2014
ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRONICS
Marija Krznarić
TEHNIČKO VELEUČILIŠTE U ZAGREBU
ELEKTROTEHNIČKI ODJEL
PRIRUČNICI TEHNIČKOG VELEUČILIŠTA U ZAGREBU
MANUALIA POLYTECHNICI STUDIORUM ZAGRABIENSIS
MARIJA KRZNARIĆ
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS
TEXTS
GRAMMAR
EXERCISES
GLOSSARY
Nakladnik
Tehničko veleučilište u Zagrebu
Elektrotehnički odjel
Autor
Marija Krznarić
Recenzenti
Prof. dr. sc. Sejid Tešnjak
Prof. dr. sc. Krešimir Meštrović,
Mirjana Milotić-Pejnović, prof.
Objavljivanje je odobrilo Stručno vijeće Tehničkog veleučilišta u Zagrebu
odlukom broj: 803-7/09 od 21.04.2009.godine
Skripta
ISBN 978-953-7048-44-0
Foreword
Some parts of this manual have been already used for several years but lately, the material has been
re-written and improved to provide entry- and advanced-level competencies, for the students of the
Department of electrical engineering. It consists of instructional materials for the career-oriented
students who have learned English for eight years before joining the Department of Electrical
Engineering. The texts are structured to provide an introduction to the broad subject called electricity
and electronics. Although no prior formal training in electricity is assumed, it is very unlikely that a
student has not been exposed to the world of electricity and electronics. For this reason, certain words
associated with electricity are expected to have already entered the students’ vocabulary.
Nevertheless, strict technical definitions are used throughout the manual which may help some
students rid themselves of misconceptions learned earlier. Both texts and exercises are meant to
develop greater students’ sensitivity to the way of thinking in engineering and to the way of presenting
and expressing such thoughts in technical English. Since the level of the students’ knowledge of English
might be rather different, certain grammatical categories have been revised and added in order to
target students’ attention to the technical English.
This manual is divided into 6 parts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
texts for reading and reproduction
hints how to write a job application, a summary and a business letter
some cultural and communication aspects
grammar revision and exercises
glossary: terms and definitions
Irregular verbs.
For those who like surfing the Internet, I recommend pages a4esl.org and www.englishpage.com
where explanation, exercises and key to exercises can be found. Although these exercises are written
for universal use, i.e. you will not find problems with which Croatian students have to “fight”, they are
a recommended self-study practice course. As for examination material for each term, it can be found
on our web site. This truly is the age of electricity and electronics, computer science and
communications. The solid foundation provided by these simple texts is likely to prove useful, whether
a student intends to pursue a career in electricity and electronics or simply needs the material as
background information for other purposes. The author welcomes comments and suggestions from
teachers as well as from students. For future engineers of a small country, like Croatia, it is extremely
important to master at least one foreign language since their mobility and employability in the
European Union depend greatly on their knowledge of a foreign language, preferably English. Materials
given in this manual will be of considerable help for those who intend to revise and improve their
knowledge.
And finally I would like to thank Professor Sejid Tešnjak PhD from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering
and Computing in Zagreb and the head of the Electrical Engineering Department, University of Applied
Sciences in Zagreb, Professor Krešimir Meštrović PhD, for reading the manual and correcting it from
the technical point of view. Special thanks to my colleague, Mrs. Mirjana Milotić-Pejnović from
University College for Applied Computer Engineering for giving valuable suggestions and advice and
for using this material in its different forms for the past ten years.
I would also like to thank Mr. Rade Buinac, MEng EE for help with the text processor.
Marija Krznarić
5
Table of Contents
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................. 5
PART 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
YOUR CAREER AS AN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER ...................................................................................... 9
THE BOLOGNA PROCESS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ............................... 11
THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION ....................................................................................................... 13
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER ............................................................................................................ 16
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT .................................................................................................................... 20
THE EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ........................................................................................... 23
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS ............................................................................................................................ 26
CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS ............................................................................ 31
BATTERIES and CAPACITORS ............................................................................................................. 34
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................ 37
MACHINE TRANSLATION –YES or NO ................................................................................................ 40
FROM CAMERA TO SCREEN ............................................................................................................... 44
THE CATHODE RAY TUBE ................................................................................................................... 46
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................................................... 50
HOW ROBOTS MAKE OUR LIVES EASIER ........................................................................................... 54
CIRCUIT BREAKERS, FUSES AND SWITCHES ....................................................................................... 57
POWER ENGINEERING ....................................................................................................................... 60
TELECOMMUNICATIONS ................................................................................................................... 64
OPTICAL FIBERS ................................................................................................................................. 68
NIKOLA TESLA - THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD.......................................................................... 71
NANOTECHNOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 73
PART 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 75
HOW TO WRITE A JOB APPLICATION ................................................................................................ 75
HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY............................................................................................................ 83
HOW TO WRITE A POWER POINT PRESENTATION ............................................................................ 85
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER ................................................................................................. 90
PART 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 93
WHEN IN ROME, DO AS THE ROMANS DO ........................................................................................ 93
POLITICALLY CORRECT LANGUAGE – HE vs. SHE ............................................................................... 94
A HANDSHAKE, A BOW OR AN EMBRACE ......................................................................................... 95
SOME HINTS ABOUT SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATIONS ........................................................................... 98
PART 4 ................................................................................................................................................. 101
IS GRAMMAR IMPORTANT? ............................................................................................................ 101
6
TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT........................................................................................................ 102
PRESENT CONTINUOUS - PRESENT SIMPLE ................................................................................. 102
WORD ORDER .................................................................................................................................. 111
TALKING ABOUT THE PAST 1 ........................................................................................................... 112
PAST SIMPLE - PAST CONTINUOUS ............................................................................................. 112
TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE ......................................................................................................... 118
GOING TO - PRESENT CONTINUOUS - WILL – FUTURE - PRESENT SIMPLE ................................ 118
ARTICLES .......................................................................................................................................... 120
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE ............................................................................................................. 120
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE ................................................................................................................. 121
TALKING ABOUT THE PAST 2 ........................................................................................................... 126
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE & CONTINUOUS - FUTURE IN THE PAST ................................................. 126
COMMANDS .................................................................................................................................... 133
PRESENT PARTICIPLE ....................................................................................................................... 137
TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT PERFECT ......................................................................................... 141
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE : PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS ................................................... 141
DEFECTIVES...................................................................................................................................... 150
CONDITIONALS - TYPE 0 & TYPE 1 ................................................................................................... 152
TYPE 0 .......................................................................................................................................... 152
TYPE 1 .......................................................................................................................................... 152
CRIB NOTES...................................................................................................................................... 157
ACTIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 157
PASSIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 158
TALKING ABOUT THE PASSIVE VOICE .............................................................................................. 159
THE PASSIVE VOICE...................................................................................................................... 159
PAST PARTICIPLE.......................................................................................................................... 163
INDIRECT SPEECH ............................................................................................................................ 169
STATEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 169
WH-QUESTIONS............................................................................................................................... 173
YES - & NO - QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................. 178
CONDITIONALS ................................................................................................................................ 189
CONDITIONALS TYPE 0 & TYPE 1 ................................................................................................. 189
CONDITIONALS - TYPE 2 & TYPE 3 ............................................................................................... 190
THE UNREAL PAST ........................................................................................................................... 197
CAUSATIVE "HAVE" or "GET"........................................................................................................... 200
REVISION OF THE VERBAL FORMS................................................................................................... 202
7
PART 5 ................................................................................................................................................. 207
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................ 207
PART 6 ................................................................................................................................................. 221
IRREGULAR VERBS ........................................................................................................................... 221
8
PART 1
YOUR CAREER AS AN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER
Electrical engineering is a very broad discipline that addresses the design and understanding of devices,
circuits, and systems that use electromagnetic waves in electronic or optical signals. This increasingly
involves the use of computers, but focuses on the design and analysis of electronic/optical components
and the signals that connect them.
The rapid expansion of the high tech industry has provided a wealth of professional opportunities for
electrical engineers. Although, showing a chronic shortage of qualified electrical engineers, this is one
of the fastest growing specialty areas of engineering. A degree in electrical engineering provides great
flexibility and can lead to a wide range of career paths. Electrical engineers are inventors, designers,
business owners, consultants, teachers, researchers, scientists, executives, politicians, and astronauts.
They are addressing many of the world’s most serious environmental and social challenges by
developing new processes, more efficient resource use, and enhanced communication. Following the
introduction of the Bologna process, which Croatia started implementing in 2005, it has become
common for the higher education institutions to split technical studies into two parts. At the end of
the first part lasting three years, students would get the bachelor’s degree (baccalaureus =
prvostupnik, abb. BSc, 180 ECTS) - in the Department of Electrical Engineering students obtain the
qualification Bachelor of Electrical Engineering. The second part is an optional two years, so-called
specialist study with the master’s degree (magistar struke, abb. MSc, 120 ECTS). Electrical engineering
is a profession that uses science, technology, and problem-solving skills to design, construct, and
maintain products, services, and information systems. Electrical engineering is the historical name for
what is now called electrical, electronics, and computer engineering.
Our electrical engineering program (see also the text Compulsory, basic, electives - courses for
the first year students) includes more mathematics and science, such as mathematical statistics, analog
circuits, elements of automation, electrical measurements, engineering mechanics, electrical
machines, electronic circuits, switching equipment, transformers, linear and nonlinear circuits,
fundamentals of telecommunications, programming, electrical power engineering, electrical power
networks, electric motor drives, low-voltage installations and lightning, electric power plants, process
measurements, protection in switchgear, electronic computers and computer equipment, optical
communications, radio communication technique and systems, telecommunication networks, mobile
radio communications, control devices and systems, radar systems. Some of these courses are
compulsory and some of them are electives.
A Bachelor of Science degree in engineering with a specialty in electrical engineering may also
serve as a starting point for careers in many other diverse fields, since the problem-solving skills
acquired in an electrical engineering program provide an extraordinarily valuable asset. The same skills
will equip you to assume leadership roles in your community and in professional circles outside the
workplace. A Bachelor of Science program constitutes the full-time formal education for most
engineering graduates and is usually undertaken in one field of engineering, which is sometimes noted
in the degree postnominals, as in BE (Aero) or BEng (Elec).
Those of you who will continue studying, those who are interested in advanced design,
development and research programs will get a Master's degree (MSc or M.Sc.) and those whose
interest is focused on research will pursue a doctoral degree (PhD or Ph.D.).
9
WRITE DOWN THREE REASONS WHY YOU HAVE CHOSEN THIS STUDY COURSE
1. ________________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________________
DISCUSS WITH YOUR NEIGHBOUR THE ABOVE REASONS, ADD HIS or HERS AND WRITE THEM DOWN
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
A Bachelor of Engineering degree, BSc in other countries
includes
BSc in the Department of electrical engineering, The
Polytechnic of Zagreb includes
Electrical engineering
Control and computer engineering in automation (AiPR)
Electronic and Electrical Engineering
Electronic engineering
Electrical power engineering (EE)
Microelectronic and Electrical Engineering
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Communication and computer technology (KiRT)
WRITE A SHORT ESSAY - HOW I SEE MY FUTURE EMPLOYMENT
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
AND A JOKE
YOU MIGHT BE AN ENGINEER IF…
… the only jokes you receive are through e-mail.
… you can’t write unless the paper has both horizontal and vertical lines.
… you order pizza over the Internet and pay for it with your home banking software.
… all your sentences begin with “what if”.
… at Christmas, it goes without saying that you’ll be the one to find the burnt-out bulb in the string.
… buying flowers for your girlfriend or spending the money to upgrade your RAM is a moral dilemma.
… people groan at the party when you pick out the music.
… you are always late to meetings.
… you are at an air show and know how fast the skydivers are falling.
10
THE BOLOGNA PROCESS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
The Department of Electrical Engineering is a continuation of the three-year Technical College founded
in Zagreb in 1962 and almost four decades later, in 1998, it became one of the departments of the
Polytechnic of Zagreb. The academic year 2005/2006 was the implementation of the Bologna process
or the Bologna Declaration requirements in the Department of Electrical Engineering. Since a threeyear bachelor degree (180 ECTS) should give students broad professional basic knowledge and
competencies, their mobility and later on employability depend greatly upon and rely on crossdisciplinary qualifications where foreign languages play an important role. Along with these
indispensable cross-disciplinary qualifications and competences, regardless of the profile of each study
course or higher education institution, in most EU countries compulsory knowledge of one or more
foreign languages is required. Discussing the Bologna Process with the special accent on employability
of graduates, UNICE (Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederation of Europe, in 2007 renamed
BUSINESSEUROPE) emphasizes that a bachelor should have:
 an appropriate level of verbal and written articulacy in the national language
 an appropriate level of verbal and written articulacy in at least one foreign language
(preferably English for non-native speakers)
 ability to work in a team, etc.
Having all this in mind, it is an imperative for Croatian graduates to have a fluent foreign language
competence, in both the oral and the written language. They should also master the particular
language of their specialty.
To meet all these requirements and as computer skills are compulsory for all university graduates, the
software for learning and testing English in a computer laboratory in the Department of Electrical
Engineering has been created and different types of drills and tests have been prepared for students.
These tests may also be used for self-study together with drills and tests on our web sites.
To familiarize the students with certain new terms concerning the Bologna process, the first year
courses are listed here as well as the names for different types of courses, such as compulsory or basic
(all first year courses, except the foreign language which is compulsory elective), electives (which
students choose themselves), etc.
After you have passed the prescribed university entrance exam, you will have to deal with the following
compulsory basic and compulsory elective courses in your first year:
1st term
ECTS 2nd term
fundamentals of electrical engineering 1
mathematics 1
8
7
physics
materials in electrical engineering
personal computer applications
technical documentation
physical education
5
4
5
3
1
fundamentals of electrical engineering 2
mathematical tools for electrical
engineering
mathematics 2
electronic components
English in Electrical Engineering 1
physical education
First year total ECTS
62
ECTS
9
2
9
6
2
1
During the last term, students have practical training and write their final thesis. They are assigned a
mentor who suggests which electives they should choose and approves the subject of the final thesis.
11
The last examination is actually the final thesis which students defend publicly in order to get a degree.
The degree is:
Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering
abbreviated B.Eng.
Detailed study programme can be found on the web site: www.tvz.hr.
European Credit Transfer System = ECTS
ECTS is based on the student workload required to achieve the objectives of the study programme (60
credits of a full-time student during one academic year). It was introduced in 1989 and it facilitated
the recognition of periods of study abroad and thus enhanced the quality and volume of student
mobility in Europe. It is one of the key objectives of the Bologna Declaration of June 1999.
ECTS makes study programmes easy to read and compare for all students, local and foreign.
ECTS facilitates mobility and academic recognition.
ECTS helps universities to organize and revise their study programmes.
ECTS can be used across a variety of programmes and modes of delivery.
ECTS makes European higher education more attractive for students from abroad.
HOW TO / NOT TO COLLECT ECTS
CHEATERS
Bill and Steve were seated next to each other while taking a test. When they had finished, the teacher
called them up to her desk. "Sorry boys," she said, "but both of you will be receiving a zero on the test."
"But, why?" they asked.
"Looking over your answers and noting how very alike they are, it is obvious that one of you cheated
and the other one let him do it," replied the teacher.
"That could just be a coincidence, Miss Ames," Bill said. "What would make you think we cheated?"
"Well," the teacher replied, "I might have believed it was a coincidence if it wasn't for the fact that
when you got to question number 8, Steve wrote 'I don't know' for the answer, and you, Bill, wrote in
'damn, neither do I'."
12
THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION
What is engineering? It offers solutions for real human problems by the development and application
of tools, machines, materials, goods, or information in the form of skills, knowledge, processes,
blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, tables,
engineering designs, specifications, manuals, or instructions.
What is the work of an engineer? An engineer designs, operates,
or maintains certain kinds of equipment, deals with the practical
application of theoretical findings. Engineers apply the principles
of science and mathematics to develop economical solutions to
technical problems. Their work is the link between social needs
and commercial applications.
However, what an engineer did in the past, may seem strange
and funny today. You know that in the past engineers did not go
to school, don’t you? They just worked for a number of years to
be taught certain skills. But, that’s ancient history, times have
drastically changed.
Today's engineers require at least a three- or five-year university course in order to graduate at a
college or to get a bachelor's degree in engineering and become specialists in their fields. This does
not mean that, taking their degree, the education is finished. Continuing education, or as it has been
called lately lifelong learning, is critical for engineers wishing to enhance their value to employers as
technology evolves. They have to cover different fields, incorporate their ideas into the real world,
listen to the needs, and be familiar with the global economic situation.
Therefore, when engineers start developing a new product, they have to consider many factors. For
example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements;
design and test the robot’s components; integrate the components to produce the final design; and
evaluate the design’s overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to the
development of many different products, such as chemicals, computers, gas turbines, helicopters, and
toys.
In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance.
These engineers supervise production in factories, determine the causes of component failure, and
test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete
projects. Some move into engineering management or into sales. In sales, an engineering background
enables them to discuss technical aspects and assist in product planning, installation, and use.
Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects.
Engineers use computers extensively to produce and analyse designs; to simulate and test how a
machine, structure, or system operates; and to generate specifications for parts. Many engineers also
use computers to monitor product quality and control process efficiency. The field of nanotechnology,
which involves the creation of high-performance materials and components by integrating atoms and
molecules, also is introducing entirely new principles to the design process.
Most engineers specialize. Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and the
major branches of engineering have numerous subdivisions. Some examples include structural and
transportation engineering, which are subdivisions of civil engineering; and ceramic, metallurgical, and
polymer engineering, which are subdivisions of materials engineering. Engineers also may specialize in
one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor
materials.
13
FILL IN THE BLANK SPACES WITH THE CORRESPONDING ENGINEERING PROFESSION:
1) a person whose job involves designing and building of houses, roads, bridges is a
________________ engineer
2) a person who designs and builds machines and systems that use or produce electricity is an
______________ engineer
3) a person whose job is to design, build and repair machines is a ________________ engineer
4) a person who writes computer programs is a ________________ engineer
5) a person who works in a recording or a broadcasting studio and controls the levels and balance
of sound is a ___________________ engineer
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is engineering?
2. What is the work of an engineer?
3. What is the difference between today’s engineers and those in the past?
4. Why is continuous education an imperative for engineers?
5. What tasks does a supervisory engineer perform?
6. What do engineers use computers for?
7. Where would you like to work?
8. What would you like to specialize in?
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
Engineers trained in one branch may work in related branches and this flexibility allows them to shift
to fields with better employment prospects or to those that more closely match their interests. As far
as electrical and electronics engineers are concerned, and they are the most important here, there is
a certain difference between them.
Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical equipment. This
equipment includes electrical motors; machinery controls, lighting, and wiring in buildings;
automobiles; aircraft; radar and navigation systems; power-generating, -controlling, and -transmission
devices used by electric utilities. Although the terms “electrical” and “electronics” engineering are
often used interchangeably, electrical engineers have traditionally focused on the generation and
supply of power, whereas electronics engineers have worked on applications of electricity to control
systems or signal processing. Electrical engineers specialize in areas such as power systems
engineering or electrical equipment manufacturing.
Electronics engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies, from portable music players to
the global positioning system (GPS). Electronics engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the
manufacture of electronic equipment such as broadcast and communications systems. Many
electronics engineers also work in areas closely related to computers. However, engineers whose work
is related exclusively to computer hardware are considered computer hardware engineers. Electronics
engineers specialize in areas such as communications, signal processing, and control systems or have
a specialty within one of these areas—industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for
example.
