!"#$%&'()&*+,-.$/*
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!"#$%&'("$)"*+,-$'./"0$1(2)+,&/".)%"-+/"3+(4"$5"6-("&)+3(2/(7"
"
Figure 1: Copernicus
8-("5+2/6"/1(,&'.6+$)/".9$&6"6-("1$//+9+'+6:"$5"6-(";&)"9(+)<"6-(",()6(2"$5"6-(",$/#$/".)%"6-("=.26-"
9(+)<"$)("$5"6-("1'.)(6/"<$+)<".2$&)%"+6"<$"9.,>"6$"6-("6-+2%",()6&2:"?0=7"@)"-+/"!"#$%&'()*#'+A"!2,-+#(%(/"
B%7"CDC"?0=EA"%+/,&//(/"-$4"6$"(F12(//"3(2:"'.2<(")&#9(2/7"!/".)"(F.#1'("-(",-$$/(/"6-("G&(/6+$)"./"6$"-$4"
#.):"<2.+)/"$5"/.)%"6-(2(".2("+)"6-(",$/#$/7"!)%"+)"$2%(2"6$"#.>("6-("12$9'(#"#$2("%+55+,&'6A"-(",-$$/(/")$6"
6-("<($,()62+,",$/#$/"<()(2.'':".,,(16(%".6"6-("6+#(A"9&6"6-("-('+$,()62+,",$/#$/"12$1$/(%"9:"!2+/6.2,-&/"$5"
;.#$/"B,.7"HDIJCHI"?0=EA"4-+,-"4$&'%"-.3("6$"9("#.):"6+#(/"'.2<(2"9(,.&/("$5"6-("'.,>"$5"$9/(23.9'("/6(''.2"
1.2.''.F7"K(">)$4A"6-(2(5$2(A"6-.6".'2(.%:"+)"L(''()+/6+,"6+#(/"6-+)>(2/"4(2(".6"'(./6"6$:+)<"4+6-"6-+/")$6+$)A"
.)%"9(,.&/("$5"+6/"#()6+$)"+)"!2,-+#(%(/M/"9$$>"!2+/6.2,-&/M/"/1(,&'.6+$)"4./"4(''J>)$4)"+)"=&2$1("
9(<+))+)<"+)"6-("L+<-"N+%%'("!<(/"9&6")$6"/(2+$&/':"()6(26.+)(%"&)6+'"0$1(2)+,&/7"
=&2$1(.)"'(.2)+)<"4./"9./(%"$)"6-("O2((>"/$&2,(/"6-.6"-.%"9(()"1.//(%"%$4)A".)%",$/#$'$<+,.'".)%"
./62$)$#+,.'"6-$&<-6"4(2("9./(%"$)"!2+/6$6'(".)%"P6$'(#:7"!2+/6$6'(M/",$/#$'$<:"$5".",()62.'"=.26-"
/&22$&)%(%"9:",$),()62+,"/1-(2+,.'"/-(''/",.22:+)<"6-("1'.)(6/".)%"5+F(%"/6.2/"4./"6-("9./+/"$5"=&2$1(.)"
