University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative
Exchange
Masters Theses
Graduate School
5-1992
Effects of Clothing on Human Decomposition and
Deterioration of Associated Yarns
Shawn Elizabeth Cahoon
University of Tennessee - Knoxville
Recommended Citation
Cahoon, Shawn Elizabeth, "Effects of Clothing on Human Decomposition and Deterioration of Associated Yarns. " Master's Thesis,
University of Tennessee, 1992.
http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/855
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been
accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information,
please contact [email protected].
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Shawn Elizabeth Cahoon entitled "Effects of Clothing on
Human Decomposition and Deterioration of Associated Yarns." I have examined the final electronic
copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, with a major in Anthropology.
William Bass, Major Professor
We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance:
Richard Jantz, Randall Bressee
Accepted for the Council:
Dixie L. Thompson
Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School
(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a
thesis written by Shawn
Elizabeth Cahoon entitled "Effects of Clothing on Human
Decomposition and Deterioration of Associated Yarns."
I
have examined the final copy of this thesis for form and
content and recommend that it be accepted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Arts, with a major in Anthropology.
We have read this thesis
and recommend its acceptance:
Accepted for the Council:
Associate Vice Chancellor and
Dean of the Graduate School
STATEMENT OF.PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for
a Master's
Tennessee, Knoxville, I
it
available to
Brief
special permission,
the University
agree that the Library
borrowers
quotations from
degree at
under
this thesis
provided that
rules of
of
shall make
the
are allowable
Library.
without
accurate acknowledgment
of the source is made.
Permission for extensive quotation from or reproduction
of this thesis may be granted
his absence, by the Head
by my major professor, or in
of Interlibrary Services when, in
the opinion of either, the proposed
for scholarly purposes.
in
this thesis
use of the material is
Any copying or use of the material
for financial
gain shall
not be
allowed
without my written permission.
r:d.
.f
Signature~~~~~'~~BV~~~~~========::~
Date
4 <7 { 9'"2-
[i
Requests
for permission
reproduction of
for extensive
this thesis
in whole
granted by the copyright holder.
______~_____
quotation from
or in
part may
or
be
EFFECTS OF CLOTHING ON HUMAN DECOMPOSITION AND
DETERIORATION OF ASSOCIATED YARNS
A Thesis
Presented for the
Master of Arts
Degree
The University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Shawn Elizabeth Cahoon
May, 1992
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my parents
Robert Leroy Cahoon
and
Jacqueline Powell Cahoon
for their love and unflagging support
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Deepest
thanks to
William Bass, Dr.
the members
of
my committee,
Richard Jantz, and Dr.
Dr.
Randall Bressee,
for their extraordinary patience and assistance.
Thanks
to Testfabrics,
cotton fabric
polypropylene.
which
samples gratis, and
Also
thanks to
provided
the yarn
to Dr. Bressee
F-Stop in
Oak
and
for the
Ridge~
for
printing the photographs at a discount.
And thanks to Kendall and
and the chocolate.
Angie, for the moral support
ABSTRACT
This study
focuses on how
a single layer
of clothing
affects-human decomposition, and if human decomposition-has
a noticeable
were
affect on
placed at
Knoxville, TN
other
clothing materials.
the Anthropological
on January 16,
was nude.
Seven
different
attached to the inside of
subject,
and
1991.
Two cadavers
Research Facility
One was
types of
in
clothed, the
yarns
were
the clothing on the experimental
another set of
these yarns was
anchored to
the base of nearby tree to serve as a control sample set.
Cadavers were monitored as
activity was observed,
1991.
they decomposed, and insect
from January 16, 1991
until May 4,
The National Weather Service provided daily high and
low temperatures.
Yarn samples were collected from January
16, 1991 until November 5,
fibers
from the
1991 and examined visually, and
yarns were
examined microscopically
for
mechanical/structural deterioration, and breaking strengths
were measured.
The clothed cadaver (EXP)
the
nude cadaver
(CTL)
active decay almost
did.
EXP reached
twice as quickly as
because the garment facilitated
of carrion
decomposed more quickly than
insects which are
bloating
and
did CTL, probably
the growth and development
responsible for much
of the
destruction of the remains.
Fibers
little
from
or
microscopically
experimental
structural
no
or
visually.
indicated that the yarns
and
or
control
yarns
mechanicai
Breaking
strength
showed
damage
tests
responded differentially to human
decomposit:ion.
However,
larger sample sizes and
period of research will offer clearer answers.
a longer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .
LITERATURE SURVEY
Historic Perspective
Post-Mortem Changes and the Process of
of Decomposition •••••••••••••••.
Variables Affecting Decomposition
Clothed Remains
Textiles •••••..
METHODS AND MATERIALS
The Experiment •••.••
Subjects ••••••..•..
The Facility and Subject Placement
Clothing Specifications .••••
Yarns •••••••••••••••••
Observations in the F ld
Laboratory Procedures ••.•.
IV.
V.
VI.
5
5
7
11
20
22
24
24
24
25
28
30
31
40
RESULTS
Decomposition
Clothng and Yarns
50
DISCUSSION
Human Decomposition
Garment Deterioration
Yarn Deterioration
69
69
70
70
CONCLUSIONS
HUman Decomposition
Yarn Deterioration
74
74
74
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VITA
1
. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43
77
81
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
1.
PAGE
Daily high/low temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit,
daily precipitation in inches, average monthly
high/low temperatures in degrees Fahrenhe , total
precipitation in inches, January 1991 through
November 1991 ••••..••••.•••••••.....••...•••••••• 35
2.
Breaking strength of individual yarns in pounds
56
3.
Average mean breaking strengths in pounds and
normalized breaking strengths in percentage •••.•• 66
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
1.
Anthropological Research Facility •............... 26
2.
Sketch of placement of experimental cadavers and
yarns at the Anthropological Research Facility ... 27
3.
Garment for experimental cadaver and the placement
of experimental yarns ••••••••••.••••••••••••••••• 29
4
Arrangement and placement of control yarns •••.••• 32
5.
Average monthly high and low temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit and average monthly precipitation in
inches, January 1986 through November 1991 •••.... 36
6.
Appearance of fibers from normal yarns at 40x
magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.
Equations used in the comparison of yarn samples. 42
8.
Beginnings, peaks, and ends of decomposition stages
and re lated acti vi ties .•.•••••..••••••••••...•••• 44
9.
Visual Examination of Yarns •••.•••••••••.•••••••• 52
10. Results of t-tests to determine statistical significance of breaking strengths of yarn samples •••• 57
11. X indicates a significant comparison (at a = .05)
between 2 samples ..•.....••...•....•••••..••.••.• 64
12
Normalized Breaking Strengths of XYZ-, EXP-, •.••. 65
and CTL-yarns
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION
Forensic
concepts
anthropology
and
medicolegal
techniques
problems.
remains as
well as
is
of
the
physical
Skeletal
those badly
of
anthropology
and
badly
damaged by
identification problem for police
Anthropologists assist
application
the
to
decomposed
fire pose
an
and other investigators.
in determining
if the
remains are
human, if
more than one individual is represented, and the
age, sex,
race, stature,
distinguishing or
unique traits
(i.e. congenital defects such as cleft palate: degenerative
changes such
healed
as osteoarthritis:
fractures;
hypoplasia),
and
(Stewart, 1948).
nutritional
dental
traumatic damage
defects
features
such
of
the
such as
as
dental
individual(s)
Such assistance offers a better chance of
establishing the identity of the individual.
In
addition
to
anthropologists have
identifying
in the past
processes and rates of
few decades
decomposition.
and patterns of decomposition which
quickly
or slowly
they
occur,
forensic
remains,
studied the
Knowing the process
occur after death, how
and the
variables
which
affect these rates and patterns, allows for a more accurate
. estimate of post-mortem interval.
occurred,
missing
person
compared to the remains.
By estimating when death
records
can
be
and
Also, in criminal investigations,
the knowledge of when the death
occurred may be crucial in
convicting or acquitting a murder suspect.
such studies can
surveyed
assist in determining
In other cases,
if remains
are of
2
immediate
forensic/medicolegal interest,
archaeological, historic, or recent
have been exposed by vandalism
or
if they
are
cemetery remains which
or natural causes (Berryman
et aI, 1991).
At the
TN, under
have
Anthropology Research
the direction of
studied
Facility in
Dr. William
decompositional rates,·
variables affecting them since 1980.
Knoxville,
Bass, researchers
processes,
and
the
Human remains donated
to scientific endeavors, unidentified, or unclaimed by next
of kin, have
been studied under a number
document the
sequence of events
of conditions to
and/or the
time involved
(Mann et aI, 1990).
The majority of these studies have used nude cadavers.
Clothing prohibits
easy observation
process and activity
of animal and insect
may also affect that activity.
a
hindrance
to
of the
documenting
decomposition
when human
environmental
conditions.
the
basic
remains are
has
been noted,
often present
in
such
exposed to
deterioration
the process.
(or
may
different from
exhibit
that
various
clothing
is
Also, in those
with remains
fragments thereof)
well into the skeletonized
of
it is important to
clothing associated
the clothing
circumstances
processes
However, because
study how clothing may affect
in which
scavengers, and
Clothing has therefore been
often associated with forensic remains,
case histories
decomposition
stage.
a
Clothing
pattern
of clothing
is
of
suffering
deterioration due solely to environmental conditions.
3
A few researchers have looked
materials associated
with post-mortem processes
aI, 1984; Morse and Dailey,
studies
involved
at the deterioration of
the
1985).
effects
(Morse et
However, none of these
of
long
term
human
decomposition on the structure and deterioration of various
fabrics.
It
is
important
affects decomposition,
affect how
to
and how
understand
how
clothing
decomposition in
turn may
various fibers deteriorate.
Clothing
may have
an effect on the pattern of decomposition which could cause
confusion if
are
criteria developed for
applied to
clothed
misidentified if
unclothed individuals
individuals,
and fibers
decomposition has a sufficient
may
be
effect on
them.
This
study
cadavers, one
examined
both
clothed and one
of
these
aspects.
nude, were followed
Two
at the
Anthropology Research Facility from January 16, 1991 to May
4,
1991
to
compare
decomposition.
were
exposed
In
the
process
addition, seven
to non-human
environmental
1991 to November 5,
of
the control
compared by
yarn-types
factors
1991.
experiment
means of
of
(soil,
to the clothed cadaver
from January 16,
cadaver was
pattern
different
mulch, rain, temperature, etc.) and
samples from
and
Deterioration
and the
visual and
clothed
microscopic
evaluation of fibers and by measuring the breaking strength
of
yarns.
clothing
The results
accelerates
showed
human
that
a single
decomposition
winter/early spring, and that different
types of
layer
in
of
later
clothing
4
materials react
decomposition.
differentially to
association with
human
5
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE SURVEY
HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE
Anthropology is the
study of humans
artifacts, evolution, and ecological
and biologic systems.
Physical anthropologists focus on the
as a biological
human
being.
species
within and
between human
pathology
populations
as
processes
of
evolution of the
precursors,
secular
populations, bone
in
historic
reflected
modern
studies of the human
They look at the
from primate
morphology,
their culture,
in
populations,
histology and
and
bones,
archaeological
and
such
changes
the
as
disease
osteoporosis
(Campbell, 1985: Relethford, 1990i Wolpoff, 1980).
In studying such aspects, physical anthropologists have
developed
a
very
skeletal system.
detailed
understanding
Much of their
of
the
work involves historic and
archaeological populations, in
which the bones may
that
humans
is
left
earliest
of
physical
physicians, already
the actual
human
anthropologists
under
were
study.
The
anatomists
familiar with the human
physical anthrolopolgy became more
be all
and
skeleton.
As
formal, human osteology
(or the
study of human
bones) was intensely
methods
were developed
to determine
age,
stature from skeletal remains (Iscan, 1988).
studied, and
sex, race
and
The Terry and
Todd collections allowed for extensive fine tuning of these
techniques
by
providing
populations
with
known
vital
statistics for comparison with experimental results (Iscan,
6
1988).
will
Research
continues today on these
indefinitely,
as
results
from
population may not apply so well
techniques, and
one
segment
of
a
to other segments of that
population, or to other populations all together.
In
a
remains
forensic
may
be
setting,
all
that
skeletonized
is
recovered.
knowlege of human skeletal systems,
In
testified in
case requiring
skeletal remains
burned
Without
some
it would be impossible
to identify the remains.
a criminal
and/or
1897, an anthropologist first
(Snow, 1982).
identification of
Since that
time, physical
anthropologists from the Smithsonian and other institutions
have. assisted
various law
identifying remains
services
(Snow,
to
forensic
remains
1982).
Twentieth Century,
focus more and
organizations
from criminal settings, and
in identifying
conflicts
enforcement
In
the armed
recovered from
the
second
cases.
By
1971,
a
military
half
some physical anthropologists
more on the applications
in
of
the
began to
of their training
Physical Anthropology
Section had been formed in the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences,
which
is
considered
"the
world's
premier
organization in the forensic sciences" (Snow, 1982).
In
many
criminal
identification
are
decomposition.
At
difficult if
the victim,
in
cases, the
a
state
remains
of
this point, skin
not impossible
and facial
active
extent that simple recognition is also
or
advanced
slippage has
to collect
features may
require
which
made it
fingerprints from
be disfigured
impossible.
to an
Often,
7
such
remains
were
anthropologists
handed
for
removal
over
to
of
flesh
identification by skeletal parameters
and Galloway,
1989).
potential evidence.
are therefore
However, this
Studies of the
important.
physical/forensic
and
subsequent
(pers. comm.,· Willey
involves the
loss of
decomposition process
Knowing what
happens to
a body
after death can lead to recovery of evidence concerning the
interval since death,
whether the remains have
been moved
since the time of death, what variables affect the body and
in what way,
before the soft tissues are
give clues to
even
death.
to the
the cause of death, to the
identity of
the person
removed.
It can
manner of death,
responsible for
the
Over the past few decades, forensic anthropologists
and other
forensic specialists
have concerned
themselves
with these questions.
POST-MORTEM CHANGES AND THE PROCESS OF DECOMPOSITION
The basic process
differential
rates
bacteria and other
sooner a body
of decomposition is mediated
of
cell death
and
micro-organisms within
mortis, algor
mortis, and
within hours following death.
of the
body.
all cells die
of
The
the easier it
The processes of
mortis all
occur
Rigor mortis, the stiffening
body, proceeds from the
Not
livor
activity
the body.
is recovered following death,
is to determine the post-mortem interval.
rigor
the
by the
at the
death of cells
time the human
within the
dies.
A
certain amount of oxygen and nutrients remains in the blood
cells.
Cell death throughout the body occurs as oxygen and
8
energy fail
to be
renewed and as
metabolism fail to be transported
the
cells die,
hours after
rigor mortis
death, peaking
disappearing
in about
36
waste products
away from the cells.
sets in,
hours
(Baden
settling
and Hennessee,
of red
1989).
blood
about an hour,
this information,
it is
The
gravity.
In
areas where the
the cells break down,
This process
and Hennessee, 1989).
Based on
to pinpoint
first 36 hours.
processes, like all others, are
per hour
blood plasma.
relatively easy
death within the
cell
the
to the laws of
Once
and
mortis involves
becomes permanent.
takes about 8 hours (Baden
time of
of
2
This cooling is
redness of the skin in the
in the skin
As
about 1 degree
Livor
cells settle becomes apparent.
the redness
drops.
cells out
precipitate settles according
10 hours,
all together.
and it proceeds at
As
beginning about
within another
metabolism slows, body temperature
algor mortis,
of cell
the
However, these
affected by variables such
as temperature, humidity, and drugs or poisons.