Engineers should be creative, inquisitive, analytical, and detail oriented. They should be able to work
as part of a team and to communicate well, both orally and in writing. Communication abilities are
important because engineers often interact with specialists in a wide range of fields outside
engineering.
14
ABOUT DEGREES, ABOUT BEING A STUDENT
Marriage is an institution in which a man loses his Bachelor's1 Degree and the woman gets her
Masters2.
Graduate Degrees
The graduate with a Science degree asks, "Why does it work?"
The graduate with an Engineering degree asks, "How does it work?"
The graduate with an Accounting degree asks, "How much will it cost?"
The graduate with a Liberal Arts3 degree asks, "Do you want fries with that?"
SIGNS YOU'RE NO LONGER IN COLLEGE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Your salary is less than your tuition.
You now have to pay your own credit card bill.
You go from 130 days of vacation time down to 7.
You keep more food than beer in your fridge.
You haven't watched a soap opera in over a year.
Your car insurance premium goes down.
You refer to college students as kids.
Police don't raid the parties you go to.
Jeans and baseball caps aren't the main focus of your wardrobe.
You have to file your own taxes.
Your parents begin to make casual remarks about grandchildren.
Mac and Cheese is no longer considered a well-balanced diet.
You take an interest in the weather channel.
Adults are comfortable telling dirty jokes in front of you.
Your potted plants stay alive.
1
bachelor=a man who has never been married
Master credit card
3 Liberal arts = humanističke znanosti
2
15
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Our world consists of many things that we call matter. Matter means anything that has weight and
takes up space. It appears in four forms, i.e. the solid state, for example stones, the liquid state, such
as water, the gaseous state, air, for example, and plasma, such as electrical arcs produced by tesla
coils.
This variety represented a puzzle which was difficult to
understand and solve. People thought about matter, made
experiments but the first theory appeared only at the
beginning of the nineteenth century. It was John Dalton, an
English scientist, who stated that all matter is made up of
small indivisible particles, and he called them atoms. The
word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, meaning
indivisible. This theory of the atomic nature of matter was
true for a long time. Scientists found 92 different atoms
from which all matter in nature was composed.
Almost a hundred years later, another English scientist, Sir Figure 1 - Structure of an atom of helium
J. J. Thomson developed and published his theory of a
subatomic particle. At first it was called a corpuscle but later, G. J. Stoney, an Irish physicist gave it
another name, electron.
So, if we want to define what an atom is, we may say: an atom is the basic unit of matter and it consists
of a nucleus around which smaller particles orbit. These particles are electrons and have a negative
electric charge. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged
whereas neutrons have no net charge.
Each atom contains an equal number of electrons and protons but may have a different number of
neutrons. Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus, while atomic
number is the number of elementary positive charges in the nucleus when an atom is in its normal
condition. The atomic number varies for each element, e.g. it is 1 for hydrogen (the lightest element
in nature), and 92 for uranium (the heaviest element in nature) but the number is even higher for the
new artificial elements. Copper, for example, which is one of the most important elements in
electricity contains 29 electrons and 29 protons, and thus its atomic number is 29.
We can compare the structure of an atom to the Solar system. Electrons, which have only a very small
mass4 in comparison to protons and neutrons, orbit at a very rapid speed around the nucleus,
somewhat in the same manner as the Earth and the other planets orbit around the Sun. These are
planetary electrons and they revolve around the positively charged nucleus of their atom.
Fig. 1 represents the theoretical structure of the helium atom. Its nucleus contains two protons and
two neutrons. The two planetary electrons revolve in the orbit around the nucleus. But, besides
planetary electrons, which are, due to their negative charge strongly attracted to the positively
charged nucleus, there is another type of electrons. These are free electrons. They move freely in
matter or a vacuum when external electric or magnetic fields act on them. The free electrons are
important in electricity and one simple definition for electric current says:
“An electric current is the continuous flow or movement of free electrons.”
4
let’s “see” how tiny an electron is: If an ampere is defined as the number of electrons passing through a point in one second, then the
number of electrons per ampere is 6.280.000.000.000.000.000 (6.28 x 1018 )
16
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
orbital or planetary electron – an electron that moves in orbit around the nucleus of an atom
atomic number – the number of elementary positive charges in the nucleus of an atom, it is a different
number for each element, starting with 1 for hydrogen and going up beyond 103
free electron – an electron that is not constrained to remain in a particular atom, it is therefore able
to move freely in matter or a vacuum, when acted on by external electric or magnetic field
subatomic – pertaining to particles smaller than atoms, such as electrons, protons and neutrons
current – the rate of transfer of electricity from one point to another; current is usually a movement
of electrons, but may also be a movement of positive and negative ions, or holes
copper – a metallic element that has excellent conductivity of heat and electricity, good ductility and
malleability, it is easily alloyed
electron – a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge
conductor – a material which permits the flow of free electrons
generator – an electric machine for generating electromotive force (voltage)
like charges (+ & + and - & - ) – repel each other
unlike charges (+ & -) – attract each other
electron flow – a current produced by the movement of free electrons toward a positive terminal; the
direction of electron flow is opposite to that current
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
What is matter?
How many states of matter are there?
Who was the first author of the theory of matter and when did it appear?
What did John Dalton state?
Why did he call his particles “atoms”?
How many different types of atoms are there?
What did J. J. Thomson discover?
What other name did Stoney give Thomson’s particle?
What is an atom?
What does a nucleus consist of?
What does the number of protons in a nucleus determine?
What are the properties of copper?
Why can the structure of an atom be compared to the Solar system?
Why are planetary electrons strongly attracted to the positively charged nucleus of their
atom?
15. What happens when external electric or magnetic forces act on free electrons?
16. What does the movement of free electrons provide?
17
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
ELECTRONS AND ELECTRICITY
More than two thousand years ago the Greek philosopher Thales observed that when a piece of amber,
a hardened gum from trees, was rubbed with a material like wool or fur, it attracted certain other kinds
of materials. This ability to attract (and also to repel, as it was later discovered) other objects is due to
electric charge. The phenomenon itself came to be called static electricity. "Electricity" comes from
the Greek word for amber, "static" indicates that the charge remains stationary, that is, it remains
bound to the material that has been charged.
It was many hundreds of years before any further significant observations were made about the
phenomenon of static electricity. Then it was discovered that many other materials beside amber could
be charged by rubbing, which produced friction. A more important discovery was that there were two
kinds of electrical charges.
These two kinds of charges were called positive and negative. A
positive charge was indicated by a plus sign (+) and a negative charge by a minus sign (-). These symbols
are still in universal use today. It was also discovered that like charges - two positive charges or two
negative charges - repelled each other, whereas unlike charges - a positive and a negative charge attracted each other.
Much later it was learned that the movement of tiny particles of matter called electrons caused
electricity. The electron is one of the particles that make up atoms, the basic units of matter of which
a chemical element is composed. The centre of the atom is a nucleus which contains almost the entire
weight or mass of the atom. The nucleus itself consists of two different particles, protons and neutrons.
Ask questions about the above text using the material “Question words” which you will find on our
web site (www.tvz.hr Engleski u elektrotehnici 1, vježbe)
18
The Solar System
Use the following adjectives: big, light, heavy, bright, hot, long
Across
3 Neil Armstrong was the first man to land on
the ___________.
6 The Sun is ___________ than other planets.
8 The Sun is the _________ thing in the solar
system.
9 There are nine _________ in the solar
system.
10 The Earth is heavier than the Moon. The
Moon is ___________ than the Earth.
11 Captain Yang Liwei became the _________
Chinese man in space.
Down
1 The first planet is the __________ planet
because it is nearest to the Sun.
2 The River Nile is the ___________ river on
Earth.
4 The Moon is lighter than the Earth. The
Earth is __________ than the Moon.
5 The Earth is __________ than the Moon.
7 Yuri Gagarin was the first man in _________.
12 The __________ is the brightest thing in
the Solar system.
COMPARISON - Repeat the rules for comparison of adjectives and complete this table
soft
easier
the most difficult
convenient
large
farther
further
19
THE ELECTRIC CURRENT
We have already noted that like, or similar charges repel each other, whereas unlike, or opposite
charges attract each other. Thus, charged particles within a material are in the state of constant
movement. But, when some external forces act on them, these charged particles may be made to
move continuously in the same direction for some time. Such continuous movement is an electric
current.
In 1862, Georg Simon Ohm, a German scientist, first established reliable and experimentally proved
facts about electricity. He found the connection between the three values on which the transfer of
electricity from one end of the conductor to the other depends. These three values,
electromotive force
current and
resistance
led to the postulation of the fundamental law in electricity: Ohm’s law.
Figure 2 - Difference between amounts of potential energy makes electrons flow through a conductor
Electromotive force (abbreviated EMF), usually called voltage (V), is the force or pressure that moves
electrons through a conductor. If electrons are piled at one end of the conductor, and if there are fewer
electrons at the other end, the excess of electrons will flow toward the point of deficiency, i.e. the
current will flow through the conductor from the negative end to the positive one. The unit of the
electromotive force is the volt, V, named after the Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta.
The flow of electrons from one end of the conductor to the other is not always the same. On their way,
they collide with atoms and molecules, atoms and molecules oppose them and that property of the
conductor is called electric resistance. The greater the number of free electrons in the conductor, the
lower is its resistance.
Most metals are good conductors, but the resistance of a conductor does not depend only on the
material of which the conductor is made. It also depends on the cross-section of the conductor. The
greater the cross-section, the lower is the resistance of the conductor. The third element is the length
of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the greater is its resistance. And at last, there is the
temperature of the substance. If the temperature of a metal wire is higher, the resistance will be
higher. The unit of the resistance is the ohm, Ω, named in the honour of G. S. Ohm.
I stands for intensity, strength or amount of current. It is, in fact, determined by the number or
quantity of electrons which pass through the cross-section of a conductor per unit of time. The
intensity depends upon the potential difference, and the resistance of the conductor. The greater the
potential difference, the larger the quantity of electrons flowing through the conductor – the greater
the resistance, the smaller the quantity of electrons. The unit of the intensity is the ampere, A, named
for a French scientist, André Ampère. The relationship between the voltage (V), the current (I), and
the resistance (R) is stated in Ohm’s law:
20
𝐼=
𝑉
𝑅
The greater the electromotive force (R = constant), the greater will be the current.
The greater the resistance (V = constant) the smaller the current.
The current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
How do like/unlike charges behave?
What happens when some external forces start acting on charged particles within the material?
What is an electric current?
What did G. S. Ohm find?
What is voltage?
How do electrons flow through a conductor?
What makes electrons move through a conductor?
What is resistance?
Explain the relationship between the number of free electrons in the conductor and its resistance.
What does the resistance of a conductor depend on?
How does the resistance of a conductor depend on:
a) the material of which the conductor is made,
b) the cross-section,
c) the length and
d) the temperature?
12) What does the symbol “I” stand for?
13) What is the intensity of the current determined by?
14) State Ohm’s law.
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
CURRENT KILLS
Electric devices and circuits can be dangerous. Safe practices are necessary to prevent shock, fires,
explosions, mechanical damage, and injuries resulting from the improper use of tools.
Perhaps the greatest of these hazards is electrical shock. A current through the human body in excess
of 10 milliamperes can paralyse the victim and make it impossible to let go of a “live” conductor. Ten
milliamperes is a small amount of electrical flow: It is ten on one thousandths of an ampere. An ordinary
flashlight uses more than 100 times that amount of current! If a shock victim is exposed to currents
over 100 milliamperes, the shock is often fatal. This is still far less current than the flashlight uses.
A flashlight cell can deliver more than enough current to kill a human being. Yet it is safe to handle a
flashlight cell because the resistance of human skin normally will be high enough to greatly limit the
flow of electric current. Human skin usually has a resistance of several hundred thousand ohms. In lowvoltage systems, a high resistance restricts current flow to very low values. Thus, there is little danger
of an electrical shock.
21
High voltage, on the other hand, can force enough current through the skin to produce a shock. The
danger of harmful shock increases as the voltage increases. Those who work on very high-voltage
circuits must use special equipment and procedures for protection.
When human skin is moist or cut, its resistance can drop to several hundred ohms. Much less voltage
is then required to produce a shock. Potentials as low as 40 volts can produce a fatal shock if the skin
is broken! Although most technicians and electrical workers refer to 40 volts as a low voltage, it does
not necessarily mean safe voltage. Obviously, you should be very cautious even when working with
the so-called low voltages.
Safety is an attitude; safety is knowledge. Safe workers are not fooled by terms such as low voltage.
They do not assume protective devices are working. They do not assume a circuit is off even though
the switch is in the OFF position. They know that the switch can be defective. Before they act, they
investigate, they follow procedures, when in doubt, they do not act, and they consult their instructor.
PUT IN THE MISSING WORDS (the same words may be used several times)
negative electron(s) battery flow attract positive pump terminal repel current
negatively components
circuit
An electric current is a _______________ of ________________ charged particles called
________________ flowing through the wires and electronic _________________ built-in the electric
________________. It can be compared to the _______________ of water through pipes, radiators
etc.
As water is pushed through pipes by a _________________, electric current is pushed through
wires by a _______________.
Like charges___________________ each other and unlike charges __________________. Two
negatives will __________________ each other. A ________________ and a ________________ will
_____________ each other.
The negative terminal of a battery will push _______________ along a wire. The positive terminal of a
battery will _______________________ negative ______________________ along a wire. Electric
_______________ will therefore flow from the _______________ terminal of a battery, through the
lamp, to the positive ________________.
Last Request
A murderer, sitting in the electric chair, was about to be executed.
"Have you any last requests?" asked the Chaplain.
"Yes," replied the murderer. "Will you hold my hand?"
22
THE EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
The effects of an electric current are thermal, luminous, chemical and magnetic. When a current flows
through a conductor it may heat the conductor. This heat is sometimes undesirable and has to be
reduced. For this reason many electric motors and generators contain a fan. However, domestic
appliances, such as electric cookers, and many industrial processes depend on the heating effect of an
electric current. The passage of a current may produce light. This can happen in a number of ways.
The heat generated by the current may be so great that the conductor becomes incandescent. For
example, the filament of a light bulb emits intense white light when heated by a current. Light is also
produced when a current ionizes a gas. The colour of the light will vary according to the gas used.
Mercury vapour lamps give a greenish-blue light. An electric current can separate a chemical
compound into its components. This is called electrolysis. Chlorine is generated by the electrolysis of
salt water. Electrolysis can also be used to break down water into hydrogen and oxygen. Because pure
water does not conduct well, sulphuric acid has to be added before the electrolysis takes place.
A current flowing through a conductor creates a magnetic field around it. This field has three
applications. It can magnetize magnetic materials and attract them to the conductor. The electric relay
works on this principle. If the magnetic field is cut by another conductor, an electromotive force will
be induced in that conductor. For instance, the change in current flowing through the primary of a
transformer will induce a current in the secondary. This principle is also used in generators. Thirdly, if
a current-carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, a force will be exerted on it. This effect is
utilized in the electric motor.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
incandescence – emission of visible radiation by a heated object, such as a lamp filament heated by
electric current
ionization – a process by which a neutral atom or molecule loses or gains electrons, thereby acquiring
a net charge and becoming an ion; it can be produced by collision of particles, i.e. by collisions between
electrons and residual gas molecules in an electron tube (=ionization current or gas current), by
radiation, and by other means
electrolysis – the production of chemical changes by passing current from an electrode to an
electrolyte, or vice versa
primary winding – symbol P, the transformer winding that receives signal energy or AC power from a
source; also called primary
secondary winding – symbol S, a transformer winding that receives energy by electromagnetic
induction from the primary winding. A transformer may have several secondary windings, and they
may provide AC voltages that are higher, lower, or the same as that applied to the primary winding;
also called secondary.
electromagnetic induction – the production of a voltage in a coil by a change in the number of
magnetic lines of force passing through the coil
23
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What effects does an electric current produce?
2. What happens when an electric current passes through a conductor?
3. Why does the heat produced by an electric current have to be reduced and how can it be
reduced?
4. Why does the conductor become incandescent when the current passes through it?
5. What happens when a current ionizes a gas?
6. What is electrolysis?
7. What does a current flowing through a conductor create around it?
8. What are the three applications of the magnetic field?
24
SCRAMBLED SENTENCES (begin the sentence with the word in a capital letter):
1. through, causes, changes, a liquid, current, The passage of, an electric, chemical
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. current, Hans Christian Oersted, was, The magnetic, discovered, by, in, effect of, 1820, an electric,
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. electrolysis, application of, Electroplating, a common, is,
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. electric motors, voltmeters, many, current, electromagnets, applications, loudspeakers, effect of, an
electric, has, The magnetic, e.g., etc.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. explains, current, Ohm’s, the relationship, voltage, existing, Law, between, resistance, and
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
6. Ohm’s Law says: a circuit, proportional, voltage, The current, in, directly, proportional, is, resistance,
and, to the amount of, inversely, of, to the applied
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
7. around, When, a magnetic, current, through, formed, a wire, flows, the wire, around, is, field
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
8. Joule effect is, effect, by the flow of, through, a resistance, the heating, of current, produced,
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. containing, heat, in a circuit, resistors, current, in, An electric, generates
_________________________________________________________________________________
25
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
In the same way as water flows from a point of high potential energy to a point of low potential energy
(i.e. from full to empty), so the electric current flows from a high-potential (excess of electrons) to a
low-potential point (deficiency of electrons). The current may flow through solid conductors, liquids,
gases, a vacuum or any combinations of these and that path of the electric current is called the electric
circuit.
The simplest electric circuit contains only three parts, i.e. one load, one voltage source, and one control
device. Most complete electric circuits contain six parts:
1. an energy source to provide the voltage needed to force current (electrons) through the
circuit,
2. conductors through which the current can travel,
3. insulators to confine the current to the desired paths,
4. a load to control the amount of current and convert the electric energy taken from the energy
source
5. a control device, often a switch, to start and stop the flow of current and
6. a protection device to interrupt the circuit in case of a circuit malfunction.
Examples of energy sources are dry cells, accumulators, or generators. Conductors are wires, cables,
or other bodies or medium suitable for carrying electric current. An insulator is a device that has high
electric resistance, for supporting or separating conductors to prevent undesired flow of current from
the conductors to other objects. A load is a device that consumes electric power, e.g. lamps, motors,
household appliances etc. A control device, often a switch, is used to start or stop the flow of current.
A protective device, i.e. a fuse, which is inserted in series with the circuit being protected, opens the
circuit automatically during a serious overload.
These devices, as well as conductors, offer some resistance to the current. It may be high or low and
depends on the type of the circuit and the kind of load that has been used. We have already learned
what the resistance of a conductor depends on, so now several general types of circuits and their
schematic diagrams will be considered.
Basic types of circuits differed by the type of the connection are a series circuit, a parallel circuit, and
a complex circuit (e.g. series parallel circuit). The series circuit offers a single, continuous, path for
current flow from the negative side of the electromotive force source to the positive one. The pieces
of equipment or different electrical devices are connected by wires that give only one path to follow.
In the diagram of a simple circuit Fig. 3, the symbol on the left indicates the source of electric current,
and the symbol on the right indicates the source of resistance, e.g. a light bulbs. The arrows indicate
the electron flow.