6-$&<-6"52$#"6-("DC6-",()6&2:"0="$)4.2%7"8(,-)+,.'"./62$)$#:A".'/$"<($,()62+,A"4./"9./(%"$)"6-("
,$)/62&,6+$)/"$5"(F,()62+,",+2,'(/".)%"(1+,:,'(/",$%+5+(%"+)"P6$'(#:M/",-."/'01"BC%7",()6&2:"0=E7"
@)"6-("5+56(()6-",()6&2:A"6-("2(5$2#"$5"=&2$1(.)"./62$)$#:"4./"9(<&)"9:"6-("./62$)$#(2Q-&#.)+/6"
O($2<"P(&29.,-"BDRCHJDRSDE".)%"-+/"/6&%()6"T$-.))(/"U(<+$#$)6.)&/"BDRHSJDRVSE7"8-(+2"(55$26/"B'+>("6-$/("
$5"6-(+2",$''(.<&(/"+)"$6-(2"5+('%/E"4(2(",$),()62.6(%"$)"2+%%+)<"./62$)$#+,.'"6(F6/A"(/1(,+.'':"P6$'(#:M/A"
52$#"(22$2/"9:"<$+)<"9.,>"6$"6-("$2+<+).'"O2((>"6(F6/".)%"12$3+%+)<"%((1(2"+)/+<-6"+)6$"6-("6-$&<-6/"$5"6-("
$2+<+).'".&6-$2/7"K+6-"6-(+2")(4"6(F69$$>".)%"."<&+%("6$"6-(,-."/'01A"P(&29.,-".)%"U(<+$#$)6.)&/"2.+/(%"
6-("'(3('"$5"6-($2(6+,.'"./62$)$#:"+)"=&2$1(7"
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Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
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"
6'78%$*9:*0$1(2)+,&/"
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B9:"#(.)/"$5"4-+,-"6$"12(%+,6"./62$)$#+,.'"(3()6/"/&,-"./"(,'+1/(/".)%",$)X&),6+$)/E"4(2("%((#(%")$6"6$"9("
/&55+,+()6':".,,&2.6(7";(,$)%A"P$26&<&(/(".)%";1.)+/-"(F1(%+6+$)/"6$"6-("W.2"=./6".)%"!#(2+,."/.+'(%"$&6"$5"
/+<-6"$5"'.)%"5$2"4((>/"$)"()%A".)%"$)':"./62$)$#+,.'"#(6-$%/",$&'%"-('1"6-(#"+)"5+)%+)<"6-(+2"'$,.6+$)/"$)"
6-("-+<-"/(./7"8-+2%A"6-(",.'()%.2A"+)/6+6&6(%"9:"T&'+&/"0.(/.2"+)"RR"?0="4./")$"'$)<(2".,,&2.6(7"8-("(G&+)$FA"
4-+,-".6"6-("6+#("$5"6-("0$&),+'"$5"*+,(."BHCY"0=E"-.%"5.''()"$)"6-("CD/6A"-.%")$4"/'+11(%"6$"6-("DD6-7";+),("
6-("%.6("$5"=./6(2"B6-(",('(92.6+$)"$5"6-("%(5+)+)<"(3()6"+)"0-2+/6+.)+6:E"4./"%(6(2#+)(%"4+6-"2(5(2(),("6$"6-("
(G&+)$FA".)%"/+),("#$/6"$5"6-("$6-(2"2('+<+$&/"-$'+%.:/"6-2$&<-"6-(":(.2"4(2(",$&)6(%"5$24.2%"$2"9.,>4.2%"
52$#"=./6(2A"6-("/'+11.<("$5"6-(",.'()%.2"4+6-"2(<.2%"6$",('(/6+.'"(3()6/"4./"."3(2:"/(2+$&/"12$9'(#7"W$2"6-("
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2(6&2)"6$"P$'.)%A"-("/1()6"6-("2(/6"$5"-+/"'+5("./"."1-:/+,+.)A"'.4:(2A".)%",-&2,-".%#+)+/62.6$27"[&2+)<"-+/"
/1.2("6+#("-(",$)6+)&(%"-+/"2(/(.2,-"+)"./62$)$#:7"8-("2(/&'6"4./"2'3&'4*-516*#675038+765.39*'-'0165."B\])"
6-("U(3$'&6+$)/"$5"6-("0('(/6+.'"]29/\EA"4-+,-"4./"1&9'+/-(%"+)"*&2(#9(2<"+)"DYRHA"6-(":(.2"$5"-+/"%(.6-7"8-("
9$$>"4./"%(%+,.6(%"6$"P$1("P.&'"@@@".)%"+)+6+.'':",.&/(%"'+6'(",$)62$3(2/:7"!)".)$):#$&/"12(5.,("B.%%(%"9:"
!)%2(./"]/+.)%(2A"6-("P2$6(/6.)6"2(5$2#(2"$5"*&2(#9(2<E"/6.6(%"6-.6"6-("6-($2:"1&6"5$24.2%"+)"6-+/"9$$>"4./"
$)':"."#.6-(#.6+,.'"-:1$6-(/+/^"6-("<($#(62+,.'",$)/62&,6+$)/"&/(%"9:"./62$)$#(2/"-.%"62.%+6+$).'':"-.%"
$)':"-:1$6-(6+,.'"/6.6&/_",$/#$'$<+,.'"+)6(212(6.6+$)/"4(2("2(/(23(%"5$2"6-("1-+'$/$1-(2/7"@)%((%A"(F,(16"5$2"