Decomposition
researchers who
occurs
have studied
processes into stages,
body.
Di£ferent
arrangements
of
environments where
carrion
observed
in
an
orderly
it have
broken the
defined by the changes
researchers
these
stages,
de~omposition
proposed
based
on
Payne, 1965;
the
is studied, the
undergoing decomposition,
The
various
seen in the
have
biases of the researchers (Galloway
King, 1968;
manner.
and
various
different
types of
personal
et aI, 1989; Payne and
Reed, 1958;
Bornemissza, 1957).
9
In general, the
basic sequence of stages
decay, and dry.
Most of
the variation comes from dividing
the decay stage into two or more stages.
of
limits on
is fresh, bloat,
each stage
may be
While the setting
somewhat arbitrary,
the
pattern of decompositional events is not.
Rigor
mortis, algor
mortis,
and
livor mortis
during the first or "fresh" stage of decomposition.
this period
of time, most
are internal.
other
Cells break
micro-organisms
throughout
the body
Bass, 19851
of the
proliferate
Payne, 1965;
and
aI,
bacteria and
are
disseminated
1987; Rodriguez
Bornemissza, 1957).
lividity, and temperature changes
body remains intact.
During
decompositional changes
down, intestinal
(Cotton et
occur
and
Stiffness,
occur, but generally the
No skin slippage or hair mass loss is
generally noted (Reed, 1958; Payne and King, 1968).
During the next stage, bloating, cellular autolysis and
bacterial activity
escape from
produce gases
the body (Bornemissza,
up, they cause
spreads throughout
and King, 1968).
and skin
Bodily fluids
anus (Payne,
gases
may
Head and body
seep from
occur
they build
cavities to swell.
will occur.
and black)
et aI,
(Galloway
the eyes,
When the
means of
1989; Payne
hair loosen and often come
slippage occurs
peak, deflation
As
green, yellow, red, brown
the body (Galloway
1965).
have no
1957).
the chest and abdominal
Discoloration (gray,
away,
which
et aI,
nose, ears,
bloating stage
The release
explosively or
mouth and
reaches its
of the
gradually,
1989).
pent up
through
the
10
natural orifices of
the bloating stage
Galloway et
the body.
Deflation marks
(Reed, 1958; Rodriguez and
aI, 1989; Payne
and King,
the end of
Bass, 1983;
1968; Bornemissza,
1957).
During the decay stage, cracks
gains entrance in
activity
this way and internal
increases,
decomposition
appear in the skin; air
thus
(Reed,
aerobic bacterial
speeding
1958;
Rodriguez
Massive skin slippage occurs
the
and
internal
Bass,
1983).
and soft tissues deteriorate,
exposing bones (Galloway et aI, 1989; Reed, 1958; Cotton et
aI, 1987).
natural
Body fluids seep
orifices
tissues.
bacterial
as well
Toward the
away from the
as
through
end of this stage,
colonies may
occur
on
dry out.
Hair which
gaps in
the
soft
molds, fungi, and
or around
(Bornemissza, 1957; Payne and King,
begin to
body, through
the
remains
1968), and the remains
has fallen
from the
head
very little
soft
usually forms a hair mat (Reed, 1958).
In general,
the dry
tissue associated
Rodriguez and
This stage
out,
suffer
stage involves
with the
bones (Galloway
Bass, 1983; Reed, 1958;
may last
damage
undergo bleaching
for several years,
from
weathering
and exfoliation.
decompose (Galloway et aI, 1989;
Reed, 1958; Bornemissza, 1957).
et aI,
1989;
Bornemissza, 1957).
as the
and
bones dry
cracking,
Hair mats
and
will slowly
Rodriguez and Bass, 1983;
11
VARIABLES AFFECTING DECOMPOSITION
Types of studies and subjects used
The
above
discussion
highlighting
the major
address
number
the
of
decomposition,
events of
the
of variables
process, does
which
describing the
decomposition process,
collected from
observations of
while
affect
it.
not
In
the data
have been
actual forensic
cases and
from experiments designed to monitor decomposition from the
time of death through the dry stage and beyond.
Data
from
thousands of
begins with
forensic
cases.
cases
has
In these "case
the discovery of the
decomposition are reconstructed.
been
body and time
time
of
discovery
exposure,
exposure
(temperature,
activity and other scavenger
tables of
The observations include
decomposition, environmental
water,
from
studies," observation
degree of
to
amassed
conditions at
humidity,
the
sun/shade
precipitation),
insect
activity, and protection from
the environment (buildings, burial,
tarps, heavy clothing,
etc. ) .
The diligent
case histories
recording of these factors
can result in
deal of information.
compiled and pieced
large
pool of
case
when studying
the coordination of
The patterns
a great
of decomposition can be
together in this way.
history studies
In addition, a
from
one area
will
document the environmental conditions and faunal and floral
populations
conditions
specific to
from
one
that area. 1
geographic
The differences
region
to
another
in
can
12
significantly affect the time it takes to reach the various
stages of
decomposition.
processes
of
They can
decomposition.
also affect
Case
the basic
studies
have
been
submitted into the literature from: Washington state, south
and west
Indiana, Maryland, the Southwest,
the Hawaiian
and
Islands, the
southern
Cumberland Mountains,
California (Lord,
1990)
1970); the Hawaiian Islands (Goff
aI,
1985)
~
Arizona/Pima
Washington DC,
County
~
Chicago,
England
(Easton,
and Flynn, 1991; Goff et
(Galloway
et aI,
1989)
~
Washington state (Haglund et aI, 1990; Haglund et aI, 1988;
Haglund
et
aI,
1989); Wales
(Knight,
(Cotton
et
aI,
1987)
(Kulshrestha
~
India
1971);
Minnesota
and
Chandra,
1987); and Indiana (Hawley et aI, 1989).
Experimental
studies follow
starting with the
and record
time of death.
decomposition
Most of these
studies
involve the use of non-human subjects. Reed (1958) used dog
carcasses and Payne
baby pigs.
(Micozzi,
cats,
(1965) and Payne and
Other animals
1986), frogs,
chickens,
and
King (1968) used
include rats, squirrels, rabbits
toads,
mice, shrews,
other birds
studies have used unspecified animal
(Payne,
chipmunks,
1965).
Other
tissues such as fresh
liver (Introna et aI, 1991) or hamburger (Morse et al
1 If time of death can be established in any given forensic
case, climatological data for the post-mortem interval can
be obtained from the nearest weather service station. This
allows the decomposition rate to be synchronized with the
local climatic conditions. Differences between climatology
at the weather station and the death scene can be corrected
by taking observations at the death scene and comparing
them agains weather service data (Meeks and Andrews, 1990).
13
1984).
Pigs are
useful research
skin is
similar to
coat), and because
that of
subjects because
humans (lacking
it is easy to
their
a thick
fur
obtain several specimens
of uniform size
(Payne, 1965).
Older pigs
used, with body
weights close to human
have also been
body weights (Neil
Haskell, pers. comm., 1989).
By following
the time
the decomposition
of such
and observing
the effects
of death
variables as possible, clear
insect activity have been
case
history
documented.
have
effects.
By themselves, however,
subjects
cannot
Differences
feathers,
effects
in
applied
size,
skin) due
that may
make
a
about environmental
directly
species
invaluable
the studies on non-human
weight, and
to
many
In conjunction with
contributed
the patterns seen and
be
of as
patterns of decomposition and
reports, they
knowledge about
subjects from
to
body
human
cases.
coverings
differences have
difference in
(fur,
subtle
determining
the
interval since death or other aspects of the case.
Experiments involving the placement of hUman beings
the
time
of
death
skeletonization have been
at the
and
following
at
them
through
conducted for the past
11 years
Anthropology Research Facility.
This is
the only
known facility in which such research is conducted on human
subjects.
and
Such research is rare because of public concerns
distaste
for
situations arising
through
the
such
experiments
from this.
Tennessee
and
The cadavers
State Medical
the
political
are obtained
Examiner's
Office.
14
They
have been
unidentified
studies
donated to
or unclaimed
have
followed
scientific
by their
human
buried, throughout
been observed
the
These
on
etc.
to environmental
and these results
literature (Rodriguez
of kin.
are
various
ground), on the surface
various seasons,
in relation
scavenger activity,
next
decomposition
substrates (concrete slabs, wooded
and
endeavors, or
and Bass,
They
have
variables and
have been
added to
1983; Rodriguez
and
Bass, 1985; Mann et aI, 1990; Berryman et aI, 1991).
Variables studied
The variables which affect decomposition are not easily
separated
into
discrete categories.
intricately connected.
Instead,
However, some
have a
they
are
much deeper
impact on the process.
Insect activity has perhaps the
processes
and
duration of
indicated
that remains
much more
quickly than do
insects (Payne, 1965).
decomposition.
exposed to
flies arrived
placement and
and Bass,
1990).
the
anal
decay
protected from
time of death, insects in the
scene within
minutes after
began depositing eggs (Payne,
1965; Gilbert
Eggs were
at the
King, 1968; Reed,
deposited
the face (mouth,
and
insect activity
have
In both human and non-human carrion
1967; Payne and
openings of
Studies
those which are
placed on the surface at the
form of
greatest impact on the
in
and around
1958; Catts,
the
eyes, ears, nose),
urogenital openings,
and,
if
natural
later at
trauma
was
present, at the site of wounds (Lord, 1990; Goff and Catts,
15
1990; Gilbert
and Bass, 1967;
Payne, 1965;
Rodriguez and
Bass 1983; Reed, 1958; Smith, 1970).
Insect
activity
successions.
insects
The
which
occurs
insect
feed
in
a
communities
directly on
various predators.
series
the
of
are
waves
or
composed
of
carrion
and
Specific families, genera
their
and species
of insects appear during each wave (Hall, 1990; Lord, 1990;
Catts, 1990;
Reed, 1958).
give clues about
has been
involved)
1990).
development of these
lead to
there are differences
to another,
of
narrow
from a number
the
range
of
one geographic
of carrion
of insect
to
the same
It
most estimates
a range
the
While
observed.
on entomological
based on
this can
differences for
regions, however;
is usually
development times
the
and
to determine
succession and
been
to study
growth
interval.
species
have
interval based
for example,
can
from one
insects
different geographic
the
in some species from
and
be an
the insects
present, and
the post-mortem
to continue
post-mortem
studying
overall patterns of
type
important
By
they have been
an estimate of
general
(if the body
death, there may
insects, it is possible
of time
another, the
time of
absence can
the decomposition process and
(Hall,
the length
presence or
location of the death scene
moved since the
interruption in
region
Their
is
the
of
information,
of growth
species.
post-mortem
and
This
interval
significantly.
Insect
activity
significantly
speeds
the
rate
of
16
decomposition
and
decomposition.
appears
to
affect
the
and feeding on and
digesting the
The larvae (maggots)
which hatch from the
deposited
(maggots)
occur
rapidly.
Maggot
body and
not
occur
it,
grow
internally;
ingestion
As the maggots
they help
and
which soften
pe~mit
and
carrion~
eggs previously
numbers
are produced
1991).
feed on
large
does
carrion tissues
comm. Neil Haskell,
the
in
digestion
external enzymes
surrounding
of
Insect activity includes deposition of eggs
on the remains,
instead,
process
(pers.
move thoughout
to disseminate
intestinal bacteria and micro-organisms
the
the
already present in
the body more quickly and more widely than if there were no
insect
activity
produced by
(Lord,
1990;
this metabolic
Payne,
1965).
activity also
The
heat
assists in
the
decomposition processes (Catts, 1990; Payne, 1965).
Payne's
pigs which
study in
1965 compared
were exposed
to insects
protected from insects.
insects
were present
earlier
section
decomposition
this
remnants shortly thereafter.
protected from
environmental
pattern of
the
was
of
His
conditions,
bloating,
soft
the
rapid
tissues, and
dry
subjects were reduced to
during the
insects, at the same
to
which were
described in
chapter:
within a week
decomposition.
pigs began
much as
and destruction
skeletal remains
and those
of
The pattern of decomposition when
was
of
the decomposition
exhibited
Following
summer.
time and in
a
much
the same
different
the bloating
dehydrate and mummify.
Those
stage,
Soft tissues
17
survived,
albeit
as
dried and
leathery
remnants.
The
process took several months.
Temperature
is
also extremely
activity is facilitated
slowed
or
addition,
Cold
even
Bacterial
by high temperatures, while
arrested
by
temperature has
temperatures
important.
lower
an effect
reduce
insect
it is
temperatures.
on insect
activity
In
activity.
and
inhibit
deposition of eggs and the growth and development of larvae
(Mann et aI, 1990; Reed, 1958;
1990;
also
Gallowayet
have an
aI, 1989).
effect.
ranges within
Lord, 1990; Goff and Catts,
Temperature variation
If the
a short period
hatching, growth
high
and low
temperature
are large, this
can inhibit
and development
of the
(Hall, 1990;
Goff, 1988: Reed,
maggots
are
hatched
and the
established,
ambient
(air) temperatures
fluctuations
will
activity
maggot
of
temperatures
have
1958).
little
eggs and
However,
maggot
masses
(Haskell,
may
masses
produces
1990;
Mann et
once the
are
and
metabolic
extremely
aI,
firmly
temperature
The
impact.
larvae
1990).
high
Even
placement in morgue coolers has little effect on the maggot
activity at
this stage.
In human
Tennessee, high temperatures and
decomposition in
East
heavy insect activity can
skeletonize remains on the surface in two weeks to a month,
while remains
placed in the
months to reach
winter time may
the same stage (Bass
take several
and Rodriguez, 1983;
Mann et aI, 1990).
Moisture
affects
the
pattern
of
decomposition.
18
Humidity in
rapid
combination with high
qecomposition.
remains
occur in
extreme
Dessication
arid
Galloway et aI, 1989).
difficulties
post-mortem interval.
temperature facilitates
and
environments
mummification
(Mann et
aI,
of
1990;
Conditions at high elevations cause
in
determining
the
Galloway et. al.
processes
(1989)
and
have noted
slower decomposition at higher elevations, due to increased
lower
precipitation,
activity.
Catts
extremes and the
decomposition.
temperatures,
(1990) indicates
and
that
less
the
insect
temperature
rapid freeze-thaw cycles result
in rapid
Micozzi (1986) has noted that:
"Freezing-thawing • • • accelerates rates of
disarticulation • • • [it] diminished the
capability of enteric organisms to grow and
participate in postmortem putrefaction. The
mechanical disruption of the tissues caused
by freezing also weakens the skin, connective
tissue, and joints, thus facilitating aerobic
decay and skeletal disarticulation, and
making internal organs more susceptible to
invasion by foreign organisms and insects."
The
apparent
differences.
contradictions
may
be
Although Galloway et. al.
describing conditions
at high elevations
due
to
regional
and Catt·s are both
with fluctuating
temperatures, Galloway et. al. work in the Southwest, while
Catts
is
Washington,
based
DC.
in
Washington
Broad regional
state
and
differences
Micozzi
may
in
affect
conditions at high elevations.