Figure 3 - A schemnatic representing a simple electrical circuit
Fig. 4 shows how two or more bulbs can be connected in a series circuit. Since the current has only one
path to follow, all the lights in the circuit will go out if even one bulb burns out.
26
Figure 4 - A series circuit with three resistors
In a parallel circuit, two or more bulbs are placed parallel to each other so that the current has more
than one path through which it can flow. In that way, as it is shown in the Fig. 5, the current is divided
up among the three resistors. If one burns out, the current will flow through the other two. Household
electricity is connected by parallel circuits so that the whole circuit does not fail if one piece of electrical
equipment burns out.
The two kinds of circuits can also be used together in a
series parallel circuit. The Figures 6 and 7 show two possible
arrangements. In order to set up a circuit, it is necessary to
have sufficient voltage for overcoming the resistance. Here,
Ohm’s law becomes a useful and necessary tool for
electrical engineers.
Electrical circuits have to be protected. If there are too
many electrical devices, the conducting wire may overheat
and cause fire or serious injuries. To prevent this, fuses,
Figure 5 - A parallel circuit
through which all the current in the circuits passes, are built
into the circuits.
A fuse is an intentionally weakened element that opens the
circuit automatically if it is overloaded. It has a wire with a low melting point and when the fuse heats
up, the wire melts and the circuit is broken.
Figure 7 - A series parallel circuit
Figure 6 - A parallel series circuit
27
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
circuit - arrangement of one or more complete paths for electron flow; a closed loop of conductors
through which charges can flow
electromotive force – the force that tends to produce an electric current in a circuit, usually called
voltage
resistance – the opposition that a device or material offers to the flow of electrical current
series circuit – a circuit in which all parts are connected end to end to provide a single path for the
current
parallel circuit – a circuit in which the same voltage is applied to all components, and the current is
divided among the components according to their resistances and impedances
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Why can the flow of electric current be compared to the flow of water?
What is an electric circuit?
What does the simplest electric circuit contain?
What are the six parts that most complete electric circuits consist of?
Give a few examples for each of them?
What do all these devices offer to the current flow?
What does the resistance of the conductor depend on?
What types of electric circuits are there?
What is a series circuit?
What happens if one bulb in a series circuit burns out?
What happens if one bulb in a parallel circuit burns out?
Why is household electricity connected by parallel circuits?
Why must electric circuits be protected?
What is a fuse and what is its function?
SERIES vs. SERIAL
series circuit
serial access
series coil
serial killer
series connection
serial number
series element
serial port
series feed
serial printer
series loading
serial server
series motor
serial transmission
AN ELECTRICAL JOKE
Any circuit design must contain at least one part that is obsolete, two parts that are
unobtainable and three parts that are still under development.
28
PUT THE FOLLOWING WORDS IN THE RIGHT COLUMNS
(Join the load and its source and add some of your own):
amplifier output, amplifier, battery, bicycle, cooker, dynamo, lamp, lathe, legs, loudspeaker,
microphone, motor, supply
SOURCE
LOAD
FINISH THE SENTENCES:
1. A small wire or device inside a piece of electrical equipment that breaks and stops current if
the flow of electricity is too strong is a _______________________.
2. The complete path of wires and equipment along which an electric current flows is a
_________________________.
3. A circuit in which all parts are connected end to end to provide a single path for current is a
________________________.
4. Household appliances are connected by ___________________ circuits.
5. A manual or mechanically actuated device for making, breaking, or changing the connections
in an electric circuit is a ____________________.
6. A drawing which uses only symbols to show how components are connected together is a
_______ _________________ (two words).
7. A substance through which electric charges can easily flow is called a _________________.
8. A device for producing electrical current by moving a coil of wire in a magnetic field is a
_________.
29
TRUE or FALSE
In series circuits:
a) the voltage drops across each resistor
b) the current changes as it passes through each individual resistor
c) the voltage always remains the same
d) the current is the same at any particular point on the circuit
e) the total resistance is the sum of individual resistors
________
________
________
________
________
In parallel circuits:
a) the current in one branch will not be the same as in other branches unless all the resistances
are the same
________
b) the voltage is not the same for each branch
________
c) the sum of the current in each individual branch will add up to give the total current of the
circuit
________
d) the voltage is the same for each branch
________
e) the voltage differs from the voltage of the power source
________
30
CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS
In electrical engineering materials may be classified into three groups, i.e. conducting materials,
insulating materials and semi conducting materials depending on their ability to conduct electricity.
The first category includes conductors, i.e. materials which provide an easy path for an electric current.
Conductors are materials that obey Ohm’s law and have very low resistance. We have already
mentioned the electron theory which states that all matter is composed of atoms. Atoms consist of a
small positive nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Conductors are materials where some of
these electrons are free to move. These free electrons, considered identical to the outermost, or
valence electrons, are not constrained to remain in a particular atom. They are able to move freely in
matter or a vacuum when an external electric field acts on them. The electric conductivity of the
material is dependent upon the atomic structure of the material of which the conductors are made.
Normally, conductors have three or less valence electrons, insulators have five or more and
semiconductors usually have four valence electrons. To end up with, the materials in which it is easy
to get electrons to move and provide a flow of electric current, are conductors. They are mostly metals,
such as copper, aluminium, silver, gold, etc.
Copper and copper-based alloys are unique in their desirable combination of physical and mechanical
properties. Due to their high electrical and thermal conductivity, they are very important in electrical
industry. Copper is widely used for cables, transformer windings etc. Although silver is a slightly better
conductor than copper, it is too expensive for common use. Aluminium is not as good conductor as
copper, but it is cheaper and lighter. It is resistant to atmospheric weathering and today it is the
dominant metal for the transmission lines of electrical energy.
Materials which offer high resistance to current flow are called insulators. Even the best insulators do
release an occasional free electron to serve as a current carrier. However, for most practical purposes
we consider an insulator to be a material that allows no current flow through it. Common insulator
materials used in electrical devices are paper, wood, plastics, rubber, glass etc. Notice that common
insulators are not pure elements. They are materials in which two or more elements are joined
together to form a new substance. In the process of joining together, elements share their valence
electrons. This sharing of valence electrons is called covalent bonding. It takes a lot of added energy to
break an electron free of a covalent bond.
Between the extremes of conductors and insulators is a group of materials known as semiconductors.
The basic property of a semiconductor is given by its name - it “conducts a little bit”. A semiconductor
will carry electric current, but not easily as a normal conductor. Semiconductors are midway between
conductors and insulators. They are neither good conductors nor good insulators. Under certain
conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as insulators. Germanium
and silicon are semiconductors. The total conductivity in semi conducting materials is the sum of
electron current and hole current. Semiconductors are extremely important industrial materials, they
are materials from which electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, and solar
cells are manufactured. Without them modern electronic technology would not be possible, it would
be even inconceivable.
31
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
electrical conductivity - the ability of a material to conduct an electric current, as measured by the
current per unit of applied voltage; it is the reciprocal of resistivity
electrical resistance - the measure of the difficulty of the electric current to pass through a given
material; its unit is the ohm (Ω)
conduction band - the unfilled energy levels into which electrons can be excited to become conductive
electrons; a band that when occupied by mobile electrons, permits their net movement in a particular
direction, producing the flow of electricity through the solid
dopant or doping agent - an impurity element added to a semiconductor material under precisely
controlled conditions to create PN junctions required for transistors and semiconductor diodes
integrated circuit (IC) - a single semiconductor chip or wafer which contains thousands or millions of
circuit elements per square centimetre
transistor (Transfer resistor) - an active semiconductor device that has three or more electrodes, i.e.
emitter, base and collector; it can perform practically all the functions of tubes, including amplification
and rectification
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
What materials are there in electrical engineering?
According to what has this classification been made?
What are conductors?
How many valence electrons do conductors have?
What metals are considered good conductors?
What are the most important properties of copper?
What is copper used for?
Say something about silver and aluminium.
Why is aluminium used for open wire lines?
What is an insulator?
Name some insulators.
What are semiconductors?
What is the difference between conductors and semiconductors regarding total conductivity?
What are semiconductors used for?
A hydrogen atom lost its electron and went to the police station to file a
missing electron report. He was questioned by the police: "Haven't you just
misplaced it somewhere? Are you sure that your electron is really lost?"
"I'm positive" replied the atom.
A neutron walks into a bar. "I'd like a beer" he says.
The bartender promptly serves up a beer. "How much will that be?" asks the
neutron.
"For you?" replies the bartender, "no charge."
32
FILL IN THE MISSING WORDS
(some words may be used more than once)
aluminum atomic bars conductivity conductor copper electricity gold
insulators made metals power lines resistance sheets silver spans supports
tubes weight wire
1. The electrical ___________________ of matter is dependent upon the _________________
structure of the material from which the _____________________ is _________________.
2. ____________________ have an extremely high ______________________ to the flow of
_____________________.
3. Some __________________ are better conductors of ___________________ than others.
4. _______________ is the best conductor,
________________ and _____________________.
followed
by
__________________,
5. _____________________ is used where ____________________ is a major consideration,
such as high-tension _________________ ___________________, with long
__________________ between ___________________.
6. Conductors are usually found in the form of ______________________, but may be in the
forms of ____________________, ______________________ or ____________________
33
BATTERIES and CAPACITORS
Put simply, to produce electric current, electrons are needed and the device which does that and which
even young children are very well familiar with is a battery. Batteries are cans full of chemicals that
produce electrons. Chemical reactions that produce electrons are called electrochemical reactions.
Batteries are used everywhere. Beside in electronic toys, you can find them in our cars, our PCs,
laptops, portable MP3 players and cell phones.
A battery has two terminals. One terminal is marked
(+), or positive, while the other is marked (-), or
negative. In an AA, C or D cell (normal flashlight
batteries), the ends of the battery are the terminals. In
a large car battery, there are two heavy lead posts that
act as the terminals.
Electrons collect on the negative terminal of the
battery. If a wire is connected between the negative
and positive terminals, the electrons will flow from the
negative to the positive terminal as fast as they can.
Normally, some type of load is connected to the
battery using the wire. The load might be something
Figure 8 - Battery connected to a load
like a light bulb, a motor or an electronic circuit like a
radio (Fig 8).
A chemical reaction inside the battery itself produces the electrons. The speed of electron production
by this chemical reaction (the battery's internal resistance) controls how many electrons can flow
between the terminals. Once you connect a wire, the reaction starts. Electrons flow from the battery
into a wire, and must travel from the negative to the positive terminal for the chemical reaction to
take place.
In 1800, the first battery was created by Alessandro Volta and the arrangement of that first battery
was called after him - a voltaic pile. He made a stack by alternating layers of zinc, blotting paper soaked
in salt water, and silver, like this shown in Figure 9.
The top and bottom layers of the pile must be different metals. If a wire
is attached to the top and bottom of the pile, a voltage and a current
from the pile can be measured. If the pile is higher, each layer will
increase the voltage by a fixed amount.
In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in
completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical
energy. A capacitor is a much simpler device, and as distinguished from
the battery, it cannot produce new electrons, it can only store them. This
property of the capacitor is called capacitance. Let us find out what a
capacitor is and how it is used in electronics.
Just like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. The terminals are
Figure 9 - Voltaic pile
connected to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. A dielectric is a
material that can serve as an insulator because it has poor electric
conductivity, e.g. it can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and
keeps the plates from touching each other.
34
When a capacitor is connected to a battery (Fig. 10), the
plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative
terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is
producing, whereas the plate on the capacitor that attaches
to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the
battery.
When the capacitor is charged, it has the same voltage as
the battery (1.5 volts on the battery means 1.5 volts on the
capacitor). Large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge.
For example, when there is lightning in the sky, what you
see is a huge capacitor where one plate is the cloud and the Figure 10 - Battery charging a capacitor
other plate is the ground, and the lightning is the charge
releasing between these two "plates."
If a light bulb is connected into the circuit in Fig. 10 and if the capacitor is pretty big, the light bulb
would light up as current flows from the battery to the capacitor to charge it up. The bulb would get
progressively dimmer and finally go out once the capacitor reached its capacity. Then the battery is
removed and replaced with a wire. Current would flow from one plate of the capacitor to the other.
The light bulb would light and then get dimmer and dimmer, finally going out once the capacitor had
completely discharged (the same number of electrons on both plates).
The unit of capacitance is a farad. Let us see how big 1 farad is. Plates would be 1130 km2 each, the
distance between them would be 1 cm, and dielectric would be air. In practice the unit is too big.
Therefore capacitors are measured in microfarads (millionths of a farad).
The difference between a capacitor and a battery is that a capacitor can dump its entire charge in a
tiny fraction of a second, whereas a battery would take minutes to completely discharge itself. That is
the reason why the electronic flash on a camera uses a capacitor. The battery charges up the flash
capacitor over several seconds, and then the capacitor dumps the full charge into the flash tube almost
instantly. This can make a large, charged capacitor extremely dangerous. Flash units and TVs have
warnings about opening them up for this reason. They contain big capacitors that can, potentially, kill
you with the charge they contain.
Capacitors are used to store charge for high-speed use, e.g. a flash, or big lasers to get very bright,
instantaneous flashes. They eliminate ripples. If a line carrying DC voltage has ripples or spikes in it, a
big capacitor can even out the voltage by absorbing the peaks and filling in the valleys. A capacitor can
block DC voltage. If you hook a small capacitor to a battery, then no current will flow between the
poles of the battery once the capacitor charges (which are instantaneous if the capacitor is small).
However, any alternating current (AC) signal flows through a capacitor unimpeded. That's because the
capacitor will charge and discharge as the alternating current fluctuates, making it appear that the
alternating current is flowing.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What is a battery?
How are electrons produced?
Describe the process going on inside a battery.
When and who created the first battery?
What did the voltaic pile look like?
What is the difference between the battery and the capacitor?
What is dielectric?
35
8.
9.
10.
11.
What happens when a capacitor is connected to a battery?
What is the unit of capacitance?
Why are capacitors measured in microfarads?
What are capacitors used for?
FILL IN THE GAPS WITH THE WORDS FROM THE BOX
batteries
cells
chemical
environmental
once
pollution
recycled
reversible
source
discharged
disposable
ecology
reaction
rechargeable
recharged
use up
wearing out
widespread
A battery is a DC voltage _______________ and consists of one or more _______________ which
convert _______________ energy into electric energy. There are two types of _______________.
These are primary or ________________ and secondary or _______________. Primary batteries can
only be used ________________ because they ________________ their chemicals in an irreversible
_______________. Secondary batteries can be ________________ because the chemical reactions
they use are _________________; they are recharged by running a charging current through a battery.
Secondary batteries are called rechargeable because they can be charged and _______________ many
times before wearing out. The ________________ use of batteries has created many
_______________ problems, such as toxic metal _________________. But, when ________________
is concerned, it is important that after _______________ some batteries can be ________________.
MAKE SENTENCES CONNECTING NUMBERS AND LETTERS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
A battery is …
There are two different types of cells …
Cells change …
Primary cells are thrown away …
Secondary cells …
The Zinc-carbon cell consists …
The zinc is …
Millions of cells are used every year …
The NiCad cell has a nickel anode …
Nickel-cadmium cells are …
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
… when the chemicals they contain are used up.
… the negative electrode.
… of zinc can which contains two chemicals.
… expensive, but can be recharged hundreds of times.
… in radios, torches, and tape recorders.
… a number of cells linked together.
… a cadmium cathode, and an alkaline electrolyte.
… chemical energy into electricity.
… called primary and secondary cell.
… can be recharged and used again and again.
36
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems provide a means of replacing human operators in many industrial processes. They are
widely used to monitor and control pressure, temperature, motor speed, the flow of a liquid, or any
other physical variable. They must be capable of fulfilling a number of functions. First, the physical
variable to be controlled, such as the air temperature in a factory or the pressure of the hydraulic
system, must be measured. Then its value must be compared with the desired value. Next, action has
to be taken to reduce to zero the difference between the actual and desired value.
The basic components of a control system are an input transducer, an error sensor, a controller and
an output transducer. The input transducer converts changes in the physical variable into electrical
signals.
Fig. 11 shows one type of transducer which converts changes in pressure to frequency changes.
Pressure changes move the diaphragm in or out, thus altering the position of the ferrite core in L 1
which forms part of a tuned circuit. This causes the frequency of the circuit to change, thus altering
the output frequency of the oscillator. The output is then fed to an error sensor. The error sensor
measures the deviation between the actual and desired values for the variable.
The controller receives the error sensor output and uses it to control the variable either directly or
indirectly. A simple controller is an electromagnetic relay which uses a small signal to control a much
larger signal such as a power supply output.
The output transducer converts the electrical output from the controller into whatever form of energy
is required to change the physical variable. It may be a valve, a heater, a motor or any electrically
operated piece of equipment. An example is a motor-operated valve which controls the flow of fluid
in a pipeline.
Let us take as an example a process system for controlling the speed of a DC motor. The input
transducer measures the speed and converts it into a voltage. The error sensor compares this voltage
with the voltage across a speed-setting potentiometer. The error sensor output is fed to the controller
which sends a signal to the power supply of the motor. This increases or reduces the supply of current
to the motor, thus controlling its speed.
The operation of a process control system is summarised in Fig. 12 which shows a closed-loop system.
In such a system the results of the action of the controller are constantly fed back to it
Figure 11
37
Figure 12
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What does a control system provide?
Why are process control systems so important when human operators are considered?
What must a process control system be capable of doing?
What are the basic components of a control system?
Compare an input transducer with an output transducer.
What is the function of an error sensor?
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
THE DC MOTOR
An electric motor is a machine for converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. Motors can be
designed to run on direct (dc) or alternating current (ac). Let’s first discuss the main features of a dc
motor. Its’ most important parts are the rotor, the stator and the brush-gear.
The rotor is the moving part. It contains an armature, which is a set of wire loops wound on a steel
core. The armature and core are mounted on a shaft which runs on bearings. It provides a means of
transmitting power from the motor.
The rotor also contains a commutator. This consists of a number of copper segments insulated from
one another. The armature windings are connected with the commutator. Brushes are contacts made
of mechanically soft material and glide on the commentator surface, enabling the current flow through
the armature windings. As the rotor turns, the commutator acts as a switch making the current in the
armature alternate.
The stator does not move. It consists of magnetic and electrical conductors. The magnetic circuit is
made up of the frame and the poles. The field coils are wound round the poles. These form the stator’s
electrical circuit. When current is fed to them, a magnetic field is set up in the machine.
The motor operates on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, a force is produced on the conductor. The interaction of the forces produced by the magnetic
field of the rotor and the stator makes the rotor spin.
38
JOKES
NOT GUILTY!
Every day, an English teacher was seen coming out of the rest room with a marker, used for writing. In
the rest room, there were expressions and graffiti written on the walls. It was very bad and the director
of the college decided he would ask the teacher to come to his office. When the teacher came into the
office, the director told the teacher that it was terrible of him to write those things on the walls. The
teacher said that he was not the one writing those things. All that the teacher did was to correct the
grammar.
YEAH, RIGHT!
A linguistics professor was lecturing his class the other day. "In English," he said, "a double negative
forms a positive. However, in some languages, such as Croatian, a double negative remains a negative.
But there isn't a single language, not one, in which a double positive can express a negative."
A voice from the back of the room retorted, "Yeah, right."
WHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE HAS NOT TAUGHT YOU
 There are at least 10 types of capacitors.
 Theory tells you how a circuit works, not why it does not work.
 Anything practical you learn will be obsolete before you use it, except the complex math, which
you will never use.
