AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
CHAPTER 3
America and the Great War
(1914-1921)
Presidential Terms
Woodrow Wilson
(1913-1921)
Warren G. Harding
(1921-1923)
STUDENT
This chapter begins with an account of how Europe descended into bloody
conflict in 1914 – a conflict that eventually impacted people in all corners of
the world. Many things led to World War I, including the rise of Germany
under Bismarck and then Wilhelm II, imperial rivalries across the globe,
entangling alliances, and an arms race between the major nations on the
continent. The spark was rising nationalism in the Balkans that resulted in
the assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. Alliances
that had been formed for mutual protection ended up causing a regional
conflict to escalate into a major war.
America’s initial response to the crisis in Europe was to declare our
neutrality. It was in the nation’s historical tradition to stay out of Europe’s
wars and regardless; America had its own international problem dealing with
revolution in Mexico. President Wilson even sent an unsuccessful military
expedition across our southern border when chaos there resulted in Pancho
Villa crossing the Rio Grande to make raids on American settlements.
Even though Wilson encouraged Americans to be neutral in both thought
and action, Americans naturally took sides. Millions of German Americans
sided with the Central Powers, as did many Irish Americans (due to their
hatred of Britain). Most Americans, however, had a natural sympathy for
the Allies, due largely to historical connections with English culture.
Neutrality became even more difficult for Americans as freedom of the seas
became an issue. Both sides in Europe attempted to shut off their enemy
from access to American goods. The British used their superior navy to
blockade Germany, and not just to prevent them from acquiring weapons.
The British blockade even stopped American shipments of food and
medicine to Germany, an action considered immoral, if not illegal, by most
of the world. The German blockade of Britain depended on their fleet of
U-boats. These vessels
did not have the ability to stop ships and turn them around, as did British
battleships. U-boats depend on stealth and surprise. Such a blockade
involved sinking ships. Americans were greatly alarmed when this meant
even passenger vessels became targets. The most sensational case was the
German sinking of the Lusitania in 1915. Although the U.S. denied this
British liner was carrying munitions, German insistence that it was later
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
STUDENT
proved to be the case. From that point on, Wilson had to resist calls for
America to enter the war from political rivals such as former president
Theodore Roosevelt.
As Europe saw millions slaughtered in trench warfare, Wilson tried to focus
on continuing the progressive movement here. He achieved landmark
legislation with the Federal Reserve Act, the creation of the Federal
Trade Commission, and laws limiting hours of labor. He continued to
battle trusts, as had his predecessors Roosevelt and Taft. And during his
administration, Americans added four amendments pushed by progressive
reformers to the Constitution. Amendment Sixteen made a national income
tax legal, Amendment Seventeen authorized the direct election of U.S.
senators by the people, Amendment Eighteen made alcoholic beverages
illegal, and Amendment Nineteen guaranteed women the right to vote.
Photo 1: “I’ve had about enough of this.”
(NARA)
Wilson won re-election in 1916 with the campaign slogan “He Kept Us
Out of War.” That sentiment rang hollow a few months later as Germany
declared unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann
Telegram to Mexico. The war in Europe was a bloody stalemate. Germany
clearly hoped to break the deadlock with these dramatic actions and win
the war before America could respond, if it responded at all. Americans did
respond enthusiastically when Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of
war in April of 1917.
All of American culture mobilized for war. Beyond the millions of young
men who volunteered for or were drafted into the military, industry turned
to war production, families conserved food and planted Victory Gardens,
and people from all walks of life bought Liberty Bonds. Even popular
music reflected feelings about the war. The song “Over There” epitomized
American optimism about the war. There was opposition to American
participation in the conflict (notably Eugene Debs and the Socialist Party),
but it was overwhelmed by government propaganda promoted through the
Committee on Public Information and by suppression of dissent through the
Sedition Act.