Protection from insects and other environmental factors
will
affect the
rate of
decomposition.
insect access to the body, as do
Burial
tightly sealed
inhibits
buildings
19
or containers (Rodriguez and Bass, 1985; Mann et aI, 1990).
In
addition, ground
temperatures are
than ambient temperatures.
buried
remains
than
slower
on
those
decomposition,
on
may
interfere
(Galloway et
1990).
with
aI, 1989;
the
surface.
Heavy
or plastic coverings result
because
difficulty for establishing insect
they
variable
Decomposition is much slower in
clothing (many layers) or tarp
in
much less
they
increase
activity.
non-insect
In addition,
scavenger
Haglund et aI,
the
activity
1988; Mann
et aI,
Immersion in water also slows decomposition (Cotton
et aI, 1987).
Non-insect
rodents)
scavengers
will approach
decomposition.
Large
(mammalian
carrion at
carnivores
specific times
carnivores such
as canids
and
during
(wolves,
coyotes, domestic dogs) dismember and disarticulate remains
in a predictable pattern (Willey
et aI,
1988; Haglund et
usually long
site.
bones,
aI, 1989).
which
they
They usually the bones
their teeth,
and Snyder, 1989; Haglund
Rodents
will
prefer dry,
carry away
from a
for gnawing and wearing down
rather than for nutritional
reasons (Haglund
et aI, 1988; Haglund et aI, 1989).
Sun/shade exposure may have an effect on decomposition.
Reed (1958) found that in
direct sunlight there were lower
insect populations but quicker
due
there
to higher
were
decomposition.
insect succession, probably
temperatures, while
more
insects
Sunlight and
but
in wooded/shady
slower
succession
any attendant
drying
areas
and
were
20
noted to inhibit insect feeding
and egg deposition (Willey
and Snyder, 1989).
Trauma
also
decomposition.
has an
In
approach natural
on
pattern and
non-traumatized
body orifices.
they also approach
spots.
effect
individuals,
When trauma
the areas of wounding,
Wounds provide additional
rate
of
insects
is present,
enlarging these
sites for egg deposition
and easy feeding (Mann et aI, 1990).
CLOTHED REMAINS
Many case histories and experimental studies report the
presence
of
various
remains (Lord,
the
clothing
al.
and caution
(1990)
decomposition
while
that
that
by protecting
decomposition.
al.
inhibits
from
(1988)
scavenger
However,
entomological
carefully.
suggest that
al.
with
on the presence
clothing
maggots
(1989)
Haglund et.
clothing
1985).
during
should be examined
suggest
Galloway et.
heavy
associated
do more than comment
collections, clothing
et.
clothing
1990; Rodriguez and Bass,
these studies rarely
of
types of
may
Mann
speed·
the sunlight,
it may
slow
also suggest
that
activity
and
the
associated decomposition.
Studies at the Anthropology Research Facility generally
involve
nude
clothing is
passing
cadavers.
associated with
only (Rodriguez
important to
Again,
and
in
those
remains, it
Bass,
cases
is mentioned
1985).
It
study decompositional processes and
thoroughly as possible,
where
has
in
been
rates as
and clothing makes it difficult to
21
make
communities.
studies on
cases.
it
observations
detailed
Many
without
forensic cases
clothed subjects
disturbing
are nude,
are not
insect
as well,
necessary for
so
those
For forensic cases which involve clothing, however,
is important
clothing
be
cadavers
should
that the
documented;
not
responses
of decomposition
criteria from
be applied
to
studies
clothed
of
remains
to
nude
if
clothing results in significant differences.
Approaching the
problem from
would be interesting to know
associated fabrics.
the other
how decomposition affects the
Clothing often
skeletal stage of decomposition
and the
give
clues
depending on the type of
conditions with
Differential deterioration
about
the
post-mortem interval,
survives well into the
(Lord, 1990; Rodriguez and
Bass, 1985), and possibly beyond,
fabric
direction, it
which
it is
of the fabrics
decomposition
which becomes
associated.
may be
process
very
able to
or
even
difficult
once
skeletonization is reached.
Very
few
studies
deterioration of
setting.
have
fabrics, yarns, or
The majority
fibers which
concerned with
been
of
expose them
tests
fibers in
on fabrics,
to environmental
their abilities to
and tear as clothing.
published
Studies
on
the
a forensic
yarns
and
conditions are
hold up to
normal wear
have focused on exposure to
sunlight, water, temperature ranges, fire, detergents, etc.
(1990,
ASTM).
different
Morse
et.
materials commonly
al.
(1984)
studied
found associated
several
with death
22
scenes: clothing-quality fabrics, shoe
and varieus types of paper.
trenches and dug up at
the most
and wallet leather,
These materials were buried in
regular intervals for testing.
part these materials
were buried
For
by themselves.
In one experiment, different materials were associated with
decomposing hamburger.
However, only
results of
fabrics
buried alone in trenches (plus those controls placed on the
surface) are reported in the literature (Morse et aI, 1984;
Morse and Dailey,
1985)~
Monahan and Harding (1990) examined how various fabrics
respond
to
cuts
instruments (blunt
items
frequently
exposure
to blood,
indicated
and
tears
from
to serrated to
used
as
sharp knives
weapons
and subsequent
differential types
different
in
of damage
The
subsequent
washing and drying.
the ability
there appear
exposure
to
results
used,
the
and
blood, continued wear, and
Cox (1990)
looked at
to identify them following
to be no studies
cases),
depending on
weave/knit of the fabric and the type of weapon
the
and other
forensic
washing.
cutting
bloodstains and
washing.
However,
in which fabrics,
yarns or
fibers are associated with body fluids on a long term basis
or with extended decomposition.
TEXTILES
Textiles
are
classified
by
primary divisions are natural and
divided by whether they
Cellulosic
their
structure.
The
man-made, which are then
are cellulosic and non-cellulosic.
fibers are made of cellulose base products such
23
as wood pulp,
of
animal
proteins
synthesized
fibers).
while non-cellulosic fibers may
(for
from oil
Natural
or coal
fibers)
or
products
constituents (for
man-made
cellulosic fibers include
and jute, while natural
and silk.
natural
be composed
cotton, flax,
non-cellulosic fibers include wool
Acetate is a man-made modified cellulosic fiber;
nylon, polyester and
non-cellulosic
filaments
acrylic are all examples
fibers
are spun
(Joseph,
1977).
into yarns,
of man-made
The
which are
fibers
or
then woven
or
knitted into fabrics commonly found in clothing.
Damage
damage
may
be
mechanical
is seen
as
breaks,
to the
microbial
Such
sun,
including
can
be
but not
examination,
punctures;
the
eta al.,
noted through
limited to:
breaking
moisture regain,
Mechanical
insect
Chemical damage derives from
chemicals in
activity (Morse
damage
chemical.
tears, or
activity causes such damage.
exposure
or
soil, heat,
19841 Joseph,
1977).
a
tests,
number
visual and
and
and
of
microscopic
bursting
solubility, burning,
strengths,
and elongation
and
elasticity.
In
their study,
microscopic
Morse et
evaluation
al (1984)
(optical microscopy
electron microscopy), breaking and
x-rays,
scanning
and
chemical
electron
time-consuming
tests.
microscopy
for the
used visual
minimal
and
and
scanning
bursting strength, soft
However,
was
too
results,
chemical tests were similarly useless.
they
found
that
expensive
and
and x-rays
and
24
CHAPTER III
METHODS AND MATERIALS
THE EXPERIMENT
Two
human cadavers
Research Facility
Cotton, scoured
wool,
silk,
(dacron 54),
yarns were attached
acrylic
(orIon
set of these yarns
body
of
presence/absence
(but
not
decomposition processes
acetate
the surface
associated
variables
activity were
of the
nylon 6.6,
of the clothing,
was laid on
environmental
of insect
was clothed,
75), and
to the inner surface
clothed
Observations
Anthropology
One
polyester
the
at the
1991.
nude.
near
placed
on January 16,
the other
while another
were
with
it).
and
the
noted, and
clothed and
the
nude cadavers
were monitored for variation.
Samples of the yarns from
the clothed cadaver and from
the control set were collected.
at TRIO
facilities on
Deterioration was measured
the UT
campus. These
results were
compared with a control set protected from the environment.
SUBJECTS
Two
cadavers
Research Facility
They
were
were
in Knoxville,
obtained
Tennessee State
delivered
through
Dr.
to
TN on
the
Anthropology
January 15,
William
Bass
Medical Examiner's Office. On
1991, one of the cadavers was
and
similar
exposure.
sun/shade,
the
January 16,
moved to a location within 5
feet of the other experimental subject, so that they
share
1991.
precipitation
and
would
drainage
25
The control cadaver
death.
He died
arrest
and was
cooler
until
was a black male aged
on October
stored
in
removal
on
1990 of
30,
the Forensic
January
81 years at
cardiopulmonary
Sciences
15,
Center
to
1991
the
Anthropology Research Facility.
The experimental cadaver was a white male aged 65 years
at death.
He
died on November 15, 1990
of natural causes
and was stored in the Forensic Sciences Center cooler until
removal on
January 15, 1991
Facility.
When
face with
spots of mold
to the
received, mold
Anthropology Research
was observed
on his
chest.
covering his
He was
wearing a
silver-colored watch on his left wrist.
THE FACILITY AND SUBJECT PLACEMENT
The
Anthropology
fenced, open wooded
Tennessee
Research
Facility
land located behind the
Memorial Hospital,
a
few
University proper (see Figure 1).
cadavers
were placed
exposure
about five
feet
leaf
clutter.
clothed
and placed
spread,
palms down.
unclothed.
He
back to the
ground.
The
rested on his chest.
of
University of
with mixed
from one
of
the
another
sun/shade
on a
slight
surface was comprised of soil
back, arms
The control
was resting
acre
miles south
The experimental
on his
an
Experimental and control
in locations
incline (see Figure 2).
and
is
cadaver
(EXP)
was
and legs
slightly
cadaver (CTL)
remained
partially on
His legs were drawn up
his left
side,
and his hands
Attempts were made to straighten the
cadaver to match the position of EXP, but given
the amount
26
Figur e 1 .
Anthro ologica Research Facility
27
\
Figure 2.
Sketch of placement of experimental
cadavers and yarns at the
Anthropological Research Facility
28
of
resistance encountered,
it was
decided
to leave
the
limbs as they were and avoid any unnecessary trauma.
CLOTHING SPECIFICATIONS
A
garment was
made for
garment was unbleached
Technical
EXP.
The left
cotton (Style # 400
Catalog, Issue
#64),2 and
side of
the
U, Testfabrics
the
right side
was
spunbonded polypropylene. 3
A vertical opening from neck to
crotch
opening
and
fastened
a
with
observation
horizontal
velcro.
These
of decomposition
at
waist
openings
and
easy
while eliminating the unwieldiness
level
were
permitted
easy
access to
yarns,
of buttons and possible
malfunction of zippers (Figure 3).
A combination of
order
to observe
Polypropylene
the
is a
absorbs essentially
cellulosic
both
differences
man-made
two
ability
while cotton
absorbs water
extremes
to
between two
used in
extremes.
non-cellulosic fabric
no water,
fabric which
fabrics,
their
cotton and polypropylene was
could
be
is a
easily.
which
natural
By
using
evaluated
for
facilitate/inhibit
decomposition
and for the deterioration involved.
EXP
was wrapped
in plastic
sheeting when
delivered.
This plastic sheeting was left in place under EXP, between
2 All fabrics except for the polypropylene were ordered
from TestFabrics, Inc./P.O.Box 420/200 Blackford Ave./
Middlesex, NJ 08846/(201) 269-6446.
3 Non-woven fabric. Fabric weight = 50 grams/(meter)2
Polymer ID: PP 3445
Pigment Concentration - 0.7% (w/w) color blue
Provided by TANDEC, UTK
29
<-OTTON
AttTATC
woo ....
.. _--SEA"'"
;; 17,;,1
V!.L~flO­
SEALEO
O-PE..J I"'~S
Figure 3.
Garment for experimental cadaver
and the placement of experimental yarns
30
the
-
garment
and
the ground.
associated with CTL.
No
plastic
It was decided to
sheeting
was
limit exposure of
the garment to body fluids only, rather than to body fluids
and
soil.
As
a partial
control,
the arms
of EXP
were
allowed to rest on the soil directly.
YARNS
In order
to evaluate the
the deterioration of materials
yarns were
EXP
Yarns
were needed
limited.
decomposition on
common to clothing, various
attached to the inside
(EXP-yarn).
samples
effects of
of the garment
were chosen
for testing
because
purposes
worn by
a number
and space
of
was
In addition, by using yarns, it was not necessary
to remove pieces of fabric from the garment.
Yarns used were:
75), nylon
scoured wool, acetate, acrylic (orIon
6.6, polyester (dacron 54),
cotton, and silk.
garment areas
unbleached natural
These yarns were positioned
covering the chest
and abdomen,
inside the
where they
could receive maximum exposure to decompositional processes
while also being accessible to
to
a thread
rather
which
than being
was attached
laid
to
over the
decomposition was
well under
from
rather than
the garment
collection.
They were tied
the garment
cadaver,
way, they
somewhere
itself,
so that
could be
once
removed
within the
body
cavity (Figure 3).
Control
yarns
(CLT-yarn)
polypropylene cord in batches.
because
there was
little chance
were
attached
to
a
Plastic cording was chosen
of it deteriorating
and
31
contaminating the control samples in
the time allotted for
the experiment.
attached samples
The cord
with the
was
tied loosely around the base of a tree, in contact with the
ground surface,
this way, the
within 18
inches of
EXP (Figure
control and EXP samples were
same environmental
conditions except
4).
exposed to the
for body
fluids and
amount of sunlight.
Sunlight can have a significant
on various
However, in
fibers.
order to
In
fect
associate yarns
directly with decomposition, the EXP-yarns were necessarily
protected
from direct
sunlight.
The
control yarns
were
located in a shady area in an attempt to provide protection
from
direct
sunlight
and
its
affects.
Although
the
CTL-yarns were located close to the decomposing body, their
placement
was
such
that they
were
protected
from
any
seepage of body fluids.
A set
either to
of yarns was also
kept away from
the environment or to
decomposi
all exposure,
on (XYZ-yarn).
These yarns provided an additional level of control against
which
the
deterioration
of both
the
CTL-yarn
and
the
EXP-yarn can be compared.
OBSERVATIONS IN THE FIELD
Information
precipitation
the
on
high
and
low
temperatures
amounts on a daily basis for the duration of
experiment were
obtained
from
the National
Service station at Tyson McGhee Airport
of the Facility.
the
and
a few miles
Weather
south
Humidity readings were not available from
Weather Service.
In addition,
monthly
temperature
32
eOTiOIl.)
vJ OOL-
ARRANGEMENT
Figure
4.