 Engineering is like having an 8 a.m. class and a late afternoon lab every day for the rest of your
life.
 Overtime pay? What overtime pay?
 Managers, not engineers, rule the world.
 Always try to fix the hardware with software.
 If you like junk food, caffeine and all-nighters, go into software.
A PUN5
Why couldn’t Cinderella be a good soccer player?
She lost her shoe, she ran away from the ball, and her coach was a pumpkin.
5pun
= igra riječi
39
MACHINE TRANSLATION –YES or NO
It is no big deal to go out and buy a machine translation system, the price being £100 up to £100,000
or even more. The question is, “Is the system going to be good or not? Machine translation systems,
abbreviated MT systems do not actually translate: they merely help translators to translate. There are
very expensive systems, but even they will come out with something that would need to be checked
and corrected. Otherwise, the translation will be nothing but laughable stuff.
Let us just see a few examples to illustrate the problems MT system would have to cope with
translating them:
1. I bought a set of six chairs.
4. We set off for London in the morning.
2. The sun set at 9 p.m.
5. She had her hair set for the party.
3. He set a book on the table.
6. The VCR is on the television set.
When human translators see sentences like the above ones, they do not have any problems at all. What about
the machine? Would the machine be able to make the difference between the six 6 meanings of “set”, not to
mention the difference between “set” as a noun and “set” as a verb? No, at least not yet. Some experts say not
before artificial intelligence7 (AI) becomes the tool used for translating, or when AI becomes reality. John
McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as “the science and engineering of making intelligent
machines.“ Now another question arises: “When will artificial intelligence in this field become reality?” Ever?
Never? Shall we witness the revolutionary “invention”, its application and results? Its benefits? Shall we not need
human translators any more? Shall we just press the magic key on our keyboard and “ask” the program to
translate the text without further evaluation?
So far, all machine-translated texts have had to be extensively post-edited (and often pre-edited) by experienced
translators. It is true that MT systems do save time, but the output is still questionable. Although the MT
manufacturers keep advertising that their machines are “a 100% increase in translation speed”, scepticism
remains. Translators’ word is the last word just like in one of the jokes about two husbands arguing and boasting
about whose is the last word in their marriages. One asked the other: “Is it true that you always have the last
word in any argument with your wife?” “Yes,” said the other. “It’s: Yes, darling.”
Nevertheless, scientists do not give up. Some time ago, translators, system developers, academics, and others
from Europe, the USA, Canada, China, and Japan met for the first time in a Swiss hotel to mull over 8 MT matters.
In spite of surprisingly large number of governmental and corporate organisations that have conducted
expensive and elaborate evaluations of MT systems, they have not been able to offer programs and devices for
machine translation. They agree upon several problems common to all MT systems, like error analysis9, or bugs10.
However, there are other as well, e.g. linguistic, cultural, and a lot more. For example, which type of error is
worse? What is more important – gender agreement11 or correct number? Counting errors and summing up
figures for a suitably large sample of text, do not give solutions. It is quite clear that, if one system produces far
more errors than the other one, it is obviously inferior. Let us not think about MT systems that produce different
types of error in the same overall numbers. However, if we do, another question comes up: which type of error
is worse? Some errors cost translators more effort to correct, but it requires a lot more work to find out which.
An example from Canada showed a funny evaluation problem. After a large commercial MT system had been
evaluated and errors analysed the finding was everything but encouraging. As the system’s suspicious
6
there are only six meanings here; „set“ either as a verb or a noun has got several hundreds of meanings
AI is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it
8 mull over – think carefully about
9 error analysis – various types of errors a MT system produces
10
bug – a fault in a machine, especially in a computer system or program, e.g. the Millennium bug
11 gender in Croatian vs. gender in English!
7
40
development manager had feared, there was not only any significant improvement, but the latest version was
worse.
Therefore, good human translators produce good translations while all MT systems produce bad translations.
However, just what is a good translation? One traditional assessment technique involves a bunch of people
scoring translations on various scales for intelligibility (“Does this translation into English make sense as a piece
of English?”); accuracy (“Does this piece of English give the same information as the French original?”); style, and
so on. However, such assessment is expensive, and designing scales is something of a black art.
Although properly designed and integrated MT systems really ought to help and enhance the translator’s life,
only the following conclusion is acceptable: “The price of MT systems varies greatly, none actually translates,
and so all machine translations need to be edited by a human translator.”
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
What do you think about the machine translation?
Why is it so important to find the way to produce MT systems?
What is your experience when translation is concerned?
What do you do when you need help to translate something?
How many foreign languages should Croatian students learn?
When should Croatian children begin to learn foreign languages?
Do you think that some languages are more important than the others are?
Why?
How many languages are there in Europe?
How many foreign languages do people in the European Union speak?
Which idea do you support, one official language for all people in Europe or more?
Which language do you find most important in Europe?
How many foreign languages do you speak?
SILLY TRANSLATIONS make CRAZY LABELS
Below are extracts from real labels and instructions on real products. Smile!
On a blanket from Taiwan:
On a string of Chinese-made Christmas lights:
NOT TO BE USED AS PROTECTION FROM A
FOR INDOOR OR OUTDOOR USE ONLY
TORNADO
On Sainsbury's peanuts:
On the bottle-top of a flavoured milk drink:
WARNING - CONTAINS NUTS
AFTER OPENING, KEEP UPRIGHT
On an American Airlines packet of nuts:
On a New Zealand insect spray:
INSTRUCTIONS - OPEN PACKET, EAT NUTS
THIS PRODUCT NOT TESTED ON ANIMALS
On Marks & Spencer's Bread & Butter Pudding:
On an American Sears hairdryer:
PRODUCT WILL BE HOT AFTER HEATING
DO NOT USE WHILE SLEEPING
On packaging for a Rowenta iron:
On Tesco's Tiramisu dessert (printed on bottom of
DO NOT IRON CLOTHES ON BODY
the box):
DO NOT TURN UPSIDE DOWN
On a child's Superman costume:
WEARING OF THIS GARMENT DOES NOT ENABLE
On a Korean kitchen knife:
YOU TO FLY
WARNING: KEEP OUT OF CHILDREN
41
LET’S HAVE SOME FUN “TRANSLATING”
BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
The words in italics in the sentences are American English. Complete the crosswords by writing down the British
words for them:
Across →
3
5
10
11
12
15
16
19
20
24
26
27
The best way of getting about New York is by subway.
Do you feel like watching a movie tonight?
Would you like a cookie with your coffee?
There is a can of tomato soup if you are hungry.
He took out a hundred dollar bill and gave it to the salesperson.
We are driving to France in the summer. Do you know how much gasoline costs over there?
I cannot decide whether to wear a vest with my suit or not.
If you’re good,” said the baby-sitter to the small child, “I’ll let you have some candy later on.”
I am afraid Mrs Collins is not here this week. She is on vacation.
The mother told her young child to get off the road and walk on the sidewalk.
“Have you remembered to take your credit card with you, Doris?” - “Yes, it’s in my purse.”
A streetcar is far better for the environment than a bus - especially diesel buses.
42
Down ↓
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
13
14
17
18
21
22
23
25
Our German course does not start until the fall.
Throw this broken vase into the trashcan.
“Where are the children?” – They’re playing outside in the yard, I think.”
How much do you pay each month for your apartment?
When I was a child, I always wanted to be a truck driver.
There was a terrible accident on the freeway this morning.
What happened to that small store at the corner of Fourth Avenue?
In Britain, you are expected to stand in line for a bus.
“Has the mailman been yet?” – “Yes, but I’m afraid there was nothing for you.”
We will have to use the stairs; the elevator is out of order.
Call the janitor; there is something wrong with the radiator.
“Waiter, could I have the check, please?”
She was not looking where she was going and bumped into a streetlight.
I need some new drapes for the bedroom window.
“Have you seen my green skirt, John?” – “It’s in your closet, I think.”
We can play poker if someone has a deck of cards.
A JOKE
One day a student was taking a very difficult essay exam. At the end of the test, the professor asked
all the students to put their pencils down and immediately hand in their tests. The young man kept
writing furiously, although he was warned that if he did not stop immediately he would be disqualified.
He ignored the warning, finished the test 10 minutes later, and went to hand the test to his instructor.
The instructor told him he would not take the test.
The student asked, “Do you know who I am?”
The professor said, “No and I don’t care.”
The student asked again, “Are you sure you don’t know who I am?”
The professor again said he did not. Therefore, the student walked over to the pile of tests and placed
his in the middle.
“Good” the student said, and walked out. He passed.
43
FROM CAMERA TO SCREEN
A television camera contains a lens
system which is used to focus an image
of the object on to the face of the
camera tube. This tube contains a
photo-cathode which emits electrons
in response to light. The brighter the
light from the image, the more
electrons are emitted by the photocathode. In a black and white camera,
the photo-cathode responds only to
Figure 13 – Scan path of the electron beam
brightness, hence it is at this point that
information on the colour of the image
is lost. The electrons from the cathode are now made to strike a target electrode causing some of its
atoms to become positively charged.
The target electrode is scanned by an electron beam. The beam sweeps the target electrode in a series
of closely spaced lines. There are 405 or 625 of these lines depending on the system used. Fig. 13
represents the scan path of the beam.
When the beam reaches the end of the top scan line, it is brought quickly back to the beginning of the
next line which is slightly lower. This return is called fly-back and is much quicker than a line scan.
The scanning beam loses electrons to the positively charged atoms on the target electrode and is thus
changed or modulated. Its density is thus proportional to the light intensity of the original image. In
this way the camera produces a continuous waveform which contains information on the brightness
of the original image. This video waveform has information added to it, sync pulses, to synchronise the
start of each scanning line and frame.
The video signal is transmitted and received in a similar fashion to sound transmissions. After detection
and amplification it is fed to the cathode or the CRT12 in the television receiver thus controlling the
intensity of the electron beam. The sync pulses ensure that the beam in the CRT is in exactly the same
position as the beam in the television camera. The beam is made to move sideways and progressively
downwards matching line by line the scanning of the television camera. As the electron beam strikes
the television screen, the phosphor coating on the screen emits light. This light varies in whiteness
according to the brightness of the original image. Because the line by line build up the picture takes
place so quickly, the eye sees only a complete picture of the object in front of the television camera.
12CRT
– Cathode Ray Tube
44
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
photo-cathode – a photosensitive surface that emits electrons when exposed to light or other suitable
radiation; used in photo-tubes, television camera tubes, and other light-sensitive devices
scan – to examine an area or a region in space point by point in an ordered sequence, as when
converting a scene or image to an electric signal or when using radar or monitor an airspace for
detection, navigation, or traffic control purposes
sweep – the steady movement of the electron beam across the screen of a cathode-ray tube,
producing a steady bright line when no signal is present
fly-back – also called retrace – the return of the electron beam to its starting point in a cathode-ray
tube after a sweep
amplification – the process of increasing the strength (current, voltage, or power) of a signal
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of a lens system in a television camera?
2. What does the camera tube consist of?
3. What is the relationship between the brightness of the image and the number of electrons
emitted by the photo-cathode?
4. Describe what happens when the target electrode is scanned by an electron beam.
5. What is fly-back?
6. Why is the scanning beam changed or modulated?
7. What is the density of the beam proportional to?
8. What does the camera produce in this way?
9. What does the waveform produced by the camera contain?
10. How is the video signal transmitted and received?
11. What happens when the electron beam strikes the television screen?
PUT THE TEACHER’S STORY INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH
SCOTCH OR CHEESE
Two businessmen were invited to dinner at the home of a college professor. One of the men did not
have much education and was worried that he might make a fool of himself, but his friend said,
“Don’t worry. Just do what I do, and don’t talk about anything that you don’t really understand.”
The first man managed to get through the dinner successfully, but by the end of the evening he had
had a lot to drink, and began to get careless.
A guest asked him whether he liked Shakespeare, and he answered confidently,
“It’s very pleasant, but I prefer scotch.”
There was an uncomfortable silence in the room, and soon people began to leave.
When the two friends were out of the house, the second man said to his friend,
“You certainly made a fool of yourself making that silly remark about scotch.”
“What do you mean?” asked the other man. “What was wrong with it?”
“Everybody knows that Shakespeare isn’t a drink,” his friend replied. “It’s a kind of cheese.”
45
THE CATHODE RAY TUBE
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is used in oscilloscopes, radar receivers, computers and television sets to
produce an output display. The construction and operation of the CRT is similar in each case but the
simplest type of CRT is found in oscilloscopes and will be described here. By means of a CRT, an
oscilloscope not only shows the size of a signal, but also how the signal varies with time. In other words
it shows the waveform of the signal.
A CRT is really a large vacuum tube valve. It has three main sections. The first section is an electron
gun which emits a stream of electrons. The electron gun contains an electron lens which focuses the
electrons into a narrow electron beam. Let us see how it works. A stream of electrons is released from
the surface of the cathode when some heater filament heats it. The electrons are accelerated towards
the screen by a set of three positively-charged cylindrical anodes. Each anode has a higher charge than
the one before. As the electrons move towards the anodes, they pass through a hole in a negativelycharged metal disc. This disc is known as the control grid. By adjusting the intensity control on the
oscilloscope, the charge on the grid can be varied. This allows the number of electrons reaching the
screen, and therefore the brilliance or brightness of the spot on the screen, to be adjusted.
The three anodes form the electron lens. The oscilloscope focus control allows the voltage on the
second anode to be varied and causes the stream of electrons to be focused into a narrow beam. If
the oscilloscope has an astigmatism control, it is used to vary the voltage on the third anode. This
allows the shape of the spot on the screen to be adjusted to make it perfectly round.
The second section is a deflection system, which allows the beam to be moved vertically or
horizontally. Oscilloscopes use charged metal plates to give electrostatic deflection, whereas television
sets use electromagnetic coils to give electromagnetic deflection.
After leaving the electron gun, the electron beam is deflected by two pairs of parallel metal plates (Yplates and X-plates) situated at right angles to each other. The signal to be measured is amplified by
the Y-amplifier in the oscilloscope, and then applied to the first set of deflection plates, known as the
Y-plates. This causes the electron beam to be deflected vertically in proportion to the magnitude of
the input signal. The oscilloscope has a time base generator which produces a saw tooth wave output.
This is fed to X-amplifier of the oscilloscope, and then applied to the second set of deflection plates,
known as the X-plates. This causes the electron beam to be deflected on the horizontal direction in
such a way that the spot moves from left to right across the screen at a steady rate. When it reaches
the right side of the screen, it rapidly returns to the left side again. This allows the screen to show how
the measured signal varies with time.
The last section is a screen with a phosphor coating. The electron beam hits the screen, making
phosphor glow and causing a spot to be displayed. The colour of the spot depends on the type of
phosphor used.
46
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
cathode ray tube – an electron-beam tube in which the electrons emitted by a hot cathode are
formed by an electron gun into a narrow beam that can be focused to a small cross section of a
fluorescent screen. The beam can be varied in position and intensity by internal electrostatic
deflection plates or external electromagnetic deflection coils to produce a visible trace, pattern, or
picture on the screen.
oscilloscope – a test instrument that uses a cathode-ray tube to make visible on a fluorescent screen
the instantaneous values and waveforms of electrical quantities which are rapidly varying as a
function of time or another quantity
radar receiver – a high-sensitivity radio receiver that amplifies and demodulates radar echo signals
and feeds them to a radarscope or other indicator
television set – a receiver that converts incoming television signals into the original scenes along
with the associated sounds; also called television receiver
waveform – the shape of a wave, as obtained by plotting a characteristic of the wave with respect to
time
electron gun – an electron structure that produces and may control, focus, deflect, and converge
one or more electron beams in an electron tube
grid – an electrode located between the cathode and anode of an electron tube and having one or
more openings through which electrons or ions can pass under certain conditions. A grid controls the
flow of electrons from cathode to anode.
Y plate – one of the two deflection electrodes used to deflect the electron beam vertically in an
electrostatic cathode-ray tube
X plate – one of the two deflection electrodes used to deflect the electron beam horizontally in an
electrostatic cathode-ray tube
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is a cathode ray tube?
Where is the CTR used?
What is the function of the CRT?
What does it show in oscilloscopes beside the size of the signal?
What can a CRT be compared to?
What are the three sections of a cathode ray tube?
What is the function of the electron gun?
What happens to the stream of electrons released from the surface of the cathode?
What is a deflection system?
Why is the screen coated with phosphor?
47
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
CRT, PLASMA, or LCD
CATHODE RAY TUBE
A CRT monitor contains millions of
tiny red, green, and blue phosphor
dots that glow struck by an electron
beam that travels across the screen
to create a visible image.
In a CRT monitor, the cathode is a
heated filament.
The heated filament is in a vacuum
created inside a glass tube.
The electrons are negative and the
screen gives a positive charge to the
screen glow.
13
HOW IT WORKS
PLASMA
The television lights up thousands of
tiny dots with a high-energy beam of
electrons.
In most systems, there are three pixel
colours, i.e. red, green and blue which
are evenly distributed on the screen.
By combining these colours in different
proportions, the television can produce
the entire colour spectrum.
The phosphor on the screen of the
plasma enhances the viewing pleasure.
LCD
Liquid crystal displays work by the tiny pixels13 on the
screen showing more than 20,000.000 colours.
An LCD screen is a multilayered sideways sandwich.
A fluorescent light source, known as the backlight,
passes through the first of the two polarizing filters.
The polarized light then passes through a layer that
contains thousands of liquid crystal pixels arrayed in
tiny containers called cells. The cells are, in turn,
arrayed in rows across the screen; one or more cells
make up one pixel.
Electric leads around the edge of the LCD create an
electric field that twists the crystal molecule, which
lines the light up with the second polarizing filter and
allows it to pass through it.
pixel=the smallest individual area on a screen, which together form the whole display
48
CHOOSE ONE OF THE ADVANTAGES/DISADVATAGES AND WRITE A FEW HINTS
14
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Cathode ray tubes produce more colours.
They can easily increase the monitor’s brightness by reflecting the
light.
CRT monitors are cheaper than LCD or Plasma display.
The quality of the image displayed on a CRT is superior to the LCD
and Plasma monitors.
CRT contrast features are considered highly excellent.
Cathode ray tubes have a big back and take up space on your
desk.
The electromagnetic fields emitted by CRT monitors constitute a
health hazard to the functioning of living cells.
They also emit a small amount of X-rays band radiation which can
also result in a health hazard. Since they operate at a very high
voltage, system may overheat and result in an implosion14.
A strong vacuum existing within a CRT can also result in an
implosion.
And the last disadvantage - they are heavy to pick up and carry
around.
Plasma display has larger viewing angle (1600 to LCD 400 and rear
projection 1200).
A larger audience is able to view the image reproduction.
Plasma units are considerably thinner than the CRT monitors.
They are either free standing or can be mounted on a ceiling or
wall.
They have clearer image, brighter viewing angle, better colour
quality and higher contrast ratio than the CRT and LCD display
units.
Plasma display has a very short life span, i.e. around 20.000 30.000 hours, based on 4 hours of TV a day, plasma will last 13.7
years.
As it gets older, its brightness gets dimmer.
Plasma display units are considerably more expensive than CRT
monitors.
They are very fragile and must be handled carefully.
LCD display is easier to watch and its image is perfectly sharp.
It shows zero distortion at the native resolution of the panel.
High peak intensity produces very bright images, best for brightly
lit environments.
Screens are perfectly flat, thin with a small footprint.
They consume little electricity and produce little heat.
The LCD unit is very light and can be put anywhere or moved
anywhere in the house.