6-("5+2/6"('(3()",-.16(2/"$5"?$$>"@A"2'3&'4*-516*#6750"4./"."6(,-)+,.'"#.6-(#.6+,.'"4$2>"+)"6-("62.%+6+$)"$5"
6-(",-."/'017"
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Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 2 of 7
Figure 3: Diagram of the Copernican system, from De Revolutions
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-.%"."62+1'("#$6+$) ;".2$&)%"6-+/",()6(27"L+/"6-($2:"<.3("."/+#1'(".)%"('(<.)6"(F1'.).6+$)"$5"6-("2(62$<2.%("
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+)"<($,()62+,"./62$)$#:E".)%"/(66'(%"6-("$2%(2"$5"6-("1'.)(6/"B4-+,-"-.%"9(()".",$)3()6+$)"+)"P6$'(#:M/"
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+6"4./"4+%(':".%#+2(%7"@6/"#.6-(#.6+,.'",$)/62&,6+$)/"4(2("(./+':"62.)/5(22(%"+)6$"<($,()62+,"$)(/A".)%"#.):"
./62$)$#(2/"&/(%"6-(#7"@)"DYYD"=2./#&/"U(+)-$'%A")$"9('+(3(2"+)"6-("#$9+'+6:"$5"6-("=.26-A"1&9'+/-(%".")(4"
/(6"$5"6.9'(/A"6-(":+51'#6(3;"7-'0A"9./(%"$)"0$1(2)+,&/M/"1.2.#(6(2/7"8-(/("6.9'(/",.#("6$"9("12(5(22(%"5$2"
6-(+2".,,&2.,:7"W&26-(2A"2'3+'4*-516*#6750"9(,.#("6-(",()62.'"4$2>"+)".")(64$2>"$5"./62$)$#(2/A"4-$"
%+//(,6(%"+6"+)"<2(.6"%(6.+'7"*$6"&)6+'"."<()(2.6+$)".56(2"+6/".11(.2.),(A"-$4(3(2A",.)"4("9(<+)"1$+)6"6$"."
,$##&)+6:"$5"12.,6+,+)<"./62$)$#(2/"4-$".,,(16(%"-('+$,()62+,",$/#$'$<:7"P(2-.1/"6-("#$/6"2(#.2>.9'("
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8+7'03?@ABCD"62.)/'.6(%"."'.2<("1.26"$5"?$$>"@"$5"2'3&'4*-516*#6750"+)6$"=)<'+/-".)%"+''&/62.6(%"+6"4+6-"."
%+.<2.#"+)"4-+,-"6-("0$1(2)+,.)".22.)<(#()6"$5"6-("1'.)(6/"+/"+#9(%%(%"+)".)"+)5+)+6("&)+3(2/("$5"/6.2/7"
"
"
"
Source URL: http://cnx.org/content/m11975/latest/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/arth206 (Art History 206)
Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 3 of 7
Figure 4: Diagram of the universe by Thomas Digges
The reason for this delay was that, on the face of it, the heliocentric cosmology was absurd from a
common-sensical and a physical point of view. Thinkers had grown up on the Aristotelian division between the
heavens and the earthly region, between perfection and corruption. In Aristotle's physics, bodies moved to their
natural places. Stones fell because the natural place of heavy bodies was the center of the universe, and that was why
the Earth was there. Accepting Copernicus's system meant abandoning Aristotelian physics. How would birds find
their nest again after they had flown from them? Why does a stone thrown up come straight down if the Earth
underneath it is rotating rapidly to the east? Since bodies can only have one sort of motion at a time, how can the
Earth have several? And if the Earth is a planet, why should it be the only planet with a moon?
For astronomical purposes, astronomers always assumed that the Earth is as a point with respect to the
heavens. Only in the case of the Moon could one notice a parallactic displacement (about 1°) with respect to the
fixed stars during its (i.e., the Earth's) diurnal motion. In Copernican astronomy one now had to assume that
the orbit of the Earth was as a point with respect to the fixed stars, and because the fixed stars did not reflect the
Earth's annual motion by showing an annual parallax, the sphere of the fixed stars had to be immense. What was the
purpose of such a large space between the region of Saturn and that of the fixed stars?
*
6'78%$*<:*P.2.''.F"
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Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/arth206 (Art History 206)
Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 4 of 7
8-(/(".)%"$6-(2/"4(2("$9X(,6+$)/"6-.6")((%(%".)/4(2/7"8-("0$1(2)+,.)"/:/6(#"/+#1':"%+%")$6"5+6"
+)6$"6-("!2+/6$6('+.)"4.:"$5"6-+)>+)<7"@6"6$$>".",()6&2:".)%"."-.'5"5$2".")(4"1-:/+,/"6$"9("%(3+/(%"6$"&)%(<+2%"
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/$"+)"$)("$5"-+/"\6.9'("6.'>/\"+)"DYH`A"9(5$2("2'3&'4*-516*#6750"-.%".11(.2(%7"BP2('+#+).2:"/>(6,-(/"-.%"
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#.22+(%"6$"6-("/$'+%+6:"$5".",()62.'".)%"/6.9'("=.26-"/$"6-.6"!2+/6$6('+.)"1-:/+,/",$&'%"9("#.+)6.+)(%7"
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0$1(2)+,&/M/",$/#$'$<:7"@6"+/")$6",'(.2"4-(6-(2"6-("(F(,&6+$)"$5"O+$2%.)$"?2&)$A"."*($1'.6$)+/6"#:/6+,"4-$"
>)(4"'+66'(".9$&6"./62$)$#:A"-.%".):6-+)<"6$"%$"4+6-"-+/"0$1(2)+,.)"9('+(5/7"W+).'':A"4("#&/6")$6"5$2<(6"6-.6"
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'(66(2"6$"6-("O2.)%"[&,-(//"0-2+/6+)."B,+2,&'.6(%"+)"#.)&/,2+16"$)':E"-(".,6&.'':"+)6(212(6(%"6-("
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./62$)$#:7";,2+16&2(A"-(".2<&(%A"6(.,-(/"&/"-$4"6$"<$"6$"-(.3()A")$6"-$4"6-("-(.3()/"<$7"!6".9$&6"6-("/.#("
6+#(A"P.$'$"!)6$)+$"W$/,.2+)+A"."0.2#('+6("6-($'$<+.)"+)"*.1'(/A"1&9'+/-(%"."9$$>"+)"4-+,-"-(".2<&(%"6-.6"6-("
0$1(2)+,.)"6-($2:"%+%")$6",$)5'+,6"4+6-";,2+16&2(7"@6"4./".6"6-+/"1$+)6"6-.6"0-&2,-"$55+,+.'/"6$$>")$6+,("$5"6-("
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O.'+'($M/"26"-*/5'39*#('+#6#/31>'3;F*39>6'<3G*+-$3!H01'.0"$5"DSHC"4./"."4.6(2/-(%"+)"4-.6"-.%"
/-.1(%"&1"6$"9("6-("\O2(.6"[(9.6(7\"O.'+'($M/".2<&#()6/"&)%(2#+)(%"6-("1-:/+,/".)%",$/#$'$<:"$5"!2+/6$6'("
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Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 5 of 7
#$3(%".2$&)%"6-(";&)A".%%(%"<2(.6':"6$"-+/".2<&#()67"@)"6-("#(.)6+#(A"T$-.))(/"a(1'(2"B4-$"-.%"%+(%"+)"
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"
6==>?=>@+*
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Source URL: http://cnx.org/content/m11975/latest/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/arth206 (Art History 206)
Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 6 of 7
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"
Source URL: http://cnx.org/content/m11975/latest/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/courses/arth206 (Art History 206)
Attributed to: Albert Van Helden
Saylor.org
Page 7 of 7