Chapter 9
Semantics:의미론
홍성심: 인문대학 영어영문학과
What is Semantics?
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언어의 의미에 대한 지식 혹은 직관을 연구하
는 학문분야
목표: 모국어 화자가 가지고 있는 의미에 관한
무의식적인 지식을 명시적으로 설명함
Meaning:
• Word meaning
• Sentence meaning (including Phrasal meaning)
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Examples:
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John saw her duck. (more than 1 meaning)
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (?)
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a. This is a blue jacket. a. entails b.
b. This is blue.
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Have you stopped smoking? (presupposition)
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a. This car has two doors which open only from the outside.
(This car may have 4 doors)
b. This car has two doors, which open only from the outside.
(This car is a 2-door car.)
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Lexical semantics: 어휘의미론
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Lexicon: 음운적 정보, 통사적 정보 및 의미적 정보
Semantic property: 단어의 기본적인 속성
bachelor: [unmarried], [male]
• Showing meaning relations within a sentence:
• ‘kill’이 ‘cause to die’라는 것을 어떻게 도출하는가?
• a. *!John killed the fly, but it didn’t die.
• b. *!John killed the fly, but he was not the cause of the fly’s
death.
• c. *!John caused the fly to die, but it didn’t die.
• d.*!John caused the fly to die, but he was not the cause of the
fly’s death.
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Showing differences between words:
• Kill—causes one, not necessarily a person, to die
• Murder—intentionally causes a person to die
• Assassinate--- intentionally causes a socially
prominent figure to die
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• Semantic Argumentation: a case study
• Q: kill= cause to die?
• John killed the fly = John caused the fly to die.
• John killed the fly yesterday.
• John caused the fly (yesterday) to die (today)
Therefore, kill =/= cause to die
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Componential analysis: 단어의 의미는 의미적 복
합체로서, 기본적 의미를 가진 몇 개의 성분으로
이루어짐
Semantic features: 의미 속성을 + 와 –로 나타내
는 방법, 의미 자질의 수는 아주 많을 수 있지만 간
소화시켜 표시함(잉여 규칙); 의미 자질은 단어의
관련성과 차이점을 포착하는 유용한 장치임
 bachelor [+male, -female, -married, +human, +animate…]
 boil, fry, steam, broil, sauté, stir-fry — 끓이다, 튀기다, 찌다,
굽다, 직화, 삶다, 중탕하다, 볶다
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의미적 일탈 (Anomaly)과 은유 (Metaphor)
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Anomaly: 문법적인 문장이지만 의미적으로
이상한 문장
• This idea sleeps.
• The theory is purple.
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Contradiction: 동시에 참일 수 없는 말을 동시에
참이라고 하는 경우
• Johni is here and hei is not here.
• Johni has a brother and hei is the only son.
• Cf. My brother John is the only son.
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의미 일탈과 의미자질(semantic features)
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의미일탈은 자질 사이에 모순 관계가 빚어지기 때문
• This idea sleeps.
• this idea: [-animate];
• sleeps: requires its Sbj to be [+animate]
• The theory is purple.
• the theory: [-matter];
• purple: requires its Sbj to be [+matter] or
[+concrete]
• 문학작품은 “의도적으로” 의미일탈을 시도하여
작품성이나 상징성등을 높인다. 이를 수사학적
언어 (수사기법, figurative language)이라고 한
다.
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(1)은유 (Metaphor)
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은유: 의도적으로 자질억제를 허용하는 표현을
함으로써 화맥 (context)이나 대화자가 가진 세상
적인 지식의 영향을 받음
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언어의 유연성 (flexibility) 특징을 표현
• The tree wept in the wind. [-animate] vs. [+animate]
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• 그 나무는 바람 속에서 울었다.
My car is a lemon. [-fruit] vs. [+fruit]
• 내 차는 골치덩어리야
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Shower: John showered his fiancee with gifts. Giving is like dropping from above.
Cloud: The police are concerned that G20 may be clouded over by radical protests.
Protests are an intrusion of light.
Fog: My memory is a little foggy.
Rain: Into each life some rain must fall. Hardship is a precipitate (from above).
Hail: A hail of bullets. (Cold, hard and driven).
Wind: The winds of change. (변화의 바람); ‘변화’= ‘바람’
Sunshine: You are the sunshine of my life. Happiness is light (see "cloud").
Sunset: He'd entered his sunset years. (인생의 황혼기에 접어들다)
Clear skies: It's gonna' be clear skies from now on. (주식시장이 점차 밝아집니다)
Lightening rod: The president became a lightening rod for criticism.
Blow: You'll be blown away! Our position is susceptible to sudden change.
Gust: Criticism began to gust in from all sides. (사나운 비판을 면하기 어렵다..)
Thaw: Relations between the two countries began to thaw. (남북관계는 꽁꽁
얼어붙어 있다가 최근 해빙무드를 타고 있다)
Thunder: My boss thundered into the office, as soon as I started talking to my
friend over the phone. Anger is hostile weather.
Breeze: This course is a breeze; it is an easy task to accomplish.
Dawn: The dawn of civilization. (문명의 개화기)
Cold: It was a cold reception; no one seemed to mingle with others.
Warm & Tepid: It was a warm reception, but the keynote speech was tepid.
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Dry spell: The US economy has been suffering a long dry spell. Revenue is the
welcome rain of business.
Chilly: It's been a little chilly around the office since Mr. Stuckkup became boss! An
office has an emotional climate, which may be invaded by a cold front.
(이 사무실 분위기 매우 썰렁하네…)
Blizzard: There was a blizzard of activity at the emergency room and ICU of the
hospital. (Seemingly erratic movement).
Whirlwind: It was a whirlwind romance that spun out of control. Romance may be
phenomenal and brief. (바람처럼 스쳐간 로멘스…)
Drift: He was a drifter, of origin unknown. A lack of will is a lack of destination.
Misty: Misty, water-coloured memories... Memories are neither solid nor distinct.
Season: It is the season of change. (변화의 계절)
Winter: She entered a spiritual winter. (그녀는 잠수를 타고 있다)
Autumn: The old couple had entered their autumn years, and yet their finance is
still shaky. (=“sunset”)
Twilight: The man entered his twilight years a broken man. (see "sunset")
Darken: The skies of her future began to darken, as soon as she filed for a divorce.
(그녀가 이혼을 신청하면서 그녀의 장래는 어두워지기 시작했다)
Weather: His face was weathered by a long, troubled life. Bad events wear the
youth from our face. I had known him in many weathers (난 그 남자의 산전수전 다
알고 있다)
Storm: She was unsure if her proposal could weather (=survive) the storm of
scrutiny. Scrutiny is harsh weather to one's ideas.
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Bake: It was a half-baked idea; no details on how to implement were unknon.
Boil: My colleague was boiling mad, when he realized that he was demoted.
Pickle: That's a real pickle of a problem. Some problems cannot be resolved, as
if preserved indefinitely.
Recipe: A recipe for disaster is carelessness and a recipe for a happy marriage
includes love, trust, and money.
Raw: 허각 has a raw talent for music. Talent is only potential, and must be
developed (cooked).
Simmer: The crowd began to simmer down. Heat is activity, and activity is heat.
Spicy: She showed up in a spicy new outfit at my party.
Stir: The news must have stirred up all kinds of emotions in him. Our emotions
settle into levels in our minds, the top level is the most visible.
Tasty: Tasty tidbits of information. The mind has a palate that prefers certain
thoughts and information, and in small, easily digested servings.
Taste: Your wife has great taste in furniture!
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Food: Food for thought. The mind is hungry, and eats ideas.
(anything that provides mental stimulus to thinking,
생각할 거리, 마음의 양식)
Dish: She is my dish.
Plate: My plate is already too full. A plate is a flat, limited space
for solid thoughts.
Serve: Served up a number of suggestions. Suggestions are food
for thought.
Appetite: Mary has an enormous appetite for learning.
Digest: Let us take a moment to digest the information.
Processing data involves breaking down, changing and sorting it.
Swallow: Chomsky’s theory is hard to swallow. Data that is unfit
for the mind needs extra effort.
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동음 이의어 (Homonym)
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같은 발음, 다른 의미
• bear, rock, fast, kind, like, policy, fine etc.
• see/sea, flower/flour, our/hour etc.
다의성(Polysemy): 하나의 단어가 여러 개의
의미를 가지며 여러 의미들이 의미자질을 공통
으로 소유하는 경우
• glass (유리, 유리컵, 안경(pl.)--- [+유리])
Q: Is bank homonym or polysemy? Nope!
Historically, ‘bank1’ and ‘bank2’ were spelt differently.
It was a sheer accident that they became
homophonous.
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Ambiguity (중의성)하나의 표현이 두가지 이상의 의미/해석
– Lexical ambiguity:
– ‘She met a guerilla’ is lexically ambiguous because
the word ‘guerilla’ is lexically ambiguous with
‘gorilla’
– ‘The area around the mouth is rather uninteresting’
– (mouth of a person, the mouth of a river, the
mouth of a cave, the mouth of a bottle, etc)
– Structural ambiguity: 구조적 차이에 따라 두 가지
이상으로 해석되는 경우
• Old men and women
• John saw her duck.
• I like John better than Mary.
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Vagueness (모호성)
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모호성: 의미가 분명히 명시되지 않는 경우
• John went to school. (by which mean?)
• John killed an ant. (with intention or without intention?)
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중의성 문장과 모호성 문장의 구별: 중의성 문장은 일치된 해석만을 허
용하며 모호성 문장은 엇갈린 해석을 허용한다. (do so test)
• 모호성: John went to school and Mary did so, too.
• 앞 절의 문장이 모호하며 뒷 절의 경우도 엇갈린 모호한 문장해석
이 허용된다
• (John은 (버스타고) 학교에 갔고, Mary도 그랬다(‘걸어서 갔다’도 포함됨)
• 중의성: John saw her duck and Bill did so too.
• 앞 절의 문장의 해석과 뒷 절의 해석이 완전히 동일해야 한다
• John은 그녀의 오리를 보았고, Bill도 그랬다. (그녀의 오리를 본 경우만
포함됨)
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VP deletion wrt vagueness vs.ambiguity
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The student pointed at the mouth , and the teacher did , too.
(ambiguous sentence)
 The student pointed at the mouth (of the river) and the
teacher did (=point at the mouth of the river/*of the man) too.
John contacted her.(vague sentence)
John contacted her (‘by phone, email, post, telepathy’ are all
possible)
 John contacted Bill, and Caroline did
, too.
John contacted Bill (by phone), and Caroline did (contact Bill by
email) too.
중의적 문장은 VP-생략된 부분이 앞문장과 완전 동일해야 하지만, 애
매한 문장은 VP-생략된 부분이 앞문장과 다른 해석을 가져도 문
법적이다.
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-nym words:
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(1) homonym (동음이의어)
(2) antonym (반의어)
– (i) complementary antonym; life-death, married-single,
– (ii) gradable antonym; happy-sad, dangerous-safe,
– (iii) relational antonym; employee-employer, teacher-student, buy-sell
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(3) synonym (동의어, 유사어)
(4) hyponym (하위어 ) <-> hypernym (상위어, superordinate)
house, chalet, cottage, high-rise are hyponyms of ‘building’
black-eyed Susan, baby’s breath, camellia, poinsettia are
hyponyms of ______________.
Colt, donkey, stallion are hyponyms of _____________.
‘red’ is a ____________ of `scarlet', `vermilion', and
`crimson‘ .
`scarlet', `vermilion', and `crimson‘ are _________ of ‘red’,
and also ‘color’. But ‘color’ is a hypernym(=superordinate) of ‘red’,
‘green’, ‘brown’, ‘crimson’, ‘maroon’, and ‘black’
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동의어 (Synonym)와 동의문 (Paraphrase)
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동의어: 같은 혹은 거의 비슷한 의미를 가지고 있는 단어들;
완벽한 동의어는 없음
• daddy, dad, father (사용 환경에 따라 다름)
• postman-mailman (영, 미 영어의 지역적 차이)
• Beef-cow
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동의문: 뜻이 비슷한 문장: (예:능동과 수동)
• The police arrested the criminal.
• The criminal was arrested by the police.
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반의어 (antonym)
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반의어란? 단어가 가지는 많은 의미자질 중에
서 두 개의 단어가 공통적으로 가지는 자질과
다른 자질이 있을 때 반의어를 찾을 수 있다.
산토끼의 반댓말은?
What is the antonym of the word ‘king’?
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반의어(Antonym)의 종류: 3가지
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반의어: 의미가 반대인 단어들이며 단 하나의 의미 속성을 제외하고
다른 모든 의미 자질을 공유함
• 상보적 반의어 (complementary pairs): alive-dead,
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married-single, present-absent, exit-enter, raiselower, push-pull, day-night, right-wrong, saddismmasochism, sink- float, for-against, true-false,
question-answer, accidental-intentional, departarrive, former-latter, vacant –occupied, pass-fail,
inward-outward,, push–pull
extinguish- (_____________), inhale (____________), promote –
(______________), etc.
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등급 반의어 (gradable antonym):
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dark-light, tall-short, hot-cold, best-worst, easy-difficult, hardsoft, wide-narrow, abundant –scarce, knowledge-ignorance,
dangerous-safe, wet-dry, old – young
Fat-thin, old-young, thick-__________
Hot…Warm… Lukewarm …. Cool….Cold
Hot … Warm …..(
)….. Cold…. freezing (weather)
Often-rarely, most-least, rich - poor
dark-light/bright,
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‘animal’ is the hypernym (superordinate) of all the words below.
All the words below ‘animal’ are hyponyms of ‘ animal’
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관계적 반의어 (Relational antonym/Converses):
under/over, teacher/pupil, wife/husband
관계적 반의어는 일종의 상보적 반의어지만, X와 Y가
동시에 존재해야 한다는 점에서 상보적 반의어와 다름.
즉 반의어의 쌍인 X와 Y는 공존하는 관계에서 그
반의성이 생겨남.
Servant – master, toward-away, child-parent, borrowlend, employee-employer , teach – learn, teacherstudent, husband-wife, above-below, grandparentsgrandchildren
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지시(reference)와 의의(sense)
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단어의 의미는 ”그 단어가 지칭/지시(reference) 하는 대상(referent)
이다” 입장:
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What is the meaning “an avocado”?
(guacamole?)
Meaning of “a car”
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만일 지칭/지시하는 대상이 없는 단어는 의미가 없는 것인가?
Unicorn, dragon, friendship, hippogriff(horse+eagle), griffin (a
winged monster with an eagle-like head and the body of a lion)은 의
미가 없는 단어인가? 아니다.
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만일 지칭/지시하는 대상이 동일한 2 표현은 의미가 같은 것인가? 아
니다
a morning star vs evening star  Venus (금성)
Superman 과 Mr. Clark은 동일한 인물을 지시하는데 이 두 표현의 의
미는 같은가? 아니다
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의미는 의의(sense)이다?
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의의(sense): 한 개체에 대해서 떠오르는 생각,생
각하는 방식이나, 혹은 한 개체를 제시해 주는 방
식이며 지시하는 대상이 없는 단어의 의미를 설
명할 수 있음;
지시에 대한 보완적인 작용을 함
Happiness의 의미는?
Griffin (eagle-like winged monster on the body
of a lion, a legendary animal in the fairly tales)
Unicorn의 의미는?
Superman의 의미는?
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의미역 (thematic role)
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Thematic role: 술어가 표현하는 장면에서 필요로
하는 역할이며 주요하게 전치사구나 명사구로 표
현됨
• Agent, patient, theme, instrument, source, goal,
location etc.
• John loves Mary.
• John is in Florida.
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의미역의 위계: 비중이 높은 역할을 맡은 표현이
좀 더 높은 자리에 나타난다.
• Agent>Instrument>Theme (UTAH)
• John opened the door with the key.
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Thematic role assignment, argument, adjunct
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주어와 목적어 의미역은 동사로부터 배당되고
전치사구가 가지는 의미역은 전치사에 의해 명
시적으로 표시된다.
주어와 목적어와 같이 문장에 반드시 나타나야
하는 표현을 논항이라 한다.
전치사구 with the key와 같이 반드시 나올 필
요가 없는 표현을 부가어라 한다.
• John opened the door (with the key).
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Theta criterion (의미역 기준)
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각 논항은 의미역을 가지고 있어야 하되 단 하
나만 가지고 있어야 하고, 동사가 갖고 있는 각
의미역은 배당되어야 하되 단 하나의 논항에
배당되어야 한다.
• John gave * (that book) to Mary.
• John gave that book to Mary (*Bill)
영항 술어 (zero-place) predicate: 주어 자리는
허사 it
• It is raining.
술어의 유형: 논항의 개수에 따라 1항 술어, 2항
술어, 3항 술어로 구분. (4항 술어: bet)
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Typical thematic roles (교재 338쪽)
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(1) Agent : 동작주, 행위역,
-The puppy chewed up the shoe. / Marty played chess.
(2) Patient: 수동역
-The sun melted the ice./Mary cooked the bacon with the white wine
(3) Theme: 대상역
-The horse is in the stable/Josh passed the ball to Jeff.
(4) Experiencer: 경험역
-Mary felt annoyed/ The referee observed the game/ The deer heard the
hunter in the woods./Snakes scare all the hikers
(5) Beneficiary: 수혜역
-Mary gave Leo the book/ We bake a cake for Lorian
(6)Instrument: 도구역
-My wife flipped the pancakes with a spatula/Miss Scarlet killed the man
with a lead pipe.
-This key wouldn’t open the door easily.
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Thematic roles(Continued )
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(7) Locative:처소역, 처소격, 위치격
-John ate at the restaurant. / We met each other at Harvard.
(8) Goal: 목표역
-John gave the book to Leo / Madam Secretary gave a speech to the
club
(9) Source: 근원역
-The water bubbled from the spring ./ They came all the way from
New Orleans.
기타 중립역(neutral) 혹은 주제역(topic)
He is from Africa. This computer weighs 10 kilos.
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9장의 주요개념 Key concepts:
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단어의 의미와 의미자질(semantic features)
성분분석(componential analysis)
Semantic anomaly와 figurative language
Homonym & polysemy
Ambiguity & vagueness
Synonyms
Antonyms … complementary, gradable, relational
Reference & sense
Meaning of relative clauses
Entailment & presupposition
Thematic roles (semantic roles)
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