Due to lack of flicker and low glare, they reduce eyestrain.
LCD displays are considerably more expensive.
After a while, some of the pixels will “die” and a discoloured spot
will be seen on a black spot on the display.
They have a fixed resolution display and cannot be changed.
They will have a slow response times.
LCDs use analogue interface making careful adjustment or
eliminate digital noise in the image.
The viewing angle is very limited due to the automatic pixel
tracking/phase control.
implosion = inward collapse of an evacuated container, such as the glass envelope of a cathode ray tube
49
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Communicating by radio is a method of sending or receiving sounds, pictures and data through the
air by means of EM (electromagnetic) waves.
EM waves are used for many purposes: broadcasting of local and national radio and TV stations, in
mobile radio and telephone services, and communicating on a global scale through distant satellites,
which act as a kind of reflector in the sky, redirecting the information which is sent to them.
Another important use of this means of communicating is in shipping. A ship that is in difficulty can
call the nearest coast station, giving details of its situation and, if necessary, ask for help. We call this
“ship-to-shore” radio. Radio can ensure greater safety in navigation (for example, to warn of bad
weather or of hazards in the shipping lanes) and it enables large amounts of information to be sent
over land or water without the support of several hundred kilometres of wires and cables. Radio
networks can, therefore, be cheaper to install but often have fewer circuits than cable links. Radar
systems also enable air-traffic controllers to follow and guide the flight paths of planes from take-off
to landing.
The launching of the first satellite by the Russians in 1957 began what has become known as the
“space race”, the first stage of which culminated with the American landing on the Moon twelve years
later. A whole range of satellites now orbit the Earth and are used for a variety of purposes.
Low orbit satellites, the typical height of which varies from 150 to 450 kilometres, are of little use for
telecommunications for they are only in line of sight of each earth station for about 15 minutes. Their
rotation period around the Earth is about one and a half hours and their main use is for remote sensing,
a field in which digital processing techniques are proving especially valuable. A low orbit satellite,
equipped with a multispectral scanner system (MSS), can observe the Earth in great detail providing
us with extremely accurate information about agriculture, forestry, water resources and pollution
patterns. It also has a multitude of applications in such as weather forecasting, environmental
monitoring, geology, oceanography and cartography. There are important defence implications too,
since they can be used to “spy” on the activities of a potential enemy.
Medium altitude satellites are used for telecommunications, especially in countries which cover a vast
geographical area, like the former USSR. They fly at a typical height of 9000 to 18000 kilometres,
orbiting the Earth in a period of five to twelve hours. They are in line of sight of the earth station for
between two and four hours.
The most important type of satellite for telecommunications is the geosynchronous or geostationary
satellite positioned over the Equator at a height of 35800 kilometres. Its rotation period is 24 hours,
the same as the Earth’s, and consequently, seen from the Earth, this type of satellite appears to remain
motionless in the sky. It is within line of sight of an earth station for its entire life.
A communication satellite is, in essence, a microwave relay station which receives signals in a given
frequency band and retransmits them at a different frequency to avoid problems of interference
between the weak incoming signal and the powerful retransmitted signal. The equipment, which
receives a signal, amplifies it, changes its frequency and then retransmits it, is called a transponder. A
satellite can handle large amounts of traffic which it can send over vast areas of the Earth. It therefore
represents a relatively cheap way of transmitting information over long distances. For countries which
do not already have sophisticated cable or microwave networks the use of a satellite can be extremely
beneficial as it can be used in their place.
The first satellites were seen as a way of communicating with people who lived in isolated areas of the
world. As a result, earth stations began to appear in the remotest parts of the globe. The cost of
satellite communication began to fall steadily and, consequently, satellites have to compete with
submarine cables as a way of linking continents cheaply. With the arrival of optical fibre undersea
cables, however, a more balanced division of intercontinental circuits between the two is likely.
50
Satellites were soon used to broadcast TV programmes “live” from one side of the Earth to the other,
and then to link up computer terminals in different parts of the world. The use of digital transmission
and multiplexing techniques has led to an enormous increase in the capacity of satellites.
The international organization INTELSAT, Ltd was created in 1964 to provide international
communication services by satellite. The world’s largest commercial satellite communications services
provider began with 11 participating countries. It was an intergovernmental consortium owning and
managing a constellation of communications satellites providing international broadcast services. On
April 6, 1965, Intelsat’s first satellite, the Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird), was placed in geostationary
orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket.
In 1983 it operated and owned 16 spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit representing an investment of
over three billion US dollars. In 1983 it handled two third of all international telephone and data
communications and transmitted virtually all “live” international television broadcasts. 109 nations are
members of INTELSAT. Between 1979 and 1983 INTELSAT’s traffic doubled, yet its communications
charges decreased, despite a 73% rise in the worldwide cost of living index.
As of 2007, Intelsat owns and operates a fleet of 51 communications satellites. On July 18, 2001,
Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after being formed.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
What is radio communication?
What are EM waves used for?
What is ship-to-shore radio?
Why is radio communication important in air-traffic?
What is “space race” and when did it start?
Why is low orbit satellite of little use for telecommunications?
What is low orbit satellite equipped with?
What can an MSS provide us with?
Why is MSS important in the defence of a country?
Where are medium altitude satellites used?
How long are medium altitude satellites in line of sight of the earth station?
Which is the most important type of satellites used for telecommunication?
Why?
What is communication satellite?
What is the transponder?
How were continents linked before satellites came into use?
What caused an enormous increase in the capacity of satellites?
What is INTELSAT?
When was the first communication satellite, the Early Bird, launched?
How many communication satellites were there in 2007?
51
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
MORE ABOUT SATELLITES
Satellites are not simply replacements for point-to-point terrestrial lines. They have several unique
properties, among which the most important are:




a 270 millisecond propagation delay caused by the distance the signal has to travel (80 000
km – 300 000 km/sec = 0.27 seconds)
the possibility of very high bandwidths or bit rates if the user can avoid local loops by having
an antenna on his premises, or a radio link to an earth station antenna
the special security problems that are posed when information is broadcast through a
satellite
Until recently all satellites were launched using rockets, which proved to be extremely costly as the
rockets were lost in the sea a few minutes after being launched. The space shuttle, itself put into
orbit by a rocket, parts of which are recovered and can be used, heralds the era of routine access to
space, for one individual shuttle will be able to perform not less than 100 separate missions. Its
payload is also greater than that of any previous rocket and its crew is made up not only of
professional astronauts but scientists who will be able to conduct their research in the gravity-free
environment of space.
ENOUGH IS ENOUGH - NOW SOME FUN!
WORK VS PRISON - WHERE WOULD YOU RATHER BE
IN PRISON you spend the majority of your time in an 8x10 cell.
AT WORK you spend most of your time in a 6x8 cubicle.
IN PRISON you get three meals a day.
AT WORK you only get a break for 1 meal and you have to pay FOR IT.
IN PRISON you get time off for good behaviour.
AT WORK you get rewarded for good behaviour with more work.
IN PRISON a guard locks and unlocks all the doors for you.
AT WORK you must carry around a security card and unlock and open all the doors yourself.
IN PRISON you can watch TV and play games.
AT WORK you get fired for watching TV and playing games.
IN PRISON you get your own toilet.
AT WORK you have to share.
IN PRISON they allow your family and friends to visit.
AT WORK you cannot even speak to your family and friends.
IN PRISON all expenses are paid by taxpayers with no work required.
AT WORK you get to pay all the expenses to go to work and then they deduct taxes from your salary to pay for prisoners.
IN PRISON you spend most of your life looking through bars from the inside wanting to get out.
AT WORK you spend most of your time wanting to get out and inside bars.
IN PRISON there are wardens who are often sadistic.
AT WORK they are called managers.
52
READ BOB’S STORY AND THEN PUT IT INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH:
Bob went to a psychiatrist.
"Doctor," he said, "I've got trouble. Every time I get into bed, I think there's somebody under it.
When I look under the bed, I think there's somebody on top of it. On top, under, on top, under…. you
have to help me, I'm going crazy!"
The psychiatrist said, "Come to me three times a week for one year, and I will cure your fears."
Bob asked, "How much do you charge?"
The psychiatrist replied, "A hundred dollars per visit."
That's a lot of money. I'll think about it," said Bob.
Six months later the doctor met Bob on the street.
"Why didn't you ever come to see me again?" asked the psychiatrist.
Bob replied, "For a hundred dollars a visit? A barman cured me for ten dollars."
The psychiatrist was amazed. "A barman cured you! A barman! How?"
Bob answered, "He told me to cut the legs off the bed!"
53
HOW ROBOTS MAKE OUR LIVES EASIER
A robot is a completely self-controlled electronic, electric, or mechanical device. Many of these
devices in use today do jobs that are especially difficult for human workers, e.g. jobs that require great
strength or pose danger. Therefore, robots are particularly useful in the car industry where parts of
automobile must be welded together. A welding tool used by a human worker weighs about 100
pounds or more and is difficult to handle. As mechanical supermen, robots may be called upon to do
anything from moving heavy components between workstations on a factory floor to carrying bags of
cement.
Spray painting is another task suited for robots because robots do not need to breathe. Unlike human
painters, they are unaffected by the poisonous fumes. Robots are better at this task, not because they
are faster or cheaper than humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot.
Third in the list of useful jobs for robots is the assembly of electronic parts. Robots shine at installing
chips in printed circuits boards because of a capability that robots have and people don’t. A robot,
once properly programmed, will not put a chip in the wrong place. This automatic accuracy is
particularly valuable in this kind of industry because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.
Earlier robots were usually blind and deaf but newer types of robots are fitted with video cameras and
other sensing devices that can detect heat, texture, size, and sound. These robots are used in space
projects, nuclear reactor stations, and underwater exploration research.
In their efforts to expand the range of robotic applications, researchers are looking beyond traditional
designs to examine a variety of potential models from the biological world. The industrial arm is a
classic example. Scientists have been able to model robots to imitate the vertebrate spine of a snake
in order to paint the interior of automobiles. They have simulated the muscle structure and movement
of an elephant’s trunk in an attempt to create a robotic arm capable of lifting heavy objects. Scientists
have also emulated the flexibility of an octopus where the tentacles can conform to the fragile objects
of any shape and hold them with uniform, gentle pressure. A variation of this design can be used to
handle animals, turn hospital patients in their beds, or lift a small child.
The challenge of equipping robots with the skills to operate independently, outside of a factory or
laboratory, has taxed the ingenuity and creativity of academic, military, and industrial scientists for
years. Simply put, robots hands – like robots legs, or eyes, or reasoning powers – have a long way to
go before they can approach what biological evolution has achieved over the course of hundreds of
millions of years. Much more will have to happen in laboratories around the world before robots can
be compared to nature’s handiwork.
In the meantime, the robotics revolution is already beginning to change the kind of work that people
do. The boring and dangerous jobs are now assumed by robots. In the third millennium, more and
more humans will be required for tasks that machines cannot do. There are some industrialists who
hope that all their employees will be knowledge workers, no longer standing on assembly lines but
rather sitting at desks and computer terminals to deal with information. These changes are already on
the way, and their pace accelerates every year.
Finally, their use in medicine has saved many lives due to their accuracy and reliability that have
outcome the surgeons in numerous applications. Some surgical procedures using robots are less
aggressive, “spill” less blood, and the possibility for human errors is much smaller.
54
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
What do you think about robotics revolution in general?
What kind of jobs can robots do instead of men?
Why are they particularly useful in car industry?
What are the advantages of robots over people when spraying paint is considered?
Why are robots preferred on assembly lines for electronic parts?
What is the difference between earlier and newer types of robots?
What are these new types of robots used for?
What kind of robots have the scientists been trying to create?
What do industrialists hope for in the third millennium?
In your opinion what are the advantages and/or disadvantages of robotics revolution?
Why are robots used in medicine?
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
ROBOT EYE FOR SURGERY
Laparoscopy is a procedure in which a camera is pushed through a small hole in the abdominal wall. It
allows a surgeon to operate by television, with instruments inserted through a second hole. The small
size of the incision reduces the trauma for patients and speeds up recovery. Until recently, the
procedure has required the presence of a second doctor to guide the camera for the surgeon.
A new development now facilitates this procedure. A robot manoeuvres the camera in response to the
surgeon’s head. Four tiny transmitters, worn on a headband, send radio signals to a base unit. As the
surgeon moves his head left or right, up or down, forwards or backwards, the robot causes the camera
to track his movements, enabling him to view the exact area he wishes to see.
ROBOT SURGERY FOR EYE
Techniques derived from virtual reality will soon allow surgeons to feel as well as see the inside of the
eye during an operation. During the operation, the surgeon manipulates a set of controls known as the
master. These are connected through a high-performance computer to the robot. The robot’s limbs
move in exactly, except that the movements can be scaled down as much as a thousand times, thus
eliminating hand tremor and reducing damage to the eye.
The computer also creates a three-dimensional view of the inside of the eye, which the surgeon can
see wearing a virtual reality helmet and “feel” via a sensory feedback system, which emulates the
forces generated by cutting with a surgical tool.
ROBOT’S “HISTORY”
 in 270 BC an ancient Greek engineer named Ctesibus made organs and water clocks with
movable figures.
 1818 - Mary Shelley wrote "Frankenstein" which was about a frightening artificial life form
created by Dr. Frankenstein.
 1921 - The term "robot" was first used in a play called "R.U.R." or "Rossum's Universal Robots"
by the Czech writer Karel Capek. The plot was simple: man makes robot then robot kills man!
 1941 - Science fiction writer Isaac Asimov first used the word "robotics" to describe the
technology of robots and predicted the rise of a powerful robot industry.
 1942 - Asimov wrote "Runaround", a story about robots which contained the "Three Laws of
Robotics":
55
1)











A robot may not injure a human, or, through in action, allow a human being to
come to harm.
2) A robot must obey the orders by human beings except where such orders would
conflict with the First Law.
3) A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict
with the First or Second Law.
1948 - "Cybernetics", an influence on artificial intelligence research was published by Norbert
Wiener
1956 - George Devol and Joseph Engelberger formed the world's first robot company.
1959 - Computer-assisted manufacturing was demonstrated at the Servomechanisms Lab at
MIT.
1961 - The first industrial robot was online in a General Motors automobile factory in New
Jersey. It was called UNIMATE.
1963 - The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a computer was designed. The Rancho
Arm was designed as a tool for the handicapped and its six joints gave it the flexibility of a
human arm.
1965 - DENDRAL was the first expert system or program designed to execute the accumulated
knowledge of subject experts.
1968 - The octopus-like Tentacle Arm was developed by Marvin Minsky.
1969 - The Stanford Arm was the first electrically powered, computer-controlled robot arm.
1970 - Shakey was introduced as the first mobile robot controlled by artificial intelligence. It
was produced by SRI International.
1974 - A robotic arm (the Silver Arm) that performed small-parts assembly using feedback from
touch and pressure sensors was designed.
1979 - The Standford Cart crossed a chair-filled room without human assistance. The cart had
a TV camera mounted on a rail which took pictures from multiple angles and relayed them to
a computer. The computer analyzed the distance between the cart and the obstacles.
TWO JOKES AFTER THE TIMELINE
A robot walks into a pharmacy. The pharmacist asks him if he'd like anything.
The robot replies, "A soul."
How do you stop a robot from destroying you and the rest of civilization?
You don't.
56
CIRCUIT BREAKERS, FUSES AND SWITCHES
A circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that opens the circuit automatically when the current
exceeds a predetermined value. It can be reset operating a lever or by other means. A fuse is a
protective device containing a short length of special wire that melts when the current through it
exceeds the rated value for a definite period of time. A fuse is inserted in series with the circuit being
protected, so it opens the circuit automatically during a serious overload. A switch is a manually, or
mechanically, electrically or electronically actuated device for making, breaking, or changing the
connections in an electric circuits. Their function, to put it simple, is to protect the circuit in which they
are built from possible damages. They are designed to interrupt excess current that can overload the
electrical wires, and they cut off the circuit whenever the current jumps above a safe level.
A circuit breaker, unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. The choice of a proper circuit breaker
depends on the particular application, i.e. it may be a small device used for protecting individual
household appliance, or a large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire
city. A circuit breaker is required to





withstand the maximum voltage stress,
carry rated current continuously without damage,
have sufficient interrupting capacity,
be suitable for operation in the intended environment
provide the protective function or protective and control functions if needed.
There are many types of switches available for electric circuits. All switches perform the same basic
function of opening or closing circuits. The type used in a given application is often a matter of style
and/or convenience of operation. When the switching requirements are complex, the choice narrows
to the rotary switch. On the other hand, simple switches, such as toggles, slides, rockers, levers etc,
usually control only one or two circuit paths. Some switches are constructed so that they always return
to the same position when released by the operator. There are also safety switches which look similar
to circuit breakers, but they provide extra protection from electric shock. Safety switches monitor the
flow of electricity and if any irregularity is detected, the electricity supply is immediately cut off.
Fuses have the advantage of often being less expensive and simpler than a circuit breaker for similar
rating. However, a blown fuse must be replaced with a new device while a circuit breaker is simply
reset. While circuit breakers must be maintained on an annual basis to ensure their mechanical
operation, this is not the case with fuses; no mechanical operation is required for the fuse to operate
under fault conditions. Old electrical consumer units were fitted with so called Swiss electric fuses (6
to 10 A) and are still in use in some older European buildings. Modern consumer units contain magnetic
circuit breakers instead of fuses. Fuses are often characterized as “fast-blow” or “slow-blow” according
to the time they take to respond to an overcurrent condition. A fuse also has a rated interrupting
capacity, also called breaking capacity, which is the maximum current the fuse can safely interrupt.
57
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of circuit breakers, fuses, and switches?
2. What is the difference between a circuit breaker and a fuse when they have to resume normal
operation?
3. What are the requirements of a circuit breaker?
4. What are the types of simple switches?
5. How many circuit paths do simple switches usually control?
6. What is the difference between safety switches and ordinary simple switches?
7. What do safety switches monitor?
8. What happens if any irregularity is detected within the circuit?
9. What are the advantages of fuses over circuit breaker?
10. What is rated interrupting capacity?
MAKE SENTENCES CONNECTING As and Bs:
A
B
1.
Electricity is defined by three major attributes,
2.
To understand circuit breakers,
3.
Voltage is the “pressure”
4.
When the fuse carries an excess of current over
its rated capacity,
1.
it helps to know how household electricity
works.
2.
that makes electric charge move.
3.
the charge moves through the conductor
4.
the most important safety mechanisms in
our home.
5.
you can’t change one without changing
another.
6.
the connections in an electric circuit
5.
Current is the rate at which
6.
The circuit breaker is one of
7.
Voltage, current
interrelated,
7.
be reset.
8.
Switches are devices which make, break, or
change
8.
inserted in series with a circuit.
Circuit breakers can
9.
voltage, current and resistance.
9.
and
resistance
10. A fuse consists of a strip of wire or metal
are
all
10. it burns out.
58
ARGUING WITH AN ENGINEER
Arguing with an engineer is a lot like wrestling in the mud with a pig. After a few hours, you realize
that he likes it.
BOOK
I gave my nephew a book for his birthday. He went crazy trying to find where to put the batteries.
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
A switch is a device that opens or closes a circuit. It is a device that causes the operating conditions of
a circuit to change between discrete specified levels. It selects from two or more components, parts,
or circuits the desired element for a particular mode of operation. In general, a switch consists of a
mechanical device, such as a circuit breaker, or a solid state device, such as a transistor, Schottky diode,
or field-effect transistor.