Arrangement and placement of control yarns
PLACEMENT
Figure 4 (con1t )
34
averages
and
January 1986
precipitation amounts
through December 1990
were
collected
for comparison
from
to the
readings for the time of the experiment (Table 1 and Figure
5) •
Stages of decomposition were defined as follows:
FRESH:
Processes of rigor, algor, and livor mortis
Some discoloration due to internal decomposition
BLOAT:
Skin slippage
Seepage of body fluids from natural orifices,
traumatic orifices
Hair loss (bodily and head)
Skin discoloration
Inflation of the abdominal and thoracic cavities
due to build up of gases
Deflation after release of gases
DECAY:
Cracks in the skin
Soft tissue deterioration
Exposure of bone
Continued seepage of body fluids, not limited to
previous natural orifices, as these areas are
destroyed during this stage
Presence of mold and fungal and bacterial colonies
in the areas of seepage and on the body itself
Presence of hair mat
DRY:
Little soft tissue remaining
Bones fully exposed
Bones greasy to dry
Bones disarticulated -- little cartilage or other
connective tissue left
Deterioration of hair mat
Remains were watched for the presence/activity of small
scavengers (mice, rats, chipmunks, birds, etc.; the fencing
surrounding the Facility blocks access to larger scavengers
such
raccoons, possums,
as
Insect
domestic cats,
presence and activity was
dogs, etc.).
recorded, with estimates
of number and descriptions of behavior.
Samples
of EXP-yarns and CTL-yarns were collected for
.JAIl
)U HIGH
PEB
-Jji"AIl -
-
~ !!I11C HI~ LOW_ "I.!~~HIGH W!!- PM(
n - u:-fl ~r-lr-i~ r"" ~L_ 1I~"l1
1_
u
T
I~:r-r!rt]:-H'
U=- 11'.11
1;-.!1.
'1!.f,:..E!I
k_ r.1
fr
l r !o:!'!!.~.--u.ou J
rr r.lI
~ ~ r- ~ ~r- 11 ~~~!.._~.!.J!
,.
T
II
n - l ~ ~r ~ r.l
t:=
'r- { ,
11-
0.00
0.0
)7
!!.
!T
T
I!!. _
APII
HIGH LOll
141
4
IU:-U~
T
r-,~,o.n
n!.2
r::: ~r=1Ll!.0
RAY
"IG!, LOll
.~~~
G:1I11
n
n
OJ
,_
~L ~
l r T:1Ju I ! I l I . - D':'o
~"-rn- D':'.Q~ I~L l~,7
.~
.lUll
.UC HIG"
JUL
AUG
'IDii ~ iillftFi1if PUC iHclI I~:fi
•
~[!~= 1r.1I'--" n- W-Ir.lll ,,-' n=L~;;, fo: 'H '_ 11;011 ~ " - nr-JJ-J':H 7~_ ,~~_, 11':'" ir- n
II.;~ !~t!,-, ,1 :111 ,f ,
II
~_ lr:-l~
T
I
,1
,
~:1Il~!=- 1"- T.l I.
17 ..!.
I!~
c! . •_ ~~
.~:-l/ 11
w
12!
"l~!= U..
T
lin
~ 10 ~,,:::-: '1':1Ji
I!!!_,_L!.!..
1I.0lI h
n-'- rf_t!;I)/j
O-:~..-
n
'4
10.0
r
l r 10.00 IH
r : ! ,I
I~.OO I!I'
r 11- H- lr.H)l
__
.n
o.R
iT-ltT__ u:1J'G
.,
1
OCT
rr-
'J)-
y'- ir- "
.
~~'I1iii r-=~.
'iE
~L- r;r
T.'~~ lrh~
r-
r
110'1
HIG" LOW
0-'
n--
Pb
'D':'T
--:::-:~ :~~:
--::
'rii n-rlo- T.'o -- -- --U l l r ,!~~~~ -- ;:- ::-~T 71~II- -t.!
-=-7r4l- 11:-- 1-:-=T- n'-'ti~- 'lI:iiof-:;-:-
"r- .
i-
.
''h_ T:1J
H~ r.§
" n T:1J
I~
~! Sl
"li-_ 1
.
~o 1,' '11:-0
o.lh ~ , ~!!, -".0 u
~~!= 'lI:11
O.Ol rr ~r lJ.O )1
2flr.~
!-J?~~ ' Ii~ 11-tIr~ ,'Ii:1l.
,~.lIl
t!!::=
n- ~ lUI .0- ''1-
rllt
-:-u-:ai
T
71.
o.oi!l,!L'"
~ ~~ -a-:II I .
~;~~l ~~ __ '!~.'
,~ R_ D"';i! ~~t.!L D"';~! 11 h'.- .
iF ~1.!!='J1
:!C!'rc- r=':'ir'r=
rn= ~._ tT.'io
I.E!!!- cr' ~] I~_ ~t:: , ~m= ,.-
~ _ II~ r-1r G:H ~
IT j;rr
140
,!
IT
~
1"*
.
h.
,~.!!, 61 n
~1! ~L Jo
11_, 1I~.!!1
-L
,r- ,t=' tlr=~,
~C Illttc 1':1i..Q.H
r.'liu ~'121 l.!~~~
,n lI.n!r= n-II
~ ~~~!..n tm l!r":,r ~r
TIII~~ '''= 1
"r-: -.
J T
!irlr:H Ir sr Ir.n.,.
. ' r Ir.1I
L~_r. I
rt:: r
iiiGi
f1r'~
If:1I'
l.!r=~I!!=~tTn n=::l~9
T
"10.07
T r ..
"_~~II 14
~~!l
-n-:-u
"
J!,.'Ii
I..
=-=-
Ir tt~ H- Jf-' ' lr.fif-==--
'
"u:-~Ht=
rr-ti:-1D -- -- --n 1I.1rlI., " . u.JlI ~_ ' 0 lr.1I fiJ n-' _ ~~I.I Ii
.u
'1
T
IT n- -1I':n --- --.,-f"_ "!=-l!!.
11 0.00
O.II!!!.!-_ n
l:-n '- ,~J 1I':'1rr-!!= 11':1111 ~~_l~ ,~"-~~ l"..=:i!=r!:' 1'--i!'T'- lr:-1l1,!~ ,b_' O
12 -n
' e Jr .!..l!.!l -- -- --rr
11- I:-n !:- ~~ .!!.:.!. !! ._ ~II _ -J-.. . .!I ,E iJ:II'l ,~.zll= ! .. ~ . I;; =- n-_ lr:1lC I . . !: , ~l '-!!. L!~i! n=- !'= tiro -- -- --,
J
J"- E" .rr:: 1'- l:1"1~
19 ~!!I rr ~!-L!.:.!..l.' ItJ
r.ll ,!!..-,~I
T
H
.,if
r.~1! it- I r r.!.,
r LQ.'l
7!i
.1 ~~.~Q --- ~'
0- ~r ]1-- lr:-ur rr- 11 ~:n gr n- 'Ii:'1I n- - 1., .. Ir.lI "
fff lI':T1''- II , - JO ,.- iJ~o/i '?C I
r.
I r- 1
:~ n- i r 1r.'Iiii .;;:--":-:- -===
.r 11- 2C tn' ~'.=- j'=' 11;1111 , . ~I-::. IJ~II ~;
'
~,.-t=-=-n-Ir- IJ:'GD ,.,-i~- 11':11 rr~ W' iJ.lli! n-' ~~ lI;g- l~ -it=tJ ;i! 'r::.~ 'U- lI~iJlI~ :.=-:-~ ~=
tt::: Jl
~
n
lI.ill !!=IlL- lJ.j
~"
oo n-lit- cr:Bo- I . ,.,- r.t U iTa 1f:lJlr Ii- n- 'f,-i"., rr- ~II 11 U
ILIlII ---~
rrrr 1
.004rll:U' ,~
I))
11:-1 I
0 1 4 I"
.oo~!."-= lI':1 n--!!
0.00 d - ,Ilr 0.0
Ir I u~lI n- !ill T
----!l'
r
.~ .--f.!!. ~~ 'l H
0.0' 11,
~!!~l!.l
~ 12 t!r ~g ~J~ ,!!:B I
h
0.0
')'
,1 . 11 I~L , l!. · ~ ----~~
5
:-n
IJJU.Jr!~ . ,!l , .~,.iI!1
."~n1.n=-L~~,R 1.'-- ,l I:-fl :!.'. c!! !
51
_~n- ' n- '.uil----~-
r
,'-
14l
0.1' 14
112
T
l~_ y -
;- H
n-
T
Ir Toll 1;=
2 ,'-.!!..O Hi
16.
,!J!!!!..._
:-IJIr17T 11 HD':'II ~!.._1~, lr.lrl .,.--.r~:-1
i- 4
Q.li 1_) '5'
.00 --- '--=-==.
.-n :I~_ n::-~
'Ii:-UII 16 161
0:10 '
4
0.0 fl
'5
.00 ----:IIJ It'
P
. I r 'f"- -r.uL!!.- ~Ir-_~~ r- ,!;-~ f'l-~
.00 ----fT" r----- ~ !L.!.!.I
•• , . . . .00 ~ !!_ , ,!!...~! ~ 1'Ii
, r.oiJl~L, I
lI:TI
1
u.u" 16,
.00 ----W' ;t-...
----- rr-- 1J
II,!."
.10 119
•..l!..!l_~,.!...u_B
,~ lJ.lIii I . ~I
O.ll
!.
1I.~ 71. ~
:1IiJ --.
--I!. 1 4 0
-..:.=:~!. 11
iI.o, ------ 192
II.1rlI ----- , '
n
tniJ n
0.00 --i.,.- ;- 'lI~f-:-:-- =::--::::::
~VI- 11.1 'J.5 ---- I~..!•..!, ~~.--- r.f14l.) --- '].5 '52. ----II2.!I' . , ---- tn:-~ i!l~! --- 1If:1I.!~! :::-:-:: '~L.!" ~ !!.. ~ ....;..:.~- n~ ~ -:-:-::= 11:-1 $1. .;::-:
~ - _ -:2.H --III:-fl' --".J! --1'.-'''' =- -.10 -,~~:-:- '
r.l~ :-:;--::-:J
J.T ::-- -I. ,0 - : - -p'
,.
,5
. I~~ '!.
I.!=. ~ ~ 1
~L,
u.') ,
.00
12.!
.04
.00 -.!l4 -. 00 --
10 nil" 0
z'"=.1r.1I1I'
'?_
~t=..~.;~!
7
7
:-IJIr'cr.TIiff
tr:_ ,,-=-_
:crIll!:
.=--
-=-
i'
I
. . .
-==-.-
--='
Table 1.
Daily high/low temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit
Daily precipitation in inches
Average monthly high/low temperatures in degrees
fahrpnhelt
Total precipitation in inches
January 1991 through November 1991
W
LT1
36
----- ------ ------
----- ---- ------- ------- ---91--~--- ---- --------- ------- ---90--~-- -~--------- ---- ---89~-1--- -~----------- -- I- -- - --- -----88--f----------- -- I- - - - --- -----I- 87--1---- ----~---- ------- --------86--1---- ----~------ -.------I85--1--- ------~------84--1--- -~----~------..
83--~-- - ---------82--1--- -.---- ---- ,-------- '" ,
81--1--- ------ ---- ,------SO----- -.---------- ..
79------7S---------77---------76-----------75--------74-----73-- .. -----~'-----72-- .. ------. --71----. - -:
70----.69----- ---6S----- .
---.
67----66-------65----64------t- ---1- 63--t- ---62-,93--:---- ---92--f-- --~----
--~----
~--~---
----
,-
~----
--- -- -------
~-
-~
~-
...
~
~
100--
..
~
~
~
I- - - - -
~---
~-
--
--
-~--
,---~,
~
-- -------
1-
61-60-59-58-57-56-55-545352515049-
I-
----
--------------1--,-
~
~-
~-
~
I-r-
-
--,~-,-
~.-
,-
~
~-,-
~.
-
49 ~
47~
.- -
46
45
44
4.3
A
...
-
~
"tL
41
40
J JAN
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
I\UG
SEP
!
OC'f
....,
1...1
:1-
:C=
NOV
DEC
AVERAGE MONTHLY HIGH TEMPERATURES
Figure 5.
Average monthly high and low temperatures
in degrees Fahrenheit and
total monthly precipitation in inches
January 1986 through November 1991
37
70------ ----.----.---- ---- ---------.---- ---------po---69-- --- ----.----.---- ----. po---""---- ---- ---------~-----
6 a--- ---
---- ---- ---- ----. --'.-'" -
67-----·----·----·---66 --- ---. ----. ----. ----,-I ..·.....
.-~-.
~---
---- ----- ---- ,,-- ---
.-r------ ----.----
f..,.-I .......I-4-1
----- ----
-- - --
-I----· ----- ---- -----
65------· ----. ----. ----. ----t-I ..·...... t-t--IW'.........
64------ --------- ---- "'----.---- ---- ----63------ ---- ---- ---- -"
--------- ----6 ~ --- --- ----. ----- ----.
61--- ---. - ---- ---- ---60 --- ---. ---- ---- - ---
-
--- - - ---- ,,-----
59------·------- ---58------ ---- ----.-~-.:.
57------
I-
10-.
1-
-
-
----.------r---
51------ --------50------ ---------
--------------------- -----
~~-
--------- ------------- -----
>--
---------
--
~4------
---------------- ---------
1-
-------
~--
.-_.
.. HH+t+-iI-l.H-IIH·... ~
41---------
-
40---------~+H+H~
.---
~ I-
.-.-.-.--
39-----,;.--- .. -t- ....+ .... ++H
38--- ---- - _ .
37--- -- ,- -- .. -t-H+H++H
36 --- - - .- -1o+f+~I+HI+ +H
35 --.--34-'"
33--
-----
---------
49---------------48---------------47---------------46---------------45------ ------43------ -- - .42 --- ---
-----
--------- ------------- ------------- -----
56------·----·---. ~-55------·---- ----- -54------ ---- ---53------ ---- ---52------ ---------
- - - - - - - - - ,,- - - - -
----- ----
-.- -1o+f+ ...~I++H~I-f+.HIH~I-H·H+H .... ~I..folfHH·-IH+I+H
-------------
-----
-----
----,,---------
------- .-
I· -
- - - .-
32-~i~H~~H+~I-f+, ~~·I+I~H.... +~Hi·~i~ ·HH .... HHH'~~I~
- .-
) 1--M+lw ....I+H
,-~-
.-
3 O-~H-4I+H
~-29 - -fHitH-4I.. HI ....+i "H+4I-4+~H' t-t1 + HI-tHI++-I-4-Itt-t-t H~HJ.~H -~"'i+.H 'J.H+ f-H ~I~ t- H1I-H'1- .28·
- .27
- .-
26
--
25
- .-
n
>
H
20.
~
JAN FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
..
JON
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
AVERAGE MONTHLY LOW TEMPERATURES
Figure 5.
(con't)
NOV
'oF
DEC
38
__ ________________
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ,----- -- -- ----- ----- ----
10-- -----------------------------------------------------.
~
9---
~---------------------------------
-_. ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- --------- ----- ---_.
---- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -- ----- ----- ----.
-----------------------------------------------------_.
8
----- ----- ----- --. -- ----- ----- --.
----- ------------------------- -------------- -----------':"---_.
-------------------- ----- ----- --. -- --_. -- ----- -_. -- ----- ----- ----,
7---------------------- ----- ._------_._-------------------------------._------------- ------------------ ----------------6---- -- ---- ----- ----- -.- -------- ----- --- --.~--
~--
----~----
~--
---I-'
------------------------.-----~--------
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --1'---
- - - - - .- - - - - - - -
-- ----- ----- ----.
-----~---------------------------
--:- ---,- --
~
----- ----- ------ ----- ---- ----- -- --.
-- --- --- ----- -- 1"'-- ------ -- --- -_.
-~
5--
I-
~-
~--
4-
.
1-
.-
,-
3-
'.
