSecretaryofState,“CameroonScensetterforGeneralWard’sFebruary21-22,
2008Visit,”February20,2008,accessedatCanonicalID:08YAOUNDÉ164_a.Confidential.Wikileaks:
https://search.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08YAOUNDÉ164_a.html.
47Cable,CameroonYaoundétoSecretaryofState,“WhichVisaLottery?ConsularOutreachinCameroon,”
November2,2007,accessedatCanonicalID:07YAOUNDÉ1304_a,Unclassified.Wikileaks:
https://search.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/07YAOUNDÉ1304_a.html.
9