The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) under General John J. Pershing
did not make a significant impact on the war until the summer and fall of
1918. Their entry came none too soon. With Russia leaving the war in the
wake of the Bolshevik Revolution, Germany could mobilize the entirety of
its forces in the West. But when American forces did engage the Germans,
the influx of two million fresh troops broke the stalemate on the Western
Front, drove through the Hindenburg Line and moved on toward Germany.
Recognizing inevitable defeat, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated his throne and the
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
STUDENT
new German government signed an armistice with the Allies on November
11, 1918. Crucial to the German decision to cease hostilities was their belief
that the coming peace negotiations would be based on Wilson’s principle
of “peace without victory” and his very public Fourteen Points. The actual
treaty that would be written would be very different.
The story of Wilson’s role in the Paris Peace Conference is a case study
in the importance of a bipartisan American foreign policy. As Bennett
relates, Wilson ignored the concerns of Republicans and took no prominent
Republicans to the conference, virtually assuring resistance to the end
product. Rather than authorizing his Secretary of State and other diplomats
to pursue his goals, Wilson took personal charge of America’s role in the
peace process, giving him no opportunity to distance himself if negotiations
went poorly. Any failure would now be his failure.
Europeans hailed Wilson as a hero when he arrived, but when he came face
to face with other Allied leaders he met stiff resistance to his ideals. Georges
Clemenceau of France and David Lloyd George of Britain led nations that
had suffered through years of warfare and had lost millions of their finest
young men. They were in no mood for talk of “peace without victory.”
They wanted to punish Germany and ensure that German militarism never
rose again to threaten them.
Wilson tried to implement his Fourteen Points in Paris, but found he
needed to compromise time and time again. He did succeed in seeing the
map of Europe redrawn on his principle of self-determination, but had to
agree to treaty provisions that punished Germany with strict disarmament,
severe reparations, and a “war guilt” clause forcing them to take total blame
for starting the war. Wilson also agreed to the French Guarantee Treaty,
putting the U.S. on record that it would join Britain in protecting France if
it were attacked by Germany. He acquiesced on a number of these issues in
order to not give up the point he considered essential if The Great War was
indeed going to be the “war to end all wars.” That was his point number
fourteen – the creation of a League of Nations to ensure world peace.
Germany grudgingly signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, but its harsh
terms would engender great bitterness in Germany over the coming years
and accusations that those who had signed the armistice leading to the
treaty were guilty of a “stab in the back.” These charges would crippled the
democratic Weimar Republic in Germany and enable a disenchanted veteran
named Adolf Hitler to use this anger to launch a political movement and
eventually scrap the treaty altogether.
Wilson returned home convinced the American people would support
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
Photo 2: The Hall of Mirrors in
Versailles. (NARA)
STUDENT
“his” treaty. But, the Constitution gives the United States Senate the role
of “advice and consent” in such matters. Two thirds of the Senate would
have to ratify the treaty to see it take effect. Republican Henry Cabot
Lodge led opposition in the Senate. Some senators were “Reservationists”
who would vote for ratification if certain changes were made. Of particular
concern was Article X of the League of Nations Covenant. It required that
each League member guarantee the “territorial integrity” of every other
League member. It seemed clear that this would commit America to wars
without a declaration by the United States Congress. Other senators were
“Irreconcilables” who would not support the treaty under any circumstances.
Perhaps Wilson believed he had compromised enough in Paris, for he was
absolutely unwilling to compromise on the treaty with the U.S. Senate.
His attempt to appeal directly to the people on a national speaking tour
resulted in his total exhaustion and eventual stroke. Then disabled, Wilson
became even more unwilling to consider any changes to the document, thus
ensuring its defeat in the Senate. He also refused to even submit the French
Guarantee Treaty for consideration. Thus, the U.S. never did sign the Treaty
of Versailles and never joined the League of Nations. After Wilson left office
in the 1920s, the United States signed separate peace treaties with each of
the Central Powers.