-_. - ----_. - -------- ----
I-I-'~ ~-
I"'
.----.1---
----
1-"'- -- ----
--I- - - - - - -
1--- ---1-
-
~_
~-
~_
____
__.
.- ----
-~~ ~-
~--
_______ •
__
~
!" _ _
~
----
10 _ _
-.~--
I·
-1-~1~·
-
-
-- ----- ----- --- -
~-
-_. --
2-
~-
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- --- --. -- ----- ----- --- --------- -------. -- ------ ----- -- -- --- -- ---- ,- -- ._.-- --1- -- ._~--
~-
~
-·--oI-I-.. ~.. -oI--·
~--
.- -----_ .. -
-.~--
... +·_I_t+, ... +·~~,·
~-
-- ... -- --
,-
10--
'.
~
--
10
--,. --
~
-
1-
.
I·~
0
r..
JAN F EB
1
r-
I
l-
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
I
JUL
AUG
SEP
TOTAL MONTLY PRECIPITATION
Figure 5.
(con't)
OCT
NOV
DEC
39
later study in the lab.
At
least 3 yarns were included in
each sample taken.
Photographs
were
taken
of
the
cadavers
surroundings throughout the experiment.
35 mm,
Advance
by
ANSCO
built-in flash.
using
The camera
200 ASA speed.
with
Kodak color film,
was a Vision
an focus-free
the
f5.6
II Motor
lens
and
a
The majority of the photographs were taken
the flash,
present; photo
and
regardless
of
quality was much
the amount
of
sunlight
improved with the
use of
the flash.
Originally, the
facility was
to be
visited and
yarn
samples collected every day for the first 3 months, twice a
week
for the
remainder of
the
next
yarns
months, and
the experiment.
colder winter
visits and
3
months,
collections were
samples.
The
once
Because of
little
week for
noted
save the
further
visited and
samples collected
disrupted
on the
02/01/91
02/02/91
02/04/91
02/08/91
02/10/91
02/22/91
02/25/91
02/26/91
03/04/91
03/14/91
03/30/91
05/02/91
05/04/91
by
The
following
dates:
01/16/91
01/17/91
01/18/91
01/19/91
01/20/91
01/22/91
01/25/91
01/26/91
01/28/91
01/29/91
and
limited
unanticipated practical and job-related consideration.
site was
the
placement during
change was
reduced to
schedule was
a
09/29/91
10/28/91
11/05/91
40
LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Procedures
included
visual
examination
of
yarns,
microscopic examination of fibers, and breaking strength of
yarns.
Visual
examination included observations
changes,
luster changes,
adherent
particles.
Microscopic
involved cutting
a 1/4
yarns,
a
removing
placing
them
on
dry-mounted; no
mounting.
fragility, and
number of
with
slide.
reagents, stains, or
the
tweezers
and
water were
were
used for
Cover slides were placed over the fibers and the
down
with transparent
adhesive
fibers
were
then
examined
2.5x,
magnification
using
a
polarizing microscope.
under
stereomicroscope
magnification were
other signs
normal structure
lOx,
and
and
a
Fibers
were
tears, changes
of
The
40x
Zeiss
Although 63x and 100x
available, visualization was
stages.
ruptures, breaks,
tape.
Diameter of the fibers was measured
in micrometers at 40x magnification.
and
fibers
fibers
taped
these
of
end of
The
edges
at
of
from the
fibers
a microscope
the presence
examination
inch length
of color
examined
of the
for
in diameter,
deterioration.
Figure 6
seven types
not clear
of fibers
cracks,
adherents,
shows
the
under 40x
magnification.
Breaking strength was measured
Machine.
was set
A 200
at 50
inches/minute;
inches/minute.
with an Instron Tensile
pound load cell was
psi. Cross Head
Chart
Speed
used.
Clamp pressure
Speed (CHS)
was set
(CS)
set
was
at
Full Scale Load was set at 10 pounds.
at 5
10
Gage
41
COTiO,.1
SILk
Figure 6.
Appearance of fibers from normal yarns
at 40x magnification
42
length was one inch.
the yarns (breaking
The amount of force required to break
strength) could be measured
in pounds
simply by reading the charts produced.
T-Tests were used to compare
EXP-yarns
and CTL-yarns
XYZ-control yarns,
exposed
to
from
the breaking strengths of
each
in order to
different
sample and
see how they
environmental
and
with
the
reacted when
decompositional
factors.
n - number of yarns tested per sample
Yi
=
the breaking strength of each yarn specimen
y=
i=i 1
1/n-1 [£Yi 2 -
s2 =
s
=
J
£yo/n
[(n1 - l)Sf + (n2
t
=
(z... Yi)2/ n ]
1)s~]/n1
+
n2 - 2
(Y1 - Y2) /sj1/n1 + 1/n2
df = n1 + n2 - 2
df - degrees of freedom
subscript 11' and '21 refer to sample group
subscript Ii'
refers to individual specimen
group
in a
sample
Values of T were compared with the values in Table 4:
Percentage Points of the t-distribution, in An Introduction to Statistical Methods and Data Analysis by Lyman Ott
Figure 7.
Equations used in the Comparison of Yarn Samples
43
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
DECOMPOSITION
Evaluation
criteria
of
human
detailed
in
decomposition is
the
previous
provides a chart showing when
based
chapter.
on
the
Figure
8
major criteria in this study
began, peaked, and ended.
EXP and CTL
were in the late part
bloat when they were placed at
1991.
EXP's
the Facility on January 15,
CTL exhibited initial skin
face
covered
was
by
slippage along his legs.
mold
discoloration,
but there
decomposition.
At placement, there
activity associated
were
observed in
of fresh/very early
were no
with EXP or
and
other
showed
signs of
active
was no apparent insect
CTL, although
association with
some
other
some flies
remains at
the
Facility.
On January 18, 1991 seepage of body fluids from EXP was
staining the cotton part of
the garment.
noted.
Slight skin slippage was noted
torso.
The mold
No inflation was
on the feet and the
and fungus was spreading
slowly from the
face in quarter sized spots to the upper torso.
CTL showed
shrivelled,
some facial discoloration.
and the
rested was greenish
skin
on his
and decaying.
in the groin, navel and mouth:
cheese-like consistency.
chest
His fingertips
where his
Fungus began
hands
to appear
it was white with a cottage
Fly and ant activity was noted in
small numbers around the faces of both CTL and EXP, as well
• .... --
'.-.h-~
rrrTIll LtlILLBJ I 1::tm?f'l.ffift.:lul---I:....
-~+
M'tt=- +:.:.~
1-··- -
\ ·--t -·-1- - 1· · t - t - -
L=
~~\-~-\ --\--- i ·-+=+-~-=FF=b-b=Ej·--·I ---lsd -t·J?bbld-l-·-I.--, ··-1---
\ - --1-
.. - - - - - -
:::~mi4 . V\ I \\ 1111-41111111---:::=~-, H--~.........,...
-
Irnl I I
-t-\ - -t---t=l=1 ,\
-·, - 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I=t=t=fd I 14·:~t~
t
..
~ttlllill ~~~+I- -'--
1--::
-:;-t:-:~-=I=j
11111
--+--I..=-fnI- f-+---+-+_··j--- /-·-l---l-l-l-t--t-H I I I I I I I I I I I I , -lupl
I
I I ·1 -t ·· ·· I- - _· -I
I I
...-; .. -I - 1- ~
,..--kr-Pt-t--t--r l --t--t--1·-+ --+-+ - i--_·t-t-t-- +-t-_· t
TaPnAt'UU
PUC1PITAT14
.• - f ··-I--T---·-T-
17
18
I'§- - ~ti - -· ~ 16
lL. 29
------JANIIARy-
01
& = High Temperature Below 50
•
X
= High Temperature Above 50
=
Rainfall Recorded for Day
F
F
-t--+--\-
1- -t: -~~
-1
~
f.-;---
!f-+- -t-· ,----l---I--~ --r_
02
04
01
TO -IT" 2'i
U
--"P;IIIIUAflY--
Key:
..-
1-
1- ..
04
r4)0
-MARCH'
02
APR
1f4
'MAy.......
..
..
.....,.,
..
"
J<IL AUfI
"
1-0, 1 IT
21
29
O!>
Solid lines and areas
indicate observed data
Broken lines and areas
indicate speculated events
Figure 8.
Beginnings, Peaks, and Ends of Decomposition Stages
and Relaied Activities
~
~
45
inside EXP's garment.
Through
continued
the
in
end
both
of
January,
cadavers.
mild
Mold
skin
and
slippage
fungal
growth
continued on EXP over the chest, down the abdomen, and onto
the
legs.-
By
spread from
January 25,
the
white fungus
the mouth over most
on CTL
of the face and
had
from the
groin to the mid-abdomen.
Insects continued to concentrate on
CTL's face, but on
EXP activity was noted both inside the garment at the chest
and
abdomen
regularly
as
two
well
to
as
around
three times
as
the
face.
much
There
insect
was
activity
associated with EXP than with CTL.
On February
head
(dark
loosening
slippage
1, 1991
red
of
to
the
EXP
showed discoloration
black), neck,
hair.
By
feet
and
February
was beginning on EXP's face.
hip,
body was
clutter covering the ground.
facial
and
skin
Greenish/white mold
hands and arms and on CTL's
in
hands,
4,
formed on EXP's
where the
of the
contact with
left back and
soil and
leaf
Within another few days, this
was producing a green slime as the skin deteriorated.
Estimates of insect numbers during the first week and a
half of February regularly ran
with CTL and
30
was concentrated
+
with EXP.
on the face
all parts of the body_
were increasingly
Flies
about 10
Most fly
+
flies associated
activity around CTL
although it was
observed on
and ants associated with EXP
prevalent within the garment
torso as well as around the face.
around the
46
The last
slippage.
week in
February saw
The garment stuck to
bits of skin away when it
insects increased.
25, small
the
body
underlying skin and pulled
A spider was noted on EXP.
maggots were
was
skin
was opened. Numbers and types of
noted in
They moved beneath loose skin
when
more accelerated
the groin
By February
area of
EXP.
or back toward garment folds
uncovered
on
opening
the
garment.
Maggots were also observed on CTL, beneath the body, inside
the curled up hands, and on
the chest where the hands were
in contact with the chest; they too moved beneath any loose
skin when
the body parts
over them were
moved.
Maggot
masses were not large, and no maggots seen were larger than
a quarter of an inch, either on CTL or EXP.
On February 25, EXP showed
abdomen and
in the upper
some puffiness in the lower
chest near the
neck, indicating
the beginning of inflation.
By March
CTL, with
14, deterioration was proceeding
slippage continuing as before
occurring on the
chest and abdomen. 4
facial features was noted, although
observed.
The
maggots which
steadily on
and discoloration
Degeneration
of the
no insect activity was
had been
previously present
were not found, and there appeared to be little destruction
in those areas.
No evidence
of puffiness or inflation was
noted.
4 In general, when bodies begin to undergo discoloration,
white individuals become darker, and black individuals
become lighter. Such patterns were consistent with the
observations made on EXP and CTL.
47
Decomposition
of
Facial slippage and
and
EXP
was
increasing
by
March
tissue destruction was marked
14.
gums
teeth were fully exposed, cheeks were missing, and the
nose and surrounding tissue gave
off
the right
black.
side of
the
the impression of sliding
skull.
The
entire head
was
Maggot, fly, and ant activity was growing under the
garment.
On
March
30,
1991, CTL
showed
a
discoloration over most of the body.
lightly tanned
same
areas
development.
body.
leather.
as
before,
reddish
The skin looked like
Maggots were
at
marbled,
about
noted again
the
same
in the
stage
of
Insects, mostly flies, were flying around the
Mold was
present in the folds of
joints (inner arm
at elbow, etc.).
EXP
exhibited
significant
garment was stretched over the
inflation.
torso.
The
oversize
Insect activity and
variety had increased, with most located under the garment.
Maggots, ants, flies,
Large maggot
spiders, and a dead
masses extended along
from the armpit down below the
the
garment
up
the
sides
wasp were seen.
the sides of
the body
hip, and from the bottom of
about
six
inches.
Feeding
activity was extensive, with production of large amounts of
yellowish/white foam. S
5 No mention of such foam was found in the literature.
However, Dr. Neal Haskell (Entomology, Purdue University)
suggested at a Forensic Conference in June, 1991 that this
was a result of maggot digestion and metabolism and the
reaction of digestive enzymes on the surrounding soft
tissues.
48
By May 2, decomposition had progressed to the dry stage.
Most
bones
were
exposed,
adhered in places to the
although
bones.
activity still associated
some
tissues
There was excesive insect
with EXP, with large
small black flies in the immediate vicinity.
the bottom
of the
surrounding
the
substance the
garment, two to
bones,
was
consistency of
was noted among this.
still
a
swarms
In
four inches
thick,
of
deep, and
yellowish/white
soft lard.
Maggot activity
No such substances were noted in the
vicinity of CTL.
At this time, CTL was removed inadvertently by Facility
managers, and
no further
comparisons between
clothed and
unclothed remains were possible.
Over
the
next
(cartilage and
tissues were
garment
months,
removed.
The substance
perhaps one inch
very
wet
clay.
The
(ligaments)
were completely
greasy, but
no soft tissue
was a large,
connective
ligaments) deteriorated and
slowly deteriorated.
there was
like
several
By
I
end of
t, and the
skeletal
consistency was
The
remained.
tissues
bones were
The
still
only exception
of dried, leathery
skin adhering to the left side of the skull.
this.
September,
connective
roughly oval shaped piece
still attached to
remaining soft
in the bottom of the
the
gone.
tissues
A hair mat was
Head hair was
resting under the
right side of the skull.
The
cotton part
deteriorated over
of
the garment
was
stiff.
It
had
the arm, so that only fragmentary strips
layover
the radius,
ulna and
humerus.
tears and gaps over the torso.
was folded over itself.
collapse over
into the
it.
contents
the bones.
minimized
of
the
curiosity, the
soft tissues decayed, the
longer supported and began to
As
the bones collapsed
now empty thoracic
This
However, much of the fabric
As the
fabric of the garment was no
cavity, the fabric
exposure
garment
49
were also
There
of. the
to
the
or fell
fell with
bones
and
environment.
garment was left open
other
Out
at this time
of
to see
what would happen to the substance surrounding the bones on
exposure to rain and sunlight.
On October 28, 1991 fallen
leaves from the surrounding
trees covered most of the remains.
still preserved
and moist in the
polypropylene, and there
in
those areas.
pulled
back
The
were
The white substance was
folds of the
were a few live
areas where
covered
with
cotton and
and dead maggots
the
garment had
leaves.
The
been
substance
beneath the leaves was black and tarry on the surface, with
some
whitish
associated
remnants
with the
a
little
deeper.
deterioration of
Leaf
decay
this substance
have combined to form this tarry layer.
may
It had a glue-like
consistency.
The small
place,
with no
duration of
activity
bones of
of
evioence
the hands and
of
scattering.
the experiment, there
small
scavengers
Several birds, including
feet were
Throughout
was no evidence
such
scavengers
still in
as
mice
such as
or
crows,
the
of the
birds.
were
50
heard on
visits to
anywhere near
the Facility,
EXP or CTL.
but none
were observed
No gnaw marks were noted on the
long bones such as the left
humerus, radius or ulna, which
were accessible to rodents because of cloth deterioration.
November 5,
On
1991,
most
insect activity
involved
insects such as millipedes, small roaches, and small slugs.
On the undersides of the garment, particularly where it was
in
contact
sheeting,
with
the
there were
ground
large
rather
amounts
than
of very
insects, probably larvae of some sort.
feeding on remains
the
plastic
timy
white
These were observed
of larger maggots on the
inside of the
garment.
CLOTHING AND YARNS
The Garment
Aside from stains
the cotton and
well.
the polypropylene held up
fluids, both
to decomposition
In early May, both sides were still intact.
September,
stiff.
the
caused by seeping body
the cotton
exposed
to the
air
By late
and sun
was
Interestingly, the cotton beneath the body, between
body and
relatively
the plastic
resistant to
sheeting,
tearing.
left arm, which was in contact
the plastic
appeared intact
and
cotton around
the
The
with the ground rather than
sheeting, deteriorated
equally on
all sides.
Aside from some color fading, the polypropylene suffered no
apparent deterioration.
noted.
mildewed.
However,
the
It did not
cotton was
tear and gaps were not
dirty
and
extensively
51
The Yarns -- Visual Examination
See Figure
yarns
were
9 for results
examined
for color
differences in stiffness.
most of the EXP-yarns
of EXP-yarns
of visual
luster
changes
It was found that
and
Discoloration
absorption of
and rain water and the adhesion
The
by March 30,
felt somewhat greasy.
was attributed to
dead skin.
and
examination.
body fluids
of insect fecal matter and
Discoloration of the CTL-yarns
to absorption of rain, exposure to
was attributed
mud and mulch, and bits
of dead leaves and other plants.
The Yarns -- Microscopic Evaluation of Fibers
Little damage was seen
under microscopy.
Diameters of
the XYZ-fibers at 40x magnification were:
acetate
wool
silk
polyester
cotton
acrylic
nylon
These
22.5
25.0
12.5
15.0
15.0
27.5
25.0
remained
EXP-fibers.
micrometers
micrometers
micrometers
micrometers
micrometers
micrometers
micrometers
consistent
for
CTL-fibers
all
and
When making these measurements, several places
on several fibers were examined.
The only
unusual finding
EXP-yarns collected
several swollen areas
These
areas
magnification.
were
concerned nylon
on March 30,
1991.
In
fibers from
these fibers,
were noted, up to
42.5 micrometers.
seen
lOx,
However,
at
2.5x,
it was difficult
fibers themselves were swollen in
and
to tell
40x
if the
many places, or if there
were fluid particles surrounding them.
All yarn specimens
52
..
.J
• " " 'C
.....-
-
--
-
::=
oJ
l-
~
..
~
.J
t-
'I
.
.
I,)
'i
~
w
4&
1.
"'''''1'(
$c
t
~
.
'~
'!.
,.
i
-
oJ )/.
0
II<
oA
v
"
~
;
10
..J
ll0
t
"
S
>-
J:!
~
'" W
~ (') .J. .J,.
>
-
,.
z
~
:1
J
0 ::>
\I..
~
Ql
,
I I...i
.4
'"
~
..... ,.,.
0
Z.
" .........
:i:
~
5
i
j
---lC.
---===
.
-I,
I
0,0
14.
~
:r
--
i
0
~
~
--
filii
~
0
%
:l:
m
'3"
I...
,
-!j
14.
i
l-
"'....
.
---
"t
I'.
g
:i
6")
'Z.
Ii-
"3
J:.
,5
o;:
,..
<t
z:
t-
~
j
"'11. .. "",)(
.J
"
'---
..
I
!..
CI\
--
---. ...
-
lot!
o
Cl
.ill>
~
'Z.
...
1
l-
0
'"
It'
.J
I0
~
U
.E;
i:i
II'
"'-,
,.
11.1
r
:>
-
Z
~
ct
~
- t--.:
~
.}
3-o It
vf>
\'S-
g
1
i
l-
\01
;)
III
1
;:i
Ifl
0
,;
I-
.Ii
..,.
::>
:>
-'0 OM
COTTON, SILK, WOOL
Figure 9.
Visual Examination of Yarns
.
I-
i
~
53
---
.
'," ...~
1..
lit
~
co
i
~yo ...!
... l
If
==
~
:---'
.
Z
~
, ~!
&
II)
IS.
t
l-
II
l-
1
:$
--
6.
..j
c:.
't
'l
z
~
S
i
WI
, ". .,
,..
1
-==
--
==
--
j"'..."
i
l>
J
-.
-.
--
--
,,-
::=
" " .. 'I.
--
=1
---'
......,. ,.
~
~
"".r,.
;ot." '""8-
0
'l.
0
2-
.......
"j-..~
0
'Z
':1'
~1
--
"
"
.., 'til:
a..,.
III
.
~
~
.,
:J:.
I~
E
~
§
\.i..
::t:
~
III
'l:.
~2
±
.:
ill
~
tli !
3" «
~j)
~
~
I-
" J-"
iii
:f
i;i
III
'II'
III
0
!
a~
~
S ..
i
g~
"3.!-lf.J.. '3 ''II
IIIC,
-i
", ...
- I"
-
I
c
......;
.......
-
z
--
-
IC
--.
I
3
--
=
",.
S
-E
±;
\l..
-
.J
I\J
:::s::
~
S
j
..!J
,~
1
I)
v
Z
.I
t
It
IfJ
..,
~
~
0
.,
1
.
....!J
i
1
.
7'>
0
!
III
(to
i
1
.Jill
0>1.
r
I)"
.Jf;l
('10..,(,,...,
1
0
~
~
~
1.
III
~
...S
\ii
Il!
..,I..,h
>-
It
!
i
1
ct
::>
r
a"'\i
J
ACETATE, NYLON 6.6, ACRYLIC
Figure 9. (con1t)
54
---
~
,.
-: ..3
~
-
."
t:I
"
--"b
.
.. ..
...
-'''.
'" •
I
11)
I,.
l.
... t
...
.-
'"'"
'3"
.=:::::::
...
II'
;)
1
":I-
- .
"
~
~
::.
~
'If
S
0
.s
U-
..
....l
::t.
--
- --.,
---.
.
~
11/ 0
jar.
Jill
~
;:l
v ()
I
...
...
-..
--
c.
2
1
"
a:
~
\I
.J
I!l
l-
u
It!
l0
~
S
.,... t-\IJ
'" 2i.
~
t!
Cl ::U·S3 choJ,
POLYESTER
Figure 9.
(con't)
55
were air dried.
However, fibers
of yarns, some
some from
were pulled from the ends
from the inside portions of
the outside.
Fluid
the yarns, and
droplets may
have adhered.
No swelling was seen in any other fibers
Most
fibers were
associated with
bits of
adherents,
with amounts increasing as time of exposure to the elements
and
to decomposition
particles,
and possibly
CTL-yarn fibers
insect
decomposition
roaches and
In
and
the
ants were
Insects
the CTL-yarns.
fibers were
,
leaf
on
yarns).
on any of
insect
byproducts.
dirt and
were seen
under and through the
the EXP-yarn
probable
of
feces
observed to be feeding
Associated with
skin,
Bits
(on occasion small
noted moving over,
were not
increased.
flakes of
bits
other
some cases
dead
flakes of
of
skin
were wrapped around the fiber; in other, very small bits of
various
fibers
adherents were
(looking
much
attached
like very
to
the surface
small
of
pill-balls
the
on
a
knitted sweater).
No apparent structural damage was
noted.
No cracks or
bursted areas were seen.
The Yarns -- Breaking Strength
Raw data on
the
breaking strengths of yarns
in pounds and
results of the T-Tests and significant comparisons are
in Table
2 and
Figures 10
and 11.
Figure 12
plots the
relationships of the normalized
mean breaking strengths of
XYZ,
Table
EXP,
and
CTL
samples.
3
gives
normalized breaking strengths for all samples.
mean
and
Dat.e
125791
-.-
-------02110/91
WOOL
RXP
CTL
1. 20 1.15
1. 05 1. 4U
1. 50 1.;,.tL
1. 20
0.90
1. 20
1. 00
1i. 9!>
1.00
1.15
1.25
0.95
1. 20
----- 1.15
1.15 1. 3S
xxxx xxxx
xxxx XXXX
1. 20
1. 20
XXXX
XXXX
1.15
0.95
1.10
1.10
1. 35
1. 45
0.90
0.80
1.10
1. 20
2. 66 XXXX
--_._-- --- ~9 xxxx
0.75
0.80
xxxx
XXXX
XXXX
--.
------03714/91
1.00
1. 00
1. 25
..
COTTON
EXP
CTL
1.05 1.1u
U.9U 1.10
o .!J.9 1. 20
RXP
4.40
4.10
4.00
SILK
CTL
4.10
4.50
4.35
-----1-----4.05 4.1
ACETATE
CTL
LSD 1. SO
1. 00 1.10
1. 35 1. 50
-"EXP
4.40
4.30
XXXX
1. 20
1. 00
1. 20
4.20
4.10
3.30
3.70
1. 10
0.90
3.45
NYLON
EXP
CTL
4.BO 3.75
4.40 3.5!>
4.10 . 3.75
POLYESTER
EXP
CTL
4.60 4.75
4.30 4.90
xxxx 4.20
ACRYLIC
CTL
RXP
i.~~ 2.65
2.65 3.10
2.BO
~.:.~g-=-
4.40
4.80
2.85
2.70
2.75
2.9S "
2.90
3.00
3.BS
3'';J5
2.70 - 2.40
2.70 2.95
fo-----
1.10
1.10
1. 25
3.75
3.00
4.50
3.00
3.35
3.70
4.BO
4.20
4.65
1. 30
3.55
3.6~
1.u~
j •.tl ~
4.50
4.30
4.30
1-----5.00
--------- 1------ ----- ----- ----- ----- ---- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- --- -1. 25 1.00 0.80 1.15 4.50 3.85 1.10 1. 00 4.50 3.65 4.40 4.90 2.90 2.35
xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx
XXXX xxx x XXXI. xxxx
XXXx.
XXXX
0.80
1. 35
1.10
1.05
O.BO
3.85
3.50
3.25
3.70
0.05
0.10
0.70
0.')5
0.95
0.85
XXX X
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
3.55
3.50
2.95
3.20
XXXX
XXXX
xxxx
3.30
3.30
3.45
XXXX
xxxx
xxxx
XXXX
~xx
XXXX
----------- ---- 1------ ----- ----- ----- ----- . ---- ----- ----- 1------ ----- ----- ------03/30;91 1.10 1. 20 1.05 1.10 3.70 3.25 1. 30 0.80 3.50 3.30 3.90 3.70 2.70 2.50
1. 40
1. 20
XXXX
3.75
4.00
4.50
4.00
3.90
2.BO 2.S0
2.60 - 2.90
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
3.80
3.65
2.85
2.70
XXXX XXXX xxxx xxxx XXXX
XXXX xxx x xxxx
xxxx xxxx xxxx
------ ..... _- XXXX
----- ---- 1------ 1------ ----- ----- ----- ---- ----- ---- -- -- f------ -- - ------11/05/91 0.71 xxxx 0.50 xxxx 1.00 0.10 0.80 1. 30
XXXX 3.15 2.25 2.40
...
.~--~-.-
-----
XXXX
XXXX
1IOOL
_1.10
1. 2S
1. 20
1. 20
1. 30
1. 35
1. 40
xxxx
COTTON
1.10
1.10
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.10
XXXX
1.10
1. 20
0.70
SILl
4.50
4.85
4.20
4.65
XXXX
XXXX
XXXX
XYZ - YARNS
ACETATE NYLON
3.40
1.00
3.65
1.20
3.70
1. 50
1.10
3.90
4.05
1. 30
1. 00
XXXX
XXXX
xxxx
POLYESTER
4.50
4.20
4.50
4.70
5.20
XXXX
xxxx
xX-XX
XXXX
1. 95
2.75
2.70
ACRYLIC
2. fIT
3.15
2.45
3.10
2.65
3.00
XXXX
Table 2.
Breaking Strengths of Individual Yarns in Pounds
l.TI
'"
57
XYZ
8.8
01/25f91iy ...
ty'"
11.13
7
n
1. 26
Y
s":'
.012
s2/n .002
EXP
CTL
3.75
4.79
3
1.25
.05
.017
3.85
4.97
3
1.28
.015
.005
XYZ
8.8
11.13
7
n
1.
26
y"
s":'
.012
s2/n .002
EXP
CTL
3.25
3.44
3
1.08
.04
.013
3.3
3.69
3
1.1
.03
.01
XYZ
8.8
11.13
7
y..,
1. 26
s":'
.012
s2/n .002
EXP
CTL
3.55
4.21
3
1.18
.005
.002
3.55
4.26
3
1.18
.03
.01
XYZ
8.8
i.y'&'
11.13
7
n
1.26
Y
s.&.
.012
s2/n .002
EXP
CTL
3.7
4.61
3
1.23
.025
.008
4
5.37
3
1.33
.02
.007
02/10/91iy"
ty'"
03/14/91!y ...
t.y_'"
n
P3/30/91~y
XYZ
8.8
'iyG
11.13
7
n
y
1. 26
sf.012
s2/n .002
;11/ 0 5 / 91i y
EXP
CTL
1. 86
1.18
3
.62
.015
.005
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
a
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
.1
8
-.25
8
-.2
4
1.86
8
.05
1.78
8
-.13
4
1.16
8
.89
8
0
4
.38
8
-.88
8
-.83
4
8.00
XYZ-EXP t
df 8
.001
a
WOOL
Figure 10.
Results of T-Tests to Determine Statistical Significance
of Breaking Strengths of Yarn Samples
58
OJ/25/9H·Y . .
~y"
n
Y
XYZ
EXP
6.3
6.65
2.85
2.72
3
.95
.005
.002
6
1.05
S"'".
.007
s2/n .001
XYZ
f.. Y"
n
Y. .
s".
s2
CTL
2.95
2.90
3
.98
.001
.0003
3.35
3.79
3
1.12
.025
.008
XYZ
EXP
CTL
6.3
6.65
6
1.05
.007
.001
3.2
3.52
3
1.07
.06
.02
5.45
5.97
5
1.09
.008
.002
XYZ
EXP
2.75
2.55
3
.91
.015
.005
CTL
EXP
2.05
1. 45
3
.68
.025
.008
COTTON
CTL
03/30/91~y
6.3
6.65
iY"
n
6
1.05
V
s."
.007
s2/n .001
XYZ
11/05/91iy
iY""
n
y
s"
s2/n
3.4
3.86
3
1.13
.005
.002
EXP
6.3
02/10/91ty,..
6.65
iY'"
6
n
1.05
Y
s..c.
.007
s2/n .001
03/14/91~y ...
CTL
~
6.3
6.65
6
1.05
.007
.001
3.4
3.86
3
1.33
.005
.002
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
Figure 10. (can't)
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
a
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
• EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
a
XYZ-CTL t
df
a
EXP-CTL t
df
a
1. 67
7
-1.33
7
-3
4
.025
1.40
7
-.87
7
-1. 56
4
-.20
7
-.67
9
.17
6
2.00
7
.05
-4.67
7
.005
-5.25
4
.005
4.63
XYZ-EXP t
df 7
a
.005
59
XYZ
18.2
83.04
~y'
n
4
4.55
'1 ...
s'
.08
s2/n .02
EXP
12.5
52.17
3
4.17
.05
.02
CTL
12.95
55.98
3
4.32
.04
.013
XYZ
18.2
f.y'
83.04
n
4
4.55
"1 . .
s.".
.08
s2/n .02
EXP
12.75
54.25
3
4.25
.03
.01
CTL
7.55
28.71
2
3.78
.21
.11
XYZ
18.2
'tyL
83.04
n
4
Y. . 4.55
s""
.08
s2/n .02
EXP
12.8
54.7
3
4.27
.05
.02
CTL
10.85
39.40
3
3.62
.08
.03
XYZ
18.2
83.04
4
4.55
.y"
S.L
.08
s2/n .02
EXP
7
24.58
2
3.5
.08
.04
CTL
10
33.36
3
3.33
.015
.005
XYZ-EXP t
4.38
df 4
a .01
7.17
XYZ-CTL t
df 5
a .001
EXP-CTL t
.98
df 3
NS
EXP
4
4.14
4
1
.05
.013
CTL
.25
.023
XYZ-EXP t
18.68
df 6
a .001
26.29
XYZ-CTL t
df 5
a .001
EXP-CTL t
7.08
df 5
a • 00]
P1/25/9H.y
~2/10/91iy
03/14/91[y",
03/30/9H. y
€..y'
n
11/05/91i.y,",
iyL
n
XYZ
18.2
83.04
4
4.55
s'.
.08
s2/n .02
Y
3
.08
.001
.0003
SILK
Figure 10. (con't)
,
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
EXP-CTL
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
EXP-CTL
1.9
5
1.21
5
-.88
4
1.57
5
2.75
4
a .05
t
1. 74
df 3
NS
t
1.4
df 5
NS
t
4.43
df 5
a .005
t
3.25
df 4
a .025
60
Pl/25/91~
£y""
n
XYZ
7.1
8.59
6
1.18
Y
s""
.038
s2_in .006
~2/10/91£y",
~y.c.
n
y",
XYZ
7.1
8.59
6
1.18
s""
.038
2
.006
s·/n
03/14/91£y
,;: y.""
n
y
s""
s2/n
-
XYZ
7.1
8.59
6
1.18
.038
.006
EXP
CTL
3.85
5.07
3
1.28
.065
.022
4.1
5.71
3
1.37
.06
.02
EXP
CTL
3.4
3.88
3
1.13
.015
.005
3.45
3.98
3
1.15
.005
.002
EXP
CTL
3.1
3.23
3
1.03
.015
.005
3.35
3.79
3
1.12
.025
.008
XYZ
7.1
8.59
6
1.18
Y
s""
.038
s.2/n .006
EXP
CTL
4.55
5.36
4
1.14
.06
.015
2.65
2.38
3
.88
.02
.007
XYZ
7.1
8.59
EXP
CTL
03/30/91£y
£y""
n
11/05/91£y
~y""
n
y",
6
1.18
sL.
.038
s2/n .006
2.45
3.1
2.03
3.32
3
3
.82
1.08
.015
.06
.02
.005
ACETATE
Figure 10.
(con It}
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t'
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
a
-.67
7
-1. 27
7
-.45
4
.38
7
.25
7
-.25
4
1.15
7
.42
7
-.82
4
.29
8
2.31
7
.05
1.63
EXP-CTL t
df 5
NS
2.76
XYZ-EXP t
df 7
.025
a
.67
XYZ-CTL t
df 7
NS
-1.63
EXP-CTL t
df 4
NS
61
XYZ
01/25/91~y ...
18.7
70.9
f.y"
5
n
3.74
Y
.06
s"
s2/n .012
XYZ
02/10/91!:y ...
18.7
i..Y~·
70.9
n
5
3.74
'1;-.
s"
.06
s2/n .012
XYZ
18.7
~y"70.9
n
5
3.74
Y
s""
.06
s2/n .012
03/14/91s...y ...
XYZ
18.7
~y':'
70.9
n
5
3.74
Y
s"
.06
s2/n .012
03/30/91.!y
111/05/91~y ...
XYZ
18.7
70.9
i.y"
n
5
y
3.74
s'
.06
s2/n .012
EXP
CTL
13.3
59.21
3
4.43
.13
.04
11.05
40.73
3
3.68
.015
.005
EXP-CTL
EXP
CTL
XYZ-EXP
11.25
43.31
3
3.75
.56
.19
10.05
33.91
3
3.35
.12
.04
EXP-CTL
EXP
CTL
XYZ-EXP
11.9
47.68
3
3.97
.24
.08
11.8
46.53
3
3.92
.06
.02
EXP-CTL
EXP
CTL
XYZ-EXP
10.85
39.32
3
3.62
.04
.013
10.25
35.14
3
3.42
.06
.02
EXP-CTL
1.11
t
df 4
NS
EXP
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
CTL
XYZ-CTL
t
2.59
df 7
a .025
13.2
43.8
4
3.3
.08
.02
NYLON
Figure 10. (con It)
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
XYZ-CTL
XYZ-CTL
XYZ-CTL
t
-3.29
df 6
a .-01
t
.40
df 6
NS
t
3.41
df 4
a .025
t
df
NS
t
df
-.03
6
t
df
NS
t
df
NS
t
df
NS
-.89
6
2.0
6
a .05
t
.85
df 4
NS
t
df
NS
t
df
-1.0
6
.42
4
.71
5
1.78
6
62
23.1
107.27
~y'"
n
5
4.62
Y
s""
0.14
s2/n 0.028
EXP
8.9
39.65
2
4.45
0.04
0.02
CTL
13.85
64.21
3
4.62
0.14
0.05
XYZ
23.1
P2 / 10/ 91 ~y "
~y""
107.27
n
5
4.62
y"
s~.
.14
s2/n .028
EXP
13.65
62.30
3
4.55
.095
.032
CTL
14.2
67.4
3
4.73
.095
.032
XYZ
23.1
107.27
5
4.62
5'
.14
s2/n .028
EXP
13
56.54
3
4.33
.005
.002
CTL
12.7
54.44
3
4.23
.34
.113
EXP
16.15
65.52
4
4.04
.1
.02
CTL
11.6
44.9
3
3.87
.017
.006
EXP
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
CTL
10.6
37.69
3
3.53
.12
XYZ
H/25/91iy"
P3/14/9U..y"
iY'
n
y ...
XYZ
~3/ 30/ 91
23.1
107.27
5
4.62
Y
..
s.L
.14
s2/n .028
iY
't. y.L
n
11/05/91 ~Y ...
-z.. y.L
n
Y...
s.L
s2/I1
XYZ
23.1
107.27
5
4.62
.14
.u..!.o
xxx
.U<i
POLYESTER
Figure 10. (con't)
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
EXP-CTL
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
EXP-CTL
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
EXP-CTL
XYZ-EXP
XYZ-CTL
EXP-CTL
XYZ-CTL
t .58
df 5
NS
t
0
df 6
NS
t
-0.58
df 3
NS
t
df
NS
t'
df
NS
t'
df
NS
.27
6
-.42
6
-.72
4
t
df
NS
t
df
NS
t
df
NS
1. 26
6
t
df
a
t
df
a
t
df
NS
2.42
7
.025
3.26
6
.01
0.85
5
1.18
6
.30
4
t
4.04
df 6
.005
a
63
xYZ
EXP
8.25
22.70
3
2.75
.01
.003
CTL
17.05
i.yL
48.85
6
n
2.84
y ....
s'
.08
s2/n .013
XYZ
17.05
P2/10/91z..y
48.85
-z..y'
6
n
2.84
y ....
s'
.08
s2/n .013
EXP
8.3
22.98
3
2.77
.01
.003
CTL
XYZ
17.05
48.85
CTL
2.84
c'
.08
;2/n .013
EXP
8.3
22.99
3
2.77
.015
.005
XYZ
17.05
48.85
t.y'
n
6
2.84
'1 ...
s.'
.08
s2/n .013
EXP
8.1
21.89
3
2.7
.01
.003
CTL
XYZ
17.05
48.85
i...y'
6
n
2.84
Y
S·L
.08
s2/n .013
EXP
7.8
20.48
CTL
P1/25/91~y
03/14/91Zy",
~y'<'
n
6
Y. .
P3/30/91t.y
1/05/91a.y
3
2.6
.1
.033
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
8.35
23.39
3
2.78
.08
.025
8.85
26.11
3
2.95
.002
.0007
7.7
19.99
3
2.57
.115
.038
8.2
22.5
3
2.73
.045
.015
9.8
24.42
4
2.45
.14
.034
ACRYLIC
Figure 10. (con't)
i
I
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
a
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
NS
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
XYZ-EXP t
df
NS
XYZ-CTL t
df
a
EXP-CTL t
df
NS
.53
7
.29
7
-.17
4
.39
7
-.64
7
-2.57
4
.05
.39
7
1.29
7
.95
4
.78
7
.61
7
-.22
4
1.14
7
1.86
8
.05
.56
5
64
X
M!I%.-EJ'P
~
'1.Y'L- c:n_
XI}Z-C.Tl..
)(
~-eTl..
f)(P-CTL..
X
XY%- D1"
1'IJ:t!J
1/10 ~14
X
51.so II/S
1#9 ')./10
WOOL
a/iii
,
~
'"
~30 illS
COTTON
XYz.-E)l..P
D<
XY:t·f:"_
s,xp-c.;n..
1",,5
ItVII)
II<
"IAl .W.ao 11&
SILK
'f.Vl.·E~P
XlJz-C.TJ,.
E)fp-cn
'"
X
X.
1/1. ~"o
3/~
5/30
.'A
Itls
wyx.. lf1/('
)(
t1Z<n
X
~1\.
"
l~ I:l/I' s/llf s/.4D 11/5
Figure 11.
X indicates a Significant Comparison (at a
Between Two Samples
=
.05)
n•
...
11.
';'0. ____ ____
~
~_~
__ _______
~
~
II.
• 0 .... 11 . . .
er ••• 1 ...
tt.r .... tll
if' ....c."t ••• 1
-------------------£1-------- -.-~ .....
to. __ ~--
_ ._ ...........-..
........ --
-'- - --.--.-- - \------- .-----.. /---\- .. --------
,. ----- - -
_on. • . • .--
----~~----- .. ------- -.------
'\.."'«1
--.-. --.--.. -I!:r'-"~------.-- ----------- ---- ____ \-----;\"--------. ------------'i,6
. \lj~~~~I.~• • • ~;.
:I. •.• • . •:. •. •.•. ..• . •H··..·.~·.·:.·~~:·r;;=;;::::~ . .•. :•.:E:.:• • •:.:• :.:.:.:• :• •
,.
..
'1 --..
-~-~--~---~--~-
10 ----------~-------~------~
}
... -- -----------...
.----
..
-------------------~----
-;~~~;;--~~-.. I
If''\
lflO
...
1/14
f'fl'n't"
In ..
}flO
.t...
J/lt
lllo.
....1.
1<ey:
•
_t.
JIIO
)114
,no
II'"
Itt'
JIIOL.~
'" X¥Z- Yarns
Figure 12.
b. '"
EXP-¥arns
o '"
CTL-¥arns
Normalized Breaking Strengths of
XYZ-, EXP-, and CTL-Yarns
0'1
U1
... ;; r;;-. . ~:;:
_ ----- 2~~'---
; .':'"-:. ; .:' ~- -':.;.. :-.; ;." J:.
-
.---
~~ ..
~&~-
~~
I."
lit.... "',..
II.
1 U
,1,
Il'
to"
tt.
H'
• U
....
I..
.....
loll
Iff"
,.n
'"
00.1'
- .. ~~
'"
.."I." ....
un
1.U
t.u
"..
I:
,'
-f-'
'oo .......
'.u nt
t,\t""
tlU
...
MBS
~~~....
Itt
I'"
~-...
I •• }
I.U
HI
~~~-
Lit
••••
,.
----
---
.-~
Itt
loU
'.'j- r'' '1' /
w~
__ ~w
-~
' ••
),U
••.•
1 If
....
·.,Il
•. b.1
I
-- =~~··I~
-r
_.
.... - ---
'.U
.,. J ... L~·, ,.,.
IOU
'.U
~.~
I
.. ·.. 1~.:J :.~~I :::-.1 .:-.:
14'
ww _ _ _
..
,
eft.
.---.-+-.--. --
.;;-. -'I" .:,:_. I
~., I..~.~
>0,
'.'1
1.1\
,U
I.U
tt.
lo ...
LU
.n
1.'P
1.1'
...
tu
Lit
1.'(1
--
1.l•
Me.n Br •• klnq Strength
H8$ • Mor •• Slzed er.aUnq Streonqth
HBS ..
'S.ncCl~'
5,,,,.,...t _ x 100
where S"""""tV'fd • the fIIe.n br .... lnq Itrenqth of Ell' Of CTL •• _pl ••
Ind 5 In;"",,'
the liI'I~fan br •• k (nq .trenqth of
In
u.pl ••
'f.ble 1.
Averaqe H"an Drea1r.inq Shel'lqtha In PtHJnds
.nd Hor .. al'l~ Br •• kll'lq Strenqthl in Peuent"qe
CI'I
CI'I
67
Polyester
Polyester
EXP-yarns
collected
March
significantly weaker than XYZ-yarns.
30,
1991
were
No EXP-polyester was
collected after March 30, 1991.
Polyester CTL-yarns showed
signficantly lower breaking
strengths than XYZ-yarns on March 30, 1991 and deteriorated
even further by November 5, 1991.
There
were
no
significant
differences
between
the
breaking strengths of EXP-polyester and CTL-polyester.
Nylon
On
January
25,
1991,
EXP-nylon
stronger than XYZ-nylon, but
was
significantly
showed no other significantly
different breaking strengths from XYZ-nylon after that.
No
samples of EXP-nylon were recovered after March 30, 1991.
CTL-nylon was
the
February
10,
significantly weaker
1991
samples
than XYZ-nylon
only.
CTL-nylon
in
was
significantly weaker than EXP-nylon in the January 25, 1991
and November 5, 1991 samples.
Acetate
EXP-acetate was
significantly weaker
than XYZ-acetate
on November 5, 1991, but not before then.
In the March 30,
1991
samples, CTL-acetate
XYZ-acetate.
was
significantly weaker
However, in the November 5, 1991
than
samples, no
significant differences were noted in either comparisons.
Cotton
On
stronger
March
30,
1991,
than XYZ-cotton.
CTL-cotton
EXP-cotton
was
significantly
was
significantly
68
weaker' th-an both CTL and XYZ.
On
November
5,
1991,
weaker than XYZ-cotton.
EXP-cotton
was
significantly
No CTL-cotton was recovered.
EXP-cotton was significantly weaker
than CTL-cotton on
January 25, 1991, but not again until March 30, 1991.
Silk
EXP-silk
was
significantly weaker
March 30, 1991 and November
significantly weaker
than
XYZ-silk
5, 1991 samples.
than EXP-silk in
in
CTL-silk was
the March
14, 1991
and November 5, 1991 samples, and significantly weaker than
the XYZ-silk
in all
samples collected
February 10,
1991
through November 5, 1991.
Wool
EXP-wool
February
10,
was
significantly weaker
1991
and
November
CTL-wool was recovered after March
5,
than
XYZ-wool
1991
samples.
in
No
30, 1991. There were no
other significant differences.
Acrylic
No significant
differences in breaking
seen between XYZ-acrylic and
significantly weaker
1991
sample.
EXP-acrylic.
than XYZ-acrylic
EXP-acrylic
was
strengths were
CTL-acrylic was
in the
November 5,
significantly weaker
CTL-acrylic in the February 10, 1991 sample only.
than
69
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
HUMAN DECOMPOSITION
In winter conditions in East
of
clothing
Based
appears to
on observations
Tennessee, a single layer
accelerate
of
insect
human
activity and
particularly the period
from February 25 to
Figure 6),
seems to
the garment
decomposition.
behavior,
March 30 (see
have sheltered
eggs and
developing maggots
direct from
cold temperatures.
Because
it prevented a portion
body
seeping
away, it
fluids
from
moisture, creating a humid
a poor
the
of the heat
metabolic
combination
of
activity
events
helped
environment.
thermal conductor, the
conserve some
sunlight, rain,
wind, and
to
hold
of
the
helped
helped to
decomposition and
maggot
to
in
Because fabric is
garment may have
generated by
of the
firmly
mass.
This
establish
the
maggots even during colder months, while those on CTL could
not.
The clothing also appears to have fostered a pattern of
decomposition
found.
somewhat
different
from
what
is
usually
Most of the insect activity on EXP was concentrated
initially
activity
in
the
around the
urogenital
face.
combination of the factors:
garment in
area,
This was
the
the urogenital area,
which were already
with
little
probably
or
due to
no
a
protection offered by the
and the molds
and fungus
well established around the
face, thus
discourageing the insect activity.
70
The· substance
which
collected
in
the bottom of the
garment was most likely a combination of the by-products of
insect
digestion
byproducts.
and
metabolism,
and
The garment kept much
of the body fluids from
seeping away, resulting in a buildup
around the garment.
decompositionai
To date, there
of such wastes in and
has been no mention of
such buildup in the literature.
This substance
was
noted
abundant
in
is obviously persistent.
early
in late
May, and
it
September.
was
still
Insect
substance when
relatively
activity was
present in this substance in September.
skeletonized by this
Its presence
Since the body was
time, the deterioration rate
associated with
attendent entomology,
skeletal remains,
might be
still
another way
of this
and the
of estimating
interval since death.
GARMENT DETERIORATION
Aside from some fading of
showed
no
signs
evidence of
of
the color, the polypropylene
deterioration.
rotting and extensive
The
cotton
showed
mildew.
By the
end of
the experiment it was fragile, and in places fragmentary.
YARN DETERIORATION
Visually
little in
fibers
and
microscopically, there
the way of structural
used
in the
study.
damages to the
Most
of the
(discoloration, loss of luster, etc.),
adherents rather
is
not unexpected
appeared
be
yarns and
changes
were due to various
than any apparent chemical
Morse and
gross
to
Dailey and
damage.
This
Morse et. ale
71
found that most common materials require at least a year to
show any significant changes.
The
breaking
strength tests
include
some
ambiguous
results; there are instances where experimental samples are
significantly
other
stronger
way around,
than XYZ-yarns,
or
stronger/weaker in
where
a sample
the middle of
rather
was
than
the
significantly
sampling but not
at the
beginning or end.
These
results
ambiguous
combination
of factors.
small, perhaps
are
First,
sample
resulting in unacceptable
Second, most of the yarns being
fibers.
probably
due
to
sizes were
a
very
sampling errors.
used were spun from staple
These are short fibers which during spinning twist
around one another.
When running a breaking strength test,
force is applied at
each end of the yarn to
apart.
The
fibers break,
yarns come apart one
of two ways:
requiring more force,
slide apart from
pull the yarn
or the
either the
staple fibers
one another, requiring less
force.
Many
of the samples tested had been soaked with rain and/or body
fluids, and
adherents can
caked with dirt,
act as
fibers together.
When
mulch, dead skin,
a sort of
glue, holding
etc.
the staple
breaking strength tests are
them, they may be more difficult
are stronger but because the
The
run on
to break not because they
by-products of the experiment
are artificially binding the fibers more tightly.
However, in most of the
breaking strength tests, there
was evidence of weaker breaking strengths in both EXP-yarns
72
and CTL-yarns.
other
These results
observations.
dovetail well
Starting
with
with certain
March
EXP-samples, yarns were
becoming greasy to the
to
and
exposure
to
fatty
decomposition.
The fats
which allowed the
easily
apart.
oily
and oils
while this
strength differences
and can therefore
which are
touch, due
of
acted
lubricant
does not
mechanical weakness of the yarns,
1991
by-products
as a
staple fibers in the yarns
And
30,
human
to be pulled
point to
actual
it does produce breaking
statistically significant,
be expected in other
tests and forensic
cases.
Also, the weaker
the
experiment
fall
deterioration due to
Bressee,
breaking strengths toward the
into
1992).
shady locations, and
garment, they
ranges
associated
exposure to sunlight (pers.
Ph.D., January
placed in
the
end of
comm. R.
Although CTL-yarns
EXP-yarns were
both apparently received enough
with
were
inside the
sunlight to
result in some destructive effects.
Nylon
November
cotton
very
and polyester
5, 1991.
side of
fragile
decomposition
Recovery
the
and
cotton side,
However,
was
in
the
difficult
and nylon did not deteriorate
from EXP
were attached
to
on
the
By November, the cotton was
embedded in
and therefore it
simply not found.
recovered
they
garment.
products
was very
were not
the
bottom
for
leaf
of
mulch
the
yarns attached
is felt that
and
garment.
to
the
the polyester
completely, but instead were
73
Cotton and wool were not recovered from the CTL samples
in November.
No traces of them
cord securing the
were found attached to the
CTL-yarn samples around the
base of the
tree to which they were anchored; nor were any traces found
in
the
leaf
possible that
clutter
surrounding
from the immediate
from EXP,
in association
it is felt that
and CTL-wool
It
is
permit the
the cord and be washed away
area by rain and
were weaker
for CTL-cotton
samples.
enough deterioration occurred to
wool and cotton to detach from
and wool
the
wind.
Because cotton
with EXP
that would be more
to completely
than apart
likely than
deteriorate by
November while EXP-cotton and EXP-wool were still recovered
at that time.
74
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS
HUMAN DECOMPOSITION
A single layer of clothing
decomposition.
In
this study,
established bloating after two
slippage and skin
Actual
days, or almost six weeks.
more (at
established
EXP showed
signs of
of loss
inflation began at about 41
CTL, however, required a month
least twice
bloating,
well
weeks, with noticeable skin
discoloration and the beginning
of head and body hair.
or
appears to accelerate human
as long
and
as EXP)
at least
10
.to reach
weeks
to
well
reach
inflation.
Insect activity on EXP was
1991
and well
established
continuous from January 18,
after
associated with CTL was tenuous
two weeks,
while
that
until the middle of March,
two months later.
Using this study as a
and
pants in
reach
initial
late
the first
winter/early
stages of
inflation
approximately
guideline an individual in shirt
in
eight to
spring conditions
bloating in
six
ten
weeks,
weeks,
about two
active
and dry
would
weeks,
decay
stage
in
(with
exposed bones and most soft tissues gone) at about fourteen
weeks (or three and a half months).
Maggot masses would be
well established at about four to six weeks.
YARN DETERIORATION
The
yarns
decomposition
in
this
study
than expected.
were
However,
less
affected
by
tentative results
75
indicate that: cotton, wool and acetate deteriorate quicker
wwhen exposed
to environmental conditions
including human
decomposition than to environmental conditions and no human
Qecomposition;
slowly when
silk, acrylic
and
nylon deteriorate
exposed to environmental
human decomposition;
more
conditions including
and polyester showed
no differential
response.
A great
area.
need to
deal of work
still needs
Comparisons between
be made
in all
clothed
seasons and
to be done
and nude
in this
individuals
with more
sUbjects.
Examinations of the affect of human decomposition on common
fabrics also
need to be
studied with larger
and for longer periods of time.
sample sizes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
77
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Volume 07.01 Textiles-Yarns,
Fabrics, and General Test Methods. (1990) ASTM.
Philadelphia, PA.
Baden, M, and Hennessee,J (1989) Unnatural Death:
Confessions of a Medical Examiner. New York: Ballantine
Books.
Berryman, H, Bass, W, Symes, S, and Smith, 0, (1991)
Recognition of Cemetery Remains in the Forensic Setting.
Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(1):
230 - 237.
Bornemissza, GF (1957)
An Analysis of Arthropod Succession
in Carrion and the Effect of its Decomposition on the Soil
Fauna. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1 - 12.
Campbell, B (1985)
Man's Adaptation.
Company.
Human Evolution: An Introduction to
3rd ed. New York: Aldine Publishing
Catts, EP (1990) Analyzing Entomological Data. in EP Catts
and NH Haskell (ed.): Entomology and Death: A Procedural
Guide. Clemson: Joyce's Print Shop, pp 124 - 137.
Cotton, G, Aufderheide, A, and Goldschmidt,V (1987)
Preservation of Human Tissue Immersed for Five Years in
Fresh Water of Known Temperature. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 32(4): 1125 - 1130.
Cox, M (1990)
Effect of Fabric Washing on the Presumptive
Identification of Bloodstains. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 35(6): 1335 - 1341.
Easton, A (1970)
The Entomology of the Cadaver: B. Some
Practical Applications with Special Reference to the
Coleoptera. Medicine, Science, and the Law 1: 211 - 215.
Galloway, A, Birkby, W, Jones, A, Henry, T, and Parks, B
(1989) Decay Rates of Human Remains in an Arid
Environment. Journal of Forensic Sciences 34(3): 607 616.
Gilbert, BM and Bass, W (1967)
Facts and Comments:
Seasonal Dating of Burials from the Presence of Fly Pupae.
American Antiquity 32: 534 - 535.
Goff, ML and Flynn, M (1991)
Determination of Post-Mortem
Interval by Arthropod Succession: A Case Study from the
Hawaiian Islands. Journal of Forensic Sciences 36(2):
607 - 614.
78
-
Goff, ML and Catts, EP (1990) Arthropod Basics -Structure and Biology. in Catts, EP and Haskell, NH (ed):
Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide. Clemson: Joyce's
Print Shop, pp 38 - 71.
Goff, ML, Omori, AI, and Gunatilake, K (1988)
Estimation
of Postmortem Interval by Arthropod Succession. American
Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 9(3): 220225.
Haglund, W, Reay, D, and Tepper, S (1990)
Identification
of Decomposed Human Remains by Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Profiling. Journal of Forensic Sciences 35(3): 724729.
Haglund, W, Reay, D, and Swindler, D (1989) Canid
Scavenging/Disarticulation Sequence of Human Remains in
the Pacific Northwest." Journal of Forensic Sciences
34(3): 587 - 606.
Haglund, W, Reay, D, and Swindler, D (1988)
Tooth Mark
Artifacts and Survival of Bones in Animal Scavenged Human
Skeletons. Journal of Forensic Sciences 33(4): 985997.
Hall, RD (1990) Medicocriminal Entomology. in Catts, EP
and Haskell, NH Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide.
Clemson: Joyce's Print Shop, pp 1 - 8.
Haskell, NH (1990) Entomological Collection Techniques at
Autopsy and for Specific Environments. in Catts, EP and
Haskell, NH Entomology and Death: A Procedural Guide.
Clemson: Joyce's Print Shop, pp 98 - 110.
Hawley, D, Doedens, D, McClain, J, and Pless, JE (1989)
Concealment of the Body in Drug Deaths. Journal of
Forensic Sciences 34(2): 495 - 499.
Introna, F, Suman, T, and Smialek, J (1991)
Sarcosaprophagous Fly Activity in Maryland.
Forensic Sciences 36(1): 238 - 243.
Journal of
Iscan, M (1989)
Rise of Forensic Anthropology. Yearbook of
Physical Anthropology 31: 203 - 230.
Joseph, ML (1977)
Introductory Textile Science. 3rd ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Knight, B (1971) The Dating of Human Bones. The
Criminologist 6(19): 33 - 40.
79
Kulshrestha, P, and Chandra, H (1987)
Time Since Death: An
Entomological Study on Corpses. The American Journal of
Forensic Medicine and Pathology 8(3): 233 - 238.
Lord, WD (1990) Case Histories of the Use of Insects
in Investigations. in Catts, EP and Haskell, NH Entomology
and Death: A Procedural Guide. Clemson: Joyce's Print
Shop, pp 9 - 37.
Mann, R, Bass, W, and Meadows, L (1990)
Time Since Death
and Decomposition of the Human Body: Variables and
Observations in Case and Experimental Field Studies.
Journal of Forensic Sciences 35(1): 103 - 111.
Meek, CL, and Andrews, CS (1990)
Standard Techniques and
Procedures at the Death Scene.
in Catts, EP and Haskell,
NH Entomology and Death: a Procedural Guide. Clemson:
Joyce's Print Shop, pp 72 - 81.
Micozzi, M (1986) Experimental Study of Postmortem Change
Under Field Conditions: Effects of Freezing, Thawing, and
Mechanical Injury." Journal of Forensic Sciences 31(3):
953 - 961.
Monahan, D and Harding, H (1990)
Damage to Clothing -Cuts and Tears. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 35(4):
901 - 912.
Morse, D,and Dailey, R (1985)
The Degree of Deterioration
of Associated Death Scene Material. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 30(1): 119 - 27.
Morse, D, Duncan, J and Stoutamire, J (1984)
The Degree of
Deterioration of Associated Death Scene Material. in
The Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology.
Tallahassee: Florida State University Foundation, Inc.,
Chapter 6 and Appendix A.
Payne, J and King, E (1968) Arthropod Succession and
Decomposition of Buried Pigs. Nature 219: 1180 - 1181.
Payne, J (1965)
A Summer Carrion Study of the Baby Pig
Sus scrofa linnaeus. Ecology 46(5):
592 - 602.
Reed, HB (1958) A Study of Dog Carcass Communities in
Tennessee, with Special Reference to the Insects. The
American Midland Naturalist 39(1): 213 - 245.
Relethford, J (1990)
The Human Species: An Introduction to
Biological Anthropology_ Mountain View, CA: Mayfield
Publishing
80
Rodriguez, W, and Bass, W (1985)
Decomposition of Buried
Bodies and Methods That May Aid in Their Location. Journal
of Forensic Sciences 30(3): 836 - 852.
Rodriguez, W, and Bass,W (1983)
Insect Activity and Its
Relationship to Decay Rates of Human Cadavers in East
Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 28(2):
423432.
Smith, K (1970)
The Entomology of the Cadaver: A. The
Nature and Succession of the Invertebrate Fauna."
Medicine, Science, and the Law 1:
208 - 210.
Willey, P and Snyder, L (1989) Canid Modification of Human
Remains:
Implications for Time-Since-Death Estimations.
Journal of Forensic Sciences 34(4):
894 - 901.
Snow, C (1982)
Forensic Anthropology.
Anthropology 11: 97 - 131.
Annual Review of
Stewart, TD (1948) Medico-Legal Aspects of the Skeleton.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6:
315 - 321.
Wolpoff, M (1980)
Knopf.
Paleoanthropology.
New York: Alfred A.
VITA
Shawn-Elizabeth
January 7, 1965.
Cahoon was born
in Louisville,
KY on
She graduated from Ballard High School in
May, 1983.
At the University
she earned
a Bachelor of Arts
of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, AL
degree in May, 1987
with a
major in Physical Anthropology and a minor in Biology.
entered the
Graduate program
in Physical
January 1988 and graduated with a
May, 1992.
She
Anthropology in
Master of Arts degree in