A circuit breaker is a device such as a contactor, switch, or tripping device that is used to make or break
a circuit under normal or fault conditions. An unwanted arc is often produced as the circuit breaker
operates and this can be minimized using magnetic blow out device. This device is fitted to the circuit
breaker and produces a magnetic field in the neighbourhood of the arc, thus causing the path length
of the arc to increase and thereby extinguishing it rapidly. When used for fault conditions an automatic
break and manual make system is commonly used.
A fuse consists of a short length of easily fusible wire that is used to protect electric circuits or devices
by melting (“blowing”) at a specific current and thus breaking the circuit. The fuse current rating is the
maximum value of the current that the fuse will conduct without melting. The frequency and voltage
at which a fuse is designed to operate are specified by the fuse frequency rating and fuse voltage rating.
The fuse characteristic is the relation between the current through the fuse and the time taken for the
fuse to operate.
Engineers aren’t boring people; they just get excited over boring things.
REPAIR
A lady took her CD player to the repairman.
“I’m afraid you have a short circuit,” he told her.She said “I don’t care how much it costs,
lengthen it!”
IT HAPPENS
The red wire said to the black wire: “Why are you so sad?”
The black wire replied: “I’ve been grounded.”
59
POWER ENGINEERING
Power engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. The design
of a range of related devices is also an important category in the power engineering process. These
devices are transformers, electric generators, electric motors and power electronics. But first, let us
see how electricity is generated.
Power stations, generating units or power plants are facilities which generate electric power. The
center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. The energy sources, renewable and non-renewable, harnessed to turn the
generator vary from water, fossil fuel, nuclear reaction, wind or solar energy. Each of them has some
unique aspects, but they all operate on the similar principle of converting some form of fuel into heat
energy, then mechanical energy and finally electrical energy.
GENERATION - When fuel, e.g. natural gas, coal or oil is burned in a boiler, the heat is used to produce
steam under pressure. The steam is piped to a turbine. The steam strikes the blades of the turbine
and spins them, revolving the turbine shaft. The turbine shaft turns the electromagnet of the
generator, changing the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. The electric energy
then takes the form of alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). The hydro electric power plant
consists of a water turbine
TRANSMISSION - Once electricity is produced, it runs from the power plant through wires to step up
transformer. The transformer raises the pressure so it can travel long distances. Transformers play very
important role in power transmission because they allow power to be converted to (step up
transformers) and from (step down transformers) higher voltages. Higher voltages, on the other hand,
are important because higher voltages suffer less power loss during transmission. Electricity is usually
transmitted over long distance through overhead power transmission lines. Underground power
transmission is used only in densely populated areas such as large cities because of the high cost of
installation and maintenance and because the power losses increase dramatically compared with
overhead transmission.
DISTRIBUTION - There is an inherent problem about electrical energy, i.e. it is not storable, except in
batteries. Therefore, it has to be transmitted and distributed to end users - homes, industry or
business. After coming off the transmission grid, electricity is stepped down to the distribution grid.
This conversion from transmission to distribution occurs in a power substation. In order to step down
the high voltages used for transmission, power substations use transformers which step down
transmission voltages to distribution voltages, they have a bus that can split the distribution power off
in multiple directions, or they have circuit breakers and switches which disconnect the substation from
the transmission grid when necessary.
60
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
transformer - a component that consists of two or more coils which are coupled together by magnetic
induction; it is used to transfer electric energy from one or more circuits to one or more other circuits
without change in frequency but usually with changed values of voltage and current
electric motor - a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy by utilizing forces
exerted by magnetic fields produced by current flow through conductors
electronics - the branch of science or technology that deals with electron devices, including electron
tubes, magnetic amplifiers, transistors, and other devices that do the work of electron tubes in
controlling the flow of electricity in a vacuum, gas, liquid, semiconductor, conductor or superconductor
power electronics - the technology associated with the efficient conversion, control and conditioning
of electric power by static means from its available input form into the desired electrical output form
renewable energy sources - sources that are in constant supply over time such as sun, wind, water,
biomass and earth, i.e. heat from deep within the earth, called “geothermal energy”
non-renewable energy sources - fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal and nuclear fuel
principle of the conversion of energy - energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it may be converted
from one form into the other
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
What does power engineering deal with?
Where is electric power generated?
What is the main device in power stations?
What is a generator?
What energy sources are used to turn generators?
What is the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy sources?
What is the principle on which all power stations operate?
Describe the process of the generation of the electric energy.
What are step up and step down transformers used for?
Why does voltage have to be stepped up during transmission?
What kind of transmission lines is there and what is the difference between them?
What is the inherent problem about electricity?
What do power substations use to step down the high voltages used for transmission?
61
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
ENERGY CRISIS
A word about the energy crisis: the world’s supply of petroleum was created over millions of years ago
and cannot be replaced or renewed in our time. Estimates vary on how long the supply will last but
according to some experts it may be not much more than thirty years at the present rate of
consumption. Automobiles, diesels, and jets use enormous amounts of fuel derived from petroleum
so do households and power plants that produce electricity. Petroleum is also the basis for
petrochemical products including many of today’s plastics, fertilizers, and insecticides.
Naturally, there is a growing interest in engines that do not use petroleum as fuel. Some power plants
are already converting from oil to coal, but while coal is in much greater supply than petroleum, it is
another non-renewable energy source, which will eventually be exhausted. Experiments are under
way to harness such energy sources as the wind, the tides, and the sun. Nuclear fusion - the release of
energy when atoms join – is being explored as a safer alternative to nuclear fission with its hazardous
by-products of radioactive wastes that pose a serious threat to the environment and to human life.
The difficulty with fusion is that it requires an enormously high degree of heat to start the reaction. To
date it has not been possible to generate that much heat even under laboratory conditions.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WIND ENERGY
There are many great advantages of wind energy, such as its availability. The wind is available around
the globe and it will exist till the time the sun exists. Wind energy is a renewable source of energy, it is
widely distributed, it is cheap and does not pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion
of fossil fuels. Wind turbines do not produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid rain or greenhouse
gasses.
Wind energy is the fastest-growing energy source in the world and it may be the answer to the globe’s
question of energy in the face of rising petroleum and gas prices. It is one of the lowest-priced
renewable energy technologies available today - the cost of producing wind energy has come down by
at least eighty percent since the eighties.
Wind energy could help reducing food production prices since wind turbines can be built on farms or
ranches, thus benefiting the economy in rural areas without any effect whatsoever on the land
necessary for their installation.
There are, however, some disadvantages. First, the technology requires a higher initial investment than
fossil-fueled generators, wind can never be predicted and it does not blow when electricity is needed.
To create a proper amount of wind energy, a large number of turbines have to be built to meet the
timing of electricity demands. Although, wind power is non-polluting, the turbines may create a lot of
noise, which indirectly contributes to noise pollution. Most potential farms which would use wind
energy are often located in remote locations. Since wind energy cannot be stored unless batteries are
used, knowledge of the weather and wind conditions on long term basis is required.
62
“POWER” CROSSWORD PUZZLE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Across
1
7
8
9
the capacity of electric generator is measured in _____
the rate of elecricity usage is usually measured in _____ hour
in most countries, _____ is still the largest primary energy source for electricity
in electricity generation, steam, hot gas or other forms of eneregy turns the blades of a _____
Down
2
in converting a primary energy source into electricity, some percentage of the initial heat energy is lost,
and the remaining percentage measures the _____ of the power plant
3
before electricity gets up on the wire to be transmitted, it goes through a _____ to step up the voltage
4
electricity is not a primary source of energy; it is a _____ source because it is generated from primary
sources of energy
5
a generator uses _____ and coils of wire to produce electricity
6
_____ demand is the time when many electricity customers want to use electricity at the same time
PUT A “+” SIGN FOR THE USES OF EACH RENEWABLE SOURCE
heat
electricity
vehicle fuel
water power
biomass energy
wind power
solar energy
geothermal energy
63
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telecommunications is a general term used for a wide spectrum of technologies that send information
over distances. Tele- is a prefix meaning “from a distance”. Telecommunication is any transmission,
emission, or reception of signals, writing, images, sounds, or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio,
visual, or other electromagnetic systems. It is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for
the purpose of communication. It includes all telephony technologies, such as mobile phones, land
lines, satellite phones, voice over Internet protocol as well as radio, television and networks.
Today, telecommunications is associated with modern technologies. Nevertheless, the use of smoke
signals used by the American Indians is a kind of visual telegraph - it is an ancient and primitive form
of telecommunication. There were others, of course, but let us focus on the modern term, the
telecommunications of today. However, some historical data first!
In the 19th century, with the numerous discoveries in the field of electricity, telecommunications
devices became more sophisticated. Those were telegraph, Morse code, signal lamps, a heliograph .
In the 20th century, telecommunications reached beyond our planet. In June 1969, the world watched
and listened as astronauts walked on the moon. Twenty years later the pictures of Neptune sent from
the Voyager 2 travelled over three billion miles (4.8 billion km) to reach us in only a few hours. People
today have multiple ways to see and hear what is going on almost anywhere in the world in real time.
Satellite technology, television, telephone, the Internet - they all keep the globe connected either by
voices or pictures.
A telecommunication system consists of three basic elements, i.e. a transmitter, information and a
signal. For example, in a radio broadcast the broadcast tower is the transmitter, free space is the
transmission medium and the radio is the receiver. Telecommunication systems are often two-way,
i.e. a single device acts as both a transmitter and a receiver or transceiver. A mobile phone is an
example of a transceiver.
The importance of telecommunication services in the infrastructure of a country is universally
recognized. But what is their internal order of importance? The late Arthur C. Clarke, author of 2001…A
Space Odyssey and the first person to conceive the idea of geosynchronous satellites, tried to answer
the question in a recent address. He listed a number of services in the following order:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
the telephone
radio and TV
telex
data networks.
“A reliable telephone system must surely have the first priority,” said Clarke, “for it affects every aspect
of life ... personal, business, government. It will be a long time, but not as long as you think, before
everybody has a telephone. But with a telephone in every village we can have the next best thing”.
He pointed out that with the introduction of International Direct Dialling in recent years, the power of
the state to control news was broken. Private individuals can now speak to each other across frontiers.
Clarke placed radio next in his list of priorities because he considered it central to spreading
information and establishing a national consciousness. He considered that radio was nowhere near the
end of its development, an opinion which is confirmed by the rapid growth and enormous success of
cellular radio. He saw at least two major developments in the field of radio technology: the use of builtin solar cells to replace batteries and the use of direct broadcasting satellites to give perfect signal
reception all over the world. It is for us to see how right he was!
64
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
point-to-point communication - communication between one transmitter and one receiver
broadcast communication - radio communication between one powerful transmitter and numerous
receivers
analog(ue) signal - the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information; the information
in the signal is degraded by the noise
digital signal - the information is encoded as a set of discrete values (ones and zeros); the information
remains intact unless the noise exceeds a certain threshold
network - transmitters, receivers or transceivers communicating with each other
channel - a division in a transmission medium resulting in the possibility of sending multiple streams
of information
modulation - the shaping of a signal to convey information
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What does the term telecommunication mean?
What is telecommunication?
What technologies does telecommunication include?
When did the fast growth of telecommunications start?
Why?
What revolutionary achievements concerning telecommunications happened in the 20th
century?
What does every telecommunication system consist of?
What is a transceiver?
How did Arthur Clarke list the telecommunication services?
Explain the order of the services according to Clarke.
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
SINCE THE BIRTH OF THE TELEPHONE
Since the birth of the telephone, the world telecommunications network has evolved in size, slowly at
first and then with astonishing speed, and in the techniques used to transmit information. The
development has, however, been very uneven for, by 1983, three-quarters of the total number of
telephone sets had been installed in just nine countries. These are the USA (180 million), Japan (59
million), West Germany (28 million), the UK and France (27 million each), Italy (19 million), Canada (16
million), Spain (13 million) and Australia (8 million).
The eastern block countries are not included in these figures, but at the beginning of 1982 the USSR is
estimated to have had 25 million sets, East Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia just over 3 million
each. In 1982 Croatia had 443,000 telephone sets and by the end of 1999, there were 1.450,000 sets.
When “World Communications Year: 1983” was organized by the ITU (International
Telecommunication Union), the following statement was heard:
“Communications, which come immediately after food, housing and energy in the list of things which
are indispensable for the survival of Humanity, make up the nervous system of today’s world and
constantly remind us that Humanity is one.”
65
In 2007, the situation was drastically different. It is hard to believe, but Europe had more mobile
phones than people! For example, Luxembourg had 158 mobile subscriptions per 100 people, and the
number is still growing. The total number of mobile phone subscribers in the world was estimated at
3.3 billion by November 2007, thus reaching an equivalent of over half the planet’s population. In 2011,
the number of cell phone subscribers across the globe hit 5,6 billion!
No doubt, the famous statement uttered in 1983 during “World Communication Year 1983” has
already got its confirmation.
SCRAMBLED SENTENCES
(begin the sentence with the word in a capital letter):
1. Telecommunication, point-to-point communication, and, one transmitter, is called, because, over a
phone line, it is, between, one receiver
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. The function, is, the signal, of the transmission medium, to carry
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. converts, information, it, A transmitter, takes, to a signal, and
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. multiple streams of, a transmission medium, so that, A channel, it can be used, is, information, a
division in, to send
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. analogue, can be, digital, Signals, either, or
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. through radio broadcasts, broadcast communication, Telecommunication, between, is called, and,
because, numerous receivers, it is, one powerful transmitter
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
66
7. the signal, with respect to, an analogue signal, continuously, the information, In, is varied
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. is, that, receivers, with each other, or transceivers, a collection of transmitters, communicate, A
network
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
9. the information, In, discrete values, a digital signal, as a set of, is encoded
_________________________________________________________________________________
ANOTHER JOKE
WHO PUT HIM TO SLEEP?
The teacher was droning about15 some no-longer-in-use electrical devices when he noticed a student
sleeping way up in the back row. The teacher shouted to the sleeping student's neighbour, "Hey wake
that student up!"
The neighbour yelled back, "You put him to sleep, you wake him up!"
15
drone on/about sth = to talk for a long time in a boring way
67
OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking particularly for longdistance communications (data, voice & video). Optical fibers convert electrical pulses into pulses of
light. Light impulses are transmitted through the optical fibers and re-converted into electrical
impulses at their destination.
They are thinner than a human hair and are made of glass or plastic. They are designed to guide light
along its length and they work even if they are bent around corners, laid underground or on the ocean
floor. Fiber-optic communications are used not only to transmit over longer distances but due to their
higher data rates they are more useful than other forms of communications. Signals travel along them
with less degradation, and they are immune to electromagnetic interference.
Most fibers are made from silica, which is very cheap and occurs in several different natural orms, e.g.
quartz and common sand. They are relatively cheap, flexible and lightweight. A 500 m of optical fibers
weighs about 25 kg, while a coaxial cable of the same length weighs 5 tons.
However, joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electric wire or cable because
the ends of the fibers must be carefully spliced16 together. Nevertheless, they are less expensive than
copper wires and, unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fiber do not interfere
with those of other fibers in the same cable.
In spite of high investment cost, the need for more expensive optical transmitter and receivers, their
cost is much more economic than old coaxial cables and communication systems are now unthinkable
without fiber optics. Transmitter and receivers (laser and photodiodes) turn out cheaper than electric
circuitry as their capacity is much superior. The cost of regeneration in electric long distance
transmission systems is completely impractical for modern communications. Optical fibers cannot
carry electric power to operate terminal devices.
optical fibers are widely used in illumination applications, e.g. as light guides in medical imaging to
view objects through a small hole (bronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes), mechanical imaging
to inspect anything hard to reach (mechanical welds in pipes and engines, jet engine interiors), in some
buildings they are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building, optical fiber
illumination is also used for decorative applications (signs, art, artificial Christmas trees), etc.
Due to the above advantages, fiber optics can be seen in many industries, particularly in
telecommunications and computer networks. It has an enormous bandwidth, a bandwidth which is
practically unlimited. Just one more remark - no fiber, no Internet!
16
splice = join the ends of two fibers by twisting of by fusing them with an electric arc
68
MATCH THE ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS BELOW WITH AN APPROPRIATE EXPLANATION:
1
2
3
4
5
complete electrical isolation
very large information bandwidth
high immunity for interference
low material cost
small and light cables
A
when fiber is produced in large quantities, the
price will be relatively low
B
cables can be easily laid and do not occupy
much duct space17
C
suitable for crossing places which contain lots
of electrical apparatus giving off stray signals; difficult
to “tap”
D
a single silica fiber can carry hundreds of
thousands of telephone channels
E
signal fades less so that repeaters can be more
widely spaced
TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN
TRANSMISSION CAPACITY OF OPTICAL FIBERS
Since 1970s, the transmission capacity of optical fibers has been enormously increased. The rise of
available transmission bandwidth per fiber is even significantly faster than, e.g. the increase of storage
capacity of electronic memory chips, or the increase of computation power of microprocessors.
The transmission capacity of a fiber is strongly dependent on the fiber length. The longer a fiber is, the
more detrimental certain effects such intermodal or chromatic dispersion are, and the lower is the
achievable transmission rate.
For short distances of a few hundred meters or less, e.g. within storage area networks, it is often more
convenient to utilize multimode fibers, as these are cheaper to install. For example, due to their large
core areas, they are easier to splice.
Single-mode fibers are typically used for longer distances of a few kilometers or more. Current
commercial telecom systems typically transmit 2.5 or 10 Gbit per second (Gbit/s) per data channel
over distances of ten kilometres or more. Future systems may use higher data rates per channel of 40
Gbit/s or even 160 Gbit/s, but currently the required total capacity is usually obtained by transmitting
many channels with slightly different wavelengths through fibers; this is called wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM). Total data rates can be several terabits18 per second, sufficient for transmitting
many millions of telephone channels simultaneously. Even this capacity does by far not reach the
physical limit of an optical fiber. In addition, note that a fiber-optic cable can contain multiple fibers.
In conclusion, there has to be no concern that technical limitations to fiber-optic data transmission
could become severe in the foreseeable future. To the contrary, the fact that data transmission
capacities can evolve faster than, e.g. data storage and computational power, inspired some people to
predict that any transmission limitations will soon become obsolete, and large computation and
storage facilities within high capacity data networks will be extensively used, in a similar way as it has
become common to use electrical power from many power stations within a large power grid. Such
developments may be more severely limited by software and security issues than by the limitations of
data transmission.
17
duct space = an enclosed runway for cables
a terabit = one trillion bits; used for measuring the amount of data that is transferred in a second between two telecommunication
points or within network devices.
18
69
Albert Einstein about communications: The wireless telegraph is not difficult to understand. The
ordinary telegraph is like a very long cat. You pull the tail in New York, and it meows in Los
Angeles. The wireless is the same, only without the cat.
YOU MIGHT BE AN ENGINEER IF...
…you see a good design and still have to change it.
…you still own a slide rule and you know how to use it.
…your family haven't the foggiest idea what you do at work.
…in college you thought Spring Break was metal fatigue failure.
…you have modified your can-opener to be microprocessor driven.
…you take a cruise so you can go on a personal tour of the engine room.
…you have trouble writing anything unless the paper has horizontal and vertical lines.
…your ideal evening consists of the latest sci-fi movie looking for technical inaccuracies.
…you think the value of a book is directly proportional to the amount of tables, charts and
graphs it contains.
And, no doubt, only an English teacher would ask: “What type of IF-clause are the above sentences?”
70
NIKOLA TESLA - THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD
The Law of conservation of energy and at the same time the core of Tesla's AC power system says:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be changed. He was the first to successfully harness
the mechanical energy of flowing water, change it into electrical energy, and distribute it to distant
homes and industries. His idea was realized at Niagara Falls at the end of the nineteenth century and
this revolutionary model set the standard for hydroelectric power, as we know it today.
Since his childhood, Tesla himself dreamed of harnessing the power of the great natural wonder. In
1887 Tesla obtained American patents for his new motor that produced alternating current. When in
1893 George Westinghouse was awarded the contract to create the powerhouse, his dream became
a reality. In spite of Edison’s and Lord Kelvin’s strong opposition to AC, after attending the Chicago
Exposition, Lord Kelvin, the famous British physicist and his commission asked Westinghouse to use
alternating current to harness the power of the falls. And Westinghouse called Nikola Tesla. The rest
is history! Although the Niagara Falls Power project was considered an adventure of pure technological
optimism, after a five-year nightmare of doubt and financial crises, the project approached
completion. Tesla had not doubted the results for a moment. The investors, however, were not at all
sure the system would work. Nevertheless, Niagara Falls was the final victory of Tesla's alternating
current over Edison's direct current electricity.
Unfortunately, the War of the Currents, as the battle between promoters of DC and AC was called,
exhausted both the Westinghouse and General Electric corporations morally and financially. Their
opponents, rich and influential managers19 who wanted to bring all US hydroelectric power under their
control, went on manipulating stock market trying to starve out Westinghouse and buy the Tesla
patents. But, thanks in part to Tesla, this did not happen. Grateful to George Westinghouse, who had
believed in his invention, Tesla tore up the contract saving the Westinghouse Electric Company for
future triumphs. He was convinced that even greater inventions lay ahead, although he himself,
besides sharing the glory, did not enjoy financial aspects of his great work.
The Niagara Falls Power Project can be described in a few words now. First, the river water just above
the falls is diverted into 140-foot-long artificial shaft, where water pushes the propeller, like blades of
a turbine. The result is that the kinetic energy of the moving water is transformed into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy is changed to electrical energy. The output is polyphase alternating
current. The further steps are the same in Tesla's time as they are today, i.e. high voltage transmission
over long-distance power lines to substations, step-down transformers which decrease the voltage
delivering 220 volts to homes and up 480 volts to industrial plants.
The Niagara Project demonstrated the superiority of transmitting power with electricity rather than by
mechanical means, as well as the transmission superiority at that time of alternating current over
direct current. Niagara set a contemporary standard for generator size, and was the first large system
supplying electricity from one circuit for multiple end-uses such as railway, lightning, and power.
After the success of Niagara, Tesla resumed his experiments focusing all his attention to the
exploration of high frequency electricity. His impressive achievements and patents numbering 700 in
the USA and Europe brought him the name of “the genius who lit the world”.
Let us return to the time before a meeting of the Royal Society in London in 1892, when Lord Rayleigh
declared that Tesla possessed a great gift for electrical discovery and in 1896, at the Franklin Institute
in Philadelphia, Lord Kelvin said, “Tesla has contributed more to electric science than any man up to
his time.” In 1919, Thomas Commerford Martin, the third president of the AIEE20, who edited and
19
20
T. A. Edison, R. Barons, J.P. Morgan
AIEE = American Institute of Electrical Engineers
71
published a remarkable collection of Tesla’s contemporary lectures in 1893, wrote “Tesla’s influence
may truly be said to have marked an epoch in the progress of electrical science. Very little data,
however, has been procurable that is descriptive of his later researches, and more is the pity from the
historical standpoint. Tesla has not finished. The world waits expectantly for each fresh touch of his
vitalizing thought upon the big electrical problem of the age.”
No doubt, Tesla deserved all these words of praise, but there are still some facts about him which are
not universally known. After all these years, it is now known that he was nominated for an undivided
Nobel prize in physics in 1937. Tesla’s nominator, Felix Ehernhaft, of Vienna, had previously nominated
Albert Einstein for the Nobel Prize. Most electrical engineers are unaware that, as late as 1943, Tesla,
and not Marconi, was recognized by the US Supreme Court as having priority in the invention of
“radio”. Even fewer computer scientists know that, when certain computer manufacturers attempted
to patent digital gates after World War II, the US Patent Office asserted Tesla’s priority in the electrical
implementation of logic gates for secure communications, control systems, and robotics.
Just one more statement by Charles E. Scott, past president of the AIEE, published in 1943 in Electrical
Engineering - “The evolution of electric power from discovery of Faraday in 1831 to the initial great
installation of the Tesla polyphase system in 1896 (at Niagara Falls) is undoubtedly the most
tremendous event in ALL engineering history.”
His genius and his ideas are still alive. In the years to come, we will probably witness the realization of
his lifelong obsession - the wireless transmission of energy.
DISCUSSION
Although Nikola Tesla is considered the father of our modern technological age and one of the most
mysterious and controversial scientists in history, many of his discoveries went virtually unnoticed for
nearly a century. His contributions to science and technology include the invention of radio, television,
radio-astronomy, remote control and robotics, radar, medical x-ray and the wireless transmission of
electricity. Encyclopedia Britannica lists Nikola Tesla as one of the top ten most fascinating people in
history. So why is he virtually unknown to the general public? Who and why has been hiding his ideas
and inventions?
A FEW “ELECTRICAL” JOKES
Question: How many first year electrical engineering students does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: None. That’s a second year subject.
Question: How many second year electrical engineering students does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: One, but the rest of the class copies the report.
Question: How many third year electrical engineering students does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: “Will this question be on the final exam?”
Question: How many electrical engineers does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: None. They simply redefine darkness as the industry standard.
Question: How many computer engineers does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: “Why bother? The socket will be obsolete in six months anyway.”
Question: How many nuclear engineers does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer: Seven. One to install the new bulb and six to figure out what to do with the old one.
Question: How many engineers does it take to change a light bulb?
Answer 1: None. They are all too busy trying to design the perfect light bulb.
Answer 2: Only one with the instructional manual.
Answer 3: Three. One to hold the ladder, one to hold the light bulb, and the third to interpret the Japanese text.
Answer 4: None. “According to my calculations, the problem doesn’t exist.”
72
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Manufactured products are made from atoms. The properties of those products depend on how those
atoms are arranged. If we rearrange the atoms in coal, we can make diamond. If we rearrange the
atoms in sand (and add a few other trace elements), we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the
atoms in dirt, water and air, we can make potatoes. Isn’t it black magic? Are the medieval witches
back? No, they say. It is nanotechnology! And it refers to a field of applied science and technology in
order to control matter on the atomic and molecular scale. The “size” is generally 100 nanometres21
or smaller resulting in the fabrication of devices with critical dimensions that lie within that size range.
That small?
Today’s manufacturing methods are very crude at the molecular level. Casting, grinding, milling and
even lithography move atoms in great thundering statistical herds. It's like trying to make things out of
LEGO blocks with boxing gloves on your hands. Yes, you can push the LEGO blocks into great heaps and
pile them up, but you can't really snap them together the way you'd like.
In the future, nanotechnology will let us take off the boxing gloves. We'll be able to snap together the
fundamental building blocks of nature easily, inexpensively and in most of the ways permitted by the
laws of physics. This will be essential if we are to continue the revolution in computer hardware beyond
about the next decade, and will also let us fabricate an entire new generation of products that are
cleaner, stronger, lighter, and more precise.
It's worth pointing out that the word "nanotechnology" has become very popular and is used to
describe many types of research where the characteristic dimensions are less than about 1,000
nanometres. For example, continued improvements in lithography have resulted in line widths that
are less than one micron: this work is often called "nanotechnology." Sub-micron lithography is clearly
very valuable (ask anyone who uses a computer!) but it is equally clear that lithography will not let us
build semiconductor devices in which individual dopant atoms are located at specific lattice sites. Many
of the exponentially improving trends in computer hardware capability have remained steady for the
last 50 years. There is fairly widespread belief that these trends are likely to continue for at least
another several years, but then lithography starts to reach its fundamental limits.
Nanotechnology is a highly multidisciplinary field, from applied physics, materials science, interface
and colloid science, device physics, supramolecular chemistry, self-replicating machines and robotics,
chemical engineering, mechanical engineering to biological engineering and electrical engineering.
Examples of nanotechnology in modern use are the manufacture of polymers based on molecular
structure, and the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science. Despite the great
promises of numerous nanotechnologies, real commercial applications have mainly used the
advantages of colloidal nanoparticles in bulk form, such as suntan lotion, cosmetics, protective
coatings, drug delivery and stain resistant clothing.
The idea of manipulating and positioning individual atoms and molecules is still new and takes some
getting used to. However, as Feynman said in a classic talk in 1959: "The principles of physics, as far
as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of manoeuvring things atom by atom." We need to
apply at the molecular scale the concept that has demonstrated its effectiveness at the macroscopic
scale: making parts go where we want by putting them where we want!
The requirement for low cost creates an interest in self replicating manufacturing systems, studied by
von Neumann in the 1940's. These systems are able both to make copies of themselves and to
manufacture useful products. If we can design and build one such system the manufacturing costs for
21
nano = one billionth, prefix meaning 10-9; the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of
the earth!
73
more such systems and the products they make (assuming they can make copies of themselves in some
reasonably inexpensive environment) will be very low.
Before ending this almost science fiction story, let’s just mention a few applications of nanotechnology.
In medicine, nanotechnology is used in diagnostics, drug delivery and tissue engineering. Energy –
reduction of energy consumption, increasing the efficiency of energy production, the use of more
environmentally friendly energy systems, recycling of batteries. Information and communication –
novel semiconductor devices, displays, quantum computers. Heavy industry – aerospace, refineries,
vehicle manufacturers. Consumer goods – foods, household, optics, textiles, cosmetics.
The above list speaks for itself! Nevertheless, one important question arises: Will it be possible to
rearrange atoms in humans in order to get good and normal people? It would be a much greater
achievement than to make potatoes. Potatoes can always be planted.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
WRITE DOWN THE ANSWERS AND DISCUSS THEM WITH YOUR COLLEAGUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is your opinion of nanotechnology?
Which of the above nanotechnology aspects do you find most interesting and important?
Explain why.
Do you have some knowledge about other achievements in nanotechnology which have not
been mentioned in the text?
TWO NANO JOKES
Pre-Med22 Upstart23
As a pre-med student at University of Wisconsin, I had to take a difficult class in physics. One day our professor was discussing
nanotechnology, complicated concept. A student in the back of lecture room rudely interrupted to ask, "Why do we have to
learn this stuff?"
"To save lives." The professor responded quickly and continued the lecture. A few minutes later, the same student spoke up
again. "So how does physics save lives?" he persisted.
"It usually keeps the idiots like you out of medical school," replied the professor.
Scientists
There’s a nuclear scientist, a genetic engineer and a nanotechnologist all being held at the barrel of a gun by a crazy man. The
captor says he’ll shoot all of them unless they can convince him they are doing something good for the world.
The nuclear scientist tries first, explaining that nuclear power is “clean, cheap, and will solve climate change.” Unconvinced,
his captor shoots him dead and turns next to the nanotechnologist to plead his case.
Before he can say a word however, the genetic engineer intervenes.
“No!” pleads the genetic engineer “please shoot me first – I’d rather die than hear yet another lecture on why nanotechnology
is going to save the world!”
22
23
a course or a set of classes that students take in preparation for medical school
a person who has recently started a new position or job but who behaves as if they are more important than other people (=skorojević)
74
PART 2
HOW TO WRITE A JOB APPLICATION
Even before they graduate, students start thinking about their future employment and one of the first
things they have to do is to write and submit a job application and a CV24 or résumé.
In different countries, different conventions apply to the process of job application and interviews.
However, a CV or résumé contains all the unchanging information about the student, i.e. education,
background and work experience. This usually accompanies a letter of application, which in some
countries is expected to be hand-written, not word-processed. A supplementary information sheet
containing information relevant to this particular job may also be required, though this is not used in
some countries. In some companies applicants are expected to write all their personal data on a
standard application form. Unfortunately, no two application forms are alike, and filling in each one
may present unexpected difficulties. Some personnel departments or human resources believe that
the CV and application letter give a better impression of a candidate than a form.
Therefore, when you apply for a job, you may need to fill in a company application form which asks
for personal details, your qualifications, and your work history. Alternatively, you may be asked to
supply a CV, which gives similar information, but which you write yourself. In either case, you will need
to write a covering letter to go with the application form or CV. Most jobs are advertised in the papers
or specialist publications, and before you write your covering letter you should study the wording of
the advertisement carefully. Find out exactly what the employer is looking for (e.g., your working
experience, knowledge of foreign languages, etc). Then in your covering letter, try to show that you
have all the qualities, qualifications, and experience that the employer is looking for. Do not simply
repeat all the information in the CV, but highlight the most important parts. There are different kinds
of interviews: either traditional one-to-one interviews, or so called panel interviews where one or
more candidates are interviewed by a panel interviewers. Sometimes applicants have to demonstrate
how they can cope in actual business situations. The atmosphere of an interview may vary from the
informal to the formal and interviewers may take a friendly, neutral or even hostile approach. Different
interviewers use different techniques and the only rules that applicants should be aware of may be
“Expect the unexpected” and “Be yourself”. Of course, the salary is an important part in the process
of job hunting. Certain companies, beside a good salary may offer some extra benefits, such as a
company car or cheap housing loans, bonuses paid in, the so-called “thirteenth month”, company
pension schemes, free canteen meals, long holidays or flexible working hours. All these definitely
contribute to the attractiveness of a job. Ever since Croatia started democratic processes in the early
nineties of the last century, some foreign companies and employers have been advertising posts in
English emphasizing the need of applicant’s fluent knowledge of at least one foreign language.
Therefore, CVs and covering letters should be written in a foreign language, mostly English. The
interviewers usually ask applicants to speak English and if they get the job, they are often sent to
specialize aboard, usually to the country from which the employer comes from. For our graduates,
knowing at least one foreign language is an imperative not only when European Union is regarded, but
the Bologna process requirements are the same.
Now before looking at the following application forms, covering letters, CVs, imagine that you want to
apply for the job and draft an application letter, following these guidelines:
24
CV abb. for curriculum vitae = a written record of your education and employment, that you send when you apply for a job; pronounced
in AmE [kə,rikjələm ‘vaiti:] and in BrE [kə,rikjələm ‘vi:tai]; Americans use résumé /’rezjumei/ more often
75





introduce yourself - name, age, nationality, etc
state when you are available to start working
describe your relevant experience – or justify your lack of experience.
describe your skills in the languages required
describe how you meet requirements for the job
Read the following application letter and the applicant’s CV and try to write your own letter and CV.
3333 Imperial Way
K-10004 Freetown
European Sales Office
ACME Atlantic Ltd
45 Bentonville Road
London EC2 4AC
26 April 2012
Dear Sirs,
I noted with interest your advertisement in today’s Daily Planet.
You will see from the enclosed CV that I have three years’ experience in marketing. My responsibilities
have included all types of administrative work, product development, arranging and attending
presentations, working with clients and solving problems that arise.
Although I have an excellent relationship with my present employers, I feel that my prospects with
them are limited and that there would be more scope for my talents with a larger, more dynamic
company.
If you consider that my qualifications and experience are suitable, I should be available for interview
at any time.
Yours faithfully
Arthur Dent
Arthur Dent
Enc: CV
76
CURRICULUM VITAE
Arthur Dent
address
3333 Imperial Way
K-10004 Freetown
interests
mountain biking, reading, skiing,
sailing
phone & fax
555-56568756
languages
fluent Spanish (my mother is Mexican)
good conversational French
date of birth
2/21/78
professional
experience
Chicago Products:
marketing assistant
1997 –
references
Mrs Francine Dexter,
Marketing Director
Chicago Products Inc.,
4450 Capitol Drive
Milwaukee WI 52303
education
& training
1993 - 1997
Green Bay High School
Green Bay, Wisconsin
77
Tijardovićeva 17
10110 Zagreb
(01) 3881 477
[email protected]
April 22, 2013
SIEMENS d.d.
Human Resources
Heinzlova 70 a
10000 Zagreb
APPLICATION
Dear Sirs,
I would like to apply for the post of Development Engineer, as advertised in the April issue of
Electronics Today. I enclose my CV with the name of one referee.
I consider myself well qualified for this post. My college work was good and I have completed all my
modules successfully. I have just graduated from the Department of Electrical Engineering, the
University of Applied Sciences in Zagreb. During the 6th term I completed student’s practice in an
electronics company. This provided valuable experience in the design, development, and production
of electronic equipment and accessories. I would like to continue my education for another two years
to get my Master’s degree.
I am now looking for a permanent position in a dynamic, interesting and challenging working place
which would give me an opportunity to fully realize my interests and qualities and to continue my
education.
I am confident that with my relevant qualifications, knowledge of English and German, as well as my
personal qualities, I will be able to satisfy all your requirements.
Please find attached a copy of my CV and reference.
Hoping that you would take my application under serious consideration, I remain,
Yours faithfully,
Hrvoje Horvatić
Hrvoje Horvatić
Enc: CV
78
CURRICULUM VITAE
Name:
Address:
Hrvoje Horvatić
Tijardovićeva 17
10110 Zagreb
Phone:
(01) 3881 477
E-mail:
[email protected]
Date of birth: February 12th, 1986
Nationality:
Croatian
Marital status: single
Educational background
2004 – 2008
2000 – 2004
University of Applied Sciences in Zagreb, Department of Electrical Engineering,
module: Communication and Computer Technology
Mathematics high school (MIOC), Zagreb,
Working experience
2007
student’s practice in Electronics and Telecommunications, Zagreb
Languages
English – written and spoken fluently
German – finished elementary school in Berlin (my parents worked there)
Other qualifications
computer knowledge: operational systems: DOS, Windows 3., UNIX, programming in Fortran and C,
basics of SQL-a, developing Web pages, (HTML maps, HTML forms, basics of Java script, etc), using
MS office, Auto CAD, Proteus, etc.
Skills
clean driving license (category B)
Interests
theatre, movies, reading, swimming
Reference
Prof Krešimir Meštrović, PhD
Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Applied sciences, Zagreb
79
COMPLETE THE CV WITH ALL THE RELEVANT INFORMATION ABOUT YOURSELF.
CURRICULUM VITAE
Personal details
Name
_________________________________________________
Date of birth
_________________________________________________
Address
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Telephone number
_________________________________________________
Education
-
_________________________________________________
-
_________________________________________________
Languages
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Working experience
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Other qualifications
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Skills
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Hobbies/interests
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
References / available upon request
academic
work
________________________________
_____________________________
________________________________
_____________________________
________________________________
_____________________________
80
CHOOSE THE MOST APPROPRIATE WORD FROM THE OPTIONS IN BRACKETS
1. I am writing to (apply, request, ask) for the post of Sales Consultant advertised in today’s
edition of “The Guardian”.
2. I enclose my curriculum vitae for the (job, position, work) of Program Manager.
3. As you will see from the enclosed (CV, covering letter, application), I have had several years’
experience of Export Sales.
4. I (qualified, left, graduated) from Manchester Technical College with an HND in Electronic
Engineering.
5. At present, I am (worked, employed, taken) by Unisys, where I work in the Customer Services
Department.
6. I would be grateful if you could send me an application (form, formula, card).
7. While I was at Dell, I was (liable, responsible, charged) for the day-to-day running of the
Technical Services Department.
8. At Data International my duties (included, added, completed) installing and testing new
computer systems.
9. I look (forward, ahead, on) to hearing from you.
TICK THE ITEMS YOU THINK YOU SHOULD MENTION WHEN YOU APPLY FOR A JOB ADVERTISED IN
THE NEWSPAPERS.

begin with the reference to where you saw the job advertised

give details of the subjects you studied at school

list briefly all previous jobs

be honest and admit that you lack exactly the required experience

indicate your current level of responsibility

explain why the company would benefit if they employed you

say when you will be available for interview

request that they reply as soon as is reasonably possible
MORE POSSIBLE QUESTIONS DURING THE JOB INTERVIEW:
If you have done the exercise in Part 4, Job interview questions, here are some possible, unexpected
and tricky questions which some of our students were asked:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Are you ready to work overtime?
What communication did you have with your ex-boss?
Do you mind working in a noisy environment?
How do you feel working with people whose national culture/race is different from yours?
Are you afraid of flying?
Are you willing to go on business trips?
Here is a scheme which is used in one of our production lines. Could you explain it to us?
What do you know about our company?
What salary do you expect?
Are you in a steady relationship?
Do you plan to marry in the near future?
81
A JOB INTERVIEW JOKE
Reaching the end of a job interview, the Human Resources person asked a young applicant fresh out
of school,
"And what starting salary are you looking for?"
The applicant said, "In the neighbourhood of $125,000 a year, depending on the benefits package."
The interviewer said, "Well, what would you say to a package of 5-weeks’ vacation, 14 paid holidays,
full medical and dental, company matching retirement fund to 50% of salary, and a company car leased
every two years - say, a red Corvette?"
The applicant sat up straight and said, "Wow! Are you kidding?"
And the interviewer replied, "Yeah, but you started it."
82
HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY
A summary or an abstract is a short piece of writing containing the main ideas in a document, research
paper or professional article. In the majority of cases they are written in English. Therefore, it is
advisable for prospective authors to know the principles and techniques used when summarizing a
paper or an article. It contains only relevant, clear, and precise data concerning the paper; it comprises
only the essential, basic information of the article in question. Summarizing means condensing or
shortening a reading selection while preserving its overall meaning in order to demonstrate your
understanding of a reading, to establish ideas you need to discuss or analyze in an essay, or just to
inform a group of listeners about the text or article.
A summary requires certain organization, i.e. it consists of the title, the introduction, the body and the
conclusion. It keeps the same logical sequence as the article itself. The title must be as short as possible
and is usually written in block letters. The introduction, the body and the conclusion should not exceed
100 words. Very rarely, more than 100 words are allowed. The style is neutral and impersonal, not “I”,
but “it”, “they” sometimes “we”. Almost all the tenses used for writing summaries are in the passive
voice, the simple present tense being the most common. If chronological sequence is required, the
simple past, present perfect and present simple are used. Short sentences are strongly recommended,
they offer a quicker and better overview of the information.
The lexis used in technical writing is usually a mixture of general lexis, specific lexis used in all
fundamental engineering branches and lexis used in specialized fields of science and engineering.
Although it might seem difficult and demanding to write a summary, the first step is almost a “copypaste” activity - all summaries usually begin with one of the following introductory phrases:
-
This paper deals with…..
This paper discusses…..
This article gives a short description of…..
This article shows the relationship between…..
This paper explains the methods used to…..
Instead of “paper” or “article” you may say “the author”. Then summarize the author’s opinion on the
subject discussed, highlight main ideas, rewrite the thought in your own words taking into
consideration key words, be brief and accurate. Writing a summary is like writing hints or a crib sheet
before an examination, however you have to make sentences out of them which would have the
correct sentence scheme, i.e. Subject, Verb/Predicate and Object. Here is the summary for the paper
“Description of Essential Factors for Successful Reform of Electricity Sector in Croatia” WSEAS
Transactions on Power Systems, January 2006 (authors are from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering
and Computing, Department of Power Systems):
This paper deals with the problems concerning the choice of electricity market
model in Croatia. At the moment, Croatian electricity market is opened app. 14%.
This is obviously too little particularly because the Republic of Croatia has started
accession talks with the European Union regarding its membership and this
membership implies faster opening of the market as well as the most efficient
market model. It also gives positive and negative aspects of the regulation because
regulation affects liberalization of electricity market very directly, encourages
investments in power supply field and prevents monopolistic behaviour on the
market. The presented scheme includes possible partners in the open power supply
field as well as regulatory effect toward the market in the last three years. The
83
paper also analyzes the questions concerning the structure and organization of
electricity market which are vital for the proper choice of electricity market model.
Key words - electricity market, license, market model, regulation of energy activities
More about writing a summary, you will hear in the sixth semester, during the lecture Završni ispit.
And finally, if you think that writing a summary in English is difficult, it isn’t easy for the English either.
Just read the following notes made by Richard Lederer, an Englishman, in his essay called “English is a
crazy language”.
English muffins weren't invented in England or French fries in France. Sweetmeats
are candies while sweetbreads, which aren't sweet, are meat. There's neither egg
in eggplant nor ham in hamburger; neither apple nor pine in pineapple.
We take English for granted. But if we explore its paradoxes, we find that quicksand
can work slowly, boxing rings are square, and a guinea pig is neither from Guinea
nor is it a pig.
And why is it that writers write but fingers don't fing, grocers don't groce and
hammers don't ham? If the plural of tooth is teeth, why isn't the plural of booth
beeth? One goose, two geese. OK. So one moose, two meese? NO.
If teachers taught, why didn't preachers praught? If a vegetarian eats vegetables,
what does a humanitarian eat?
Sometimes I think all the English speakers should be committed to an asylum for
the verbally insane. In what language do people recite at a play and play at a
recital?
Ship by truck and send cargo by ship? Have noses that run and feet that smell? Park
on driveways and drive on parkways?
How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same, while a wise man and a wise
guy are opposites? How can overlook and oversee be opposites, while quite a lot
and quite a few are alike? How can the weather be hot as hell one day and cold as
hell another?
You have to marvel at the unique lunacy of a language in which your house can
burn up as it burns down, in which you fill in a form by filling out and in which an
alarm clock goes off by going on.
English was invented by people, not computers, and it reflects the creativity of the
human race (which, of course, isn't a race at all).
That is why, when the stars are out, they are visible, but when the lights are out,
they are invisible. And why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, but when I wind up
this essay, I end it!
CHOOSE ONE OF THE TEXTS IN THIS MANUAL AND WRITE A SUMMARY (100 - 150 words)
84
HOW TO WRITE A POWER POINT PRESENTATION
YOU’RE GIVING A PRESENTATION…
Do this quiz about body language first. Sometimes more than one answer is possible:
1. How should you stand?
a) Arms crossed on chest.
b) Straight but relaxed.
c) Knees unlocked.
2. What should you do with your hands?
a) Put hands on hips.
b) Put one hand in a pocket.
c) Keep hands by your side.
3. How can you emphasize something?
a) Point finger at the audience.
b) Move or lean forward to show that something is important.
c) Use a pointer to draw attention to important facts.
4. What should you do when you feel nervous?
a) Hold pen or cards in your hands.
b) Walk back and forth.
c) Look at the flip chart or screen (not at the audience).
5. How should you keep eye contact with the audience?
a) Make eye contact with each individual often.
b) Choose some individuals and look at them as often as possible.
c) Spread attention around the audience.
6. How fast should you speak?
a) About 20% more slowly than normal.
b) Just as fast as in a normal conversation.
c) Faster than in a normal conversation.
7. How should you express enthusiasm?
a) By raising voice level.
b) By waving arms.
c) By making hand or arm gestures for important points.
(Suggested answers: 1) b 2) c 3) b/c 4) a 5) a/c 6) a 7) a/c)
85
MAIN PARTS OF A PRESENTATION
INTRODUCTION
Welcome audience:
-
Good morning/afternoon, ladies and gentlemen.
Hello/Hi, everyone.
First of all, let me thank you all for coming here today.
I’m happy/delighted that so many of you could make it today.
Introduce yourself (name, position/function):
-
Let me introduce myself. I’m ….., a second year student from the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Applied Sciences in Zagreb.
For those of you who don’t know me, my name’s ………., a second year student from the
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Applied Sciences in Zagreb.
As you probably know, I’m ……, a second year student of the Department of Electrical
Engineering, University of Applied Sciences in Zagreb
TODAY’S TOPIC IS …
State your topic:
-
-
since you are all students of Electrical Engineering, I’m sure you are familiar with the topic of
my presentation. Anyway I’ll give you a short Summary. Take your time to read it and then I’ll
continue
As you can see on the screen, our topic today is …
Today’s topic is …
What I’d like to present to you today is …
The subject of my presentation today is …
Say why your topic is important for the audience:
-
My talk is particularly relevant to those of you /us who ….
Today’s topic is of particular interest to those of you/us who ….
The/My topic is very important for you because ……
By the end of this talk you will be familiar with ….
Say how long the talk will be:
-
My talk should take about 10 minutes. Please feel free to interrupt me at any time with
questions.
There will be time for questions after my presentation.
MY FIRST SLIDE SHOWS …
Say something about the Contents:
-
I’ll begin by showing you the main points of my presentation, these are….
I’d like to give you an overview of my presentation; first of all, I’ll be talking about….
I’ll show you how I have divided my presentation. The main points are….
Continue with showing them your slides
-
my first slide shows …
take a look at my first slide …
as you can see here ...
86
-
let me just show you …
to illustrate this …
my next slide shows …
to illustrate this, let’s have a closer look at …
I have a slide here that shows …
I’d like to stress/highlight/emphasize the following point(s)..
let me point out that …
I think you’ll be surprised to see that …
what I’d like to point out here is …
I’d like to focus your attention to …
or/and graphs
-
I’ll show you two bar charts which illustrate/show…
the left bar chart explains…
when test results are introduced in the table, the basic flowchart below will illustrate …
A
B
C
D
ABCD
1
ABCD
ABCD
2
ABCD
ABCD
3
ABCD
ABCD
ABCD
ABCD
4
5
6
ABCD
ABCD
87
or other useful visuals, such as
-
pie chart
technical drawing
line graph
organizational chart/organogram
THE RULE OF SIX
When presenting text on overheads or PowerPoint slides, it is a good idea to use the rule of six which means:
a maximum of six lines per slide
a maximum of six words per line
If you stick to this rule, you won’t risk overloading your bullet charts with too much information.
and SOME OTHER RULES
never write complete sentences,
write bullet points,
use different colours,
font size at least 24,
speak to the audience, don’t read to
them,
keep eye contact,
don’t use too many sound effects and
animation.
88
TO SUM UP…
Signal the end of your presentation:
-
I’m now approaching the end of my presentation
Well, this brings me to the end of my presentation
OK, that’s everything I wanted to say about …
As a final point, I’d like to …
Before I stop, let me go over the key issues again …
Just to summarize the main points of my talk …
To sum up/To conclude/In conclusion, I’d like to
Invite questions:
-
Are there any questions?
We just have time for a few questions.
And now I’ll be happy to answer any questions you may have.
Dealing with questions/clarifying questions:
I’m afraid I didn’t (quite) catch that.
I’m sorry; could you repeat your question, please?
So, if I understood you correctly, you would like to know whether …
Avoiding giving an answer:
-
If you don’t mind, could we discuss that on another occasion?
I’m afraid that’s not really what we’re discussing today.
Well, actually I’d prefer not to discuss that today.
Admitting you don’t know:
-
Sorry, that’s not my field.
I’m afraid I’m not in the position to answer that question at the moment.
I’m afraid I don’t know the answer to your question, but I’ll try to find out for you.
Asking questions:
-
Well, if you don’t have any questions, I’d like to ask some…
Allow me to put some questions and give answers if needed
I’d like to discuss some points, if you don’t mind
Thank the audience
On his web site, the American presentations guru Charlie F. Elroy, talks about his strategies for good
conclusion and says: “Forget standard phrases such as “Thank you very much for your attention” or
“Thank you for listening”. After a good presentation, it is the audience who should be thanking you!”
Since we are not Americans, thank your audience, they will appreciate it, particularly if your
presentation was not so good!
89
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER
A business letter is more formal than a personal letter. It should have a margin of at least one inch on
all four edges. There are 9 parts to a business letter.










Heading or letterhead – includes your company’s name, address, tel. number, fax number and
email address. If possible include your web address. Then skip a line and write a date. Never
abbreviate to Jan. 31. Write January 31.
The inside address (recipient address) - make it as complete as possible, include titles and
names of persons if known.
Reference – it is optional. Obligatory when dealing with large volume of correspondence. Start
with Re:
Salutation – also called greeting. Always formal. It begins with “Dear” and includes the person’s
last name. Always personalize the letter if the recipient is known. Otherwise - “Dear
sir/madam:”
Subject matter – optional, if there is reference, there is no subject and vice versa. Placed one
line bellow the salutation.
The body – written as text with paragraphs. Skip the line between paragraphs.
Each paragraph deals with one point and one point only.
The Complimentary close – always end with “Sincerely yours “– it can be preceded with longer
line like “Looking forward to hearing from you” etc.
Signature – Skip several lines (for the handwritten signature) after the close and type your
name and your title. Women also indicate how they wish to be addressed – Miss, Mrs, Ms.
Enclosures – if you include other material in the letter, put Enc or Encl, two lines below.
Business letters should not contain postscripts.
E-MAILS AND LETTERS – CHECK LIST









Always use a standard - There are differences between British English and American English
customs in letter writing. British English is the standard in EU so stick to it.
Always use a salutation (greeting) in English - In 99% of cases this will be with “Dear…” followed
by the last name. The exceptions are letters of recommendation that start with “To whom it
may concern”.
Always place the heading under the salutation
Always try to round off a letter with “-ing forms” - These stress that you have an on-going
relationship and there is unfinished business. Example: We are looking forward to receiving
your…, We are looking forward to discussing…etc.
•Always write the month in letters - Write the month in letters, e.g. 12 June 2005, or ISO
standard for all-digit dates (CCYY-MM-DD) so 2005-06-12.
•Never use a place-name in front of the date - Never write “Zagreb, 12 June 2005” Just write
the date.
•Never use exclamation marks (!) in business letters - An exclamation mark in English is used
to express astonishment or surprise. You are very unlikely to need them in normal business
letters, faxes or e-mails.
•Never use short forms like “I’m” or “don’t” in business letters - Use these only in informal,
conversational writing and when reporting speech. Sometimes they are used in e-mails.
•Never capitalize “you” and “your” in mid-sentence - Capitalized “You” and “Your” in mid
sentence disappeared a few hundred years ago in the English language.
90
BUSINESS LETTER STYLES
MODIFIED BLOCK STYLE
________
________
________
BLOCK STYLE
SEMI BLOCK STYLE
________
________
________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
____
_________
_________
_________
_____
__________
__________
__________
_____
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
____________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
__________
__________________
______________________
__________________
_________________
_________
_________
________
________
INQUIRY25
Please send information about…
Please quote prices …, delivery date
…and terms of payment
Leaflet, catalogue, price list, sample
ORDER27
This is the order for the merchandize
listed bellow / We would like to place
an order…
Thank you for the prompt handling of
this order
_________
_________
INVOICE26
Prices are increased by…
Prices are reduced by…
We offer discount of …
Temporarily out of stock…
Spare parts are available
OFFER28
Thank for your enquiry of April 18th concerning…
We are glad to say that we can supply any quantity
of …
COMPLAINT29
I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with..
I was surprised/shocked to find…
25
upit
faktura
27 narudžba
28
ponuda
29 prigovor
26
91
LAST BUT NOT LEAST – PUNCTUATION
PUNCTUATION
capital letter
(.)
full stop (UK)
period (US)
(?)
question mark
(!)
exclamation mark
(,)
comma
(‘)
apostrophe
(:)
colon
(;)
semi-colon
(-)
hyphen
(–)
dash
(“ “) (‘ ’)
quotation marks
inverted commas
(UK)
USES
- countries
- nationalities
- languages
- religions
- days of the week
- months
- titles
- at the end of a sentence
- after abbreviations
- as the decimal point in figures( read
“point”)
- to separate parts of email and web
addresses (read “dot”)
- after a direct question
- to show doubt, especially with a date
- at the end of a sentence to show surprise,
shock, etc.
- to indicate loud sound
- between items in a list
- to show pause in a long sentence
- before question tags
- for missing letters
- for possessives
- to introduce a list or a quotation in a
sentence
- in US English in greetings in business
letters
- to separate two parts of a sentence
- to join two words together
- to divide a word at the end of a line
- to separate parts of sentences
- to mean “to”
- to show that words are spoken
- to show that someone else originally
wrote the words
(UK English – single marks)
(US English – double marks)
EXAMPLES
- Croatia, Spain, Portugal
- Croatian, Spanish, Portuguese
- Croatian, Spanish, Portuguese
- Roman Catholic, Moslem
- Sunday, Thursday
- February, July, October
- Mr. and Mrs.
- Oxford St.
- $3.5 million
- What is your name?
- James Carter (?1587-1654)
- I was not there!
- Bang!
- You are lying, aren’t you?
- I’ll, she can’t, don’t
- John’s house, James’ house
- You should take: water, juice, some fruit …
- Dear Mr Stein:
- I sent John a letter; he will receive it tomorrow.
- e-mail, light-blue
- The book – the one with the red covers – is on
the shelf.
- The Zagreb – Rijeka train…
- “We are happy,“ they said.
- They wrote about the war as ‘the worst
experience on the journey’.
“A BUSINESS LETTER“
When I worked for a company that had a contract with 3M, 3M had asked me to write them a memo
describing why we were having problems with diskette failures. I said in the memo that the disks were
failing due to head crashes.
"If the customers would just clean their heads periodically, we wouldn't have these problems," I said
in the memo.
One customer responded with "What kind of shampoo do you recommend?
92
PART 3
WHEN IN ROME, DO AS THE ROMANS DO30
Nobody actually wants to cause offence but, as business becomes ever more international, it is
increasingly easy to get it wrong. There may be a single European market but it does not mean that
managers behave the same in Greece as they do in Denmark.
In many European countries handshaking is an automatic gesture. In France good manners require that
on arriving at a business meeting a manager shakes hands with everyone present. This can be a
demanding task and, in a crowded room, may require gymnastics ability if the farthest hand is to be
reached.
Handshaking is almost as popular in other countries – including Germany, Belgium and Italy. But
Northern Europeans, such as the British and Scandinavians, are not quite so fond of physical
demonstrations of friendliness.
In Europe the most common challenge is not the content of the food, but the way you behave as you
eat. Some things are just not done. In France it is not good manners to raise tricky questions of business
over the main course. Business has its place: after the cheese course. Unless you are prepared to eat
in silence you have to talk about something – something, that is, other than the business deal which
you are continually chewing over in your head.
Italians give similar importance to the whole process of business entertaining. In fact, in Italy the
biggest fear, as course after course appears, is that you entirely forget you are there on business. If
you have the energy, you can always do the polite thing when the meal finally ends, and offer to pay.
Then, after a lively discussion, you must remember the next polite thing to do – let your host pick up
the bill.
In Italy the question of title is further confused by the fact that everyone with a university degree can
be called Dottore – and engineers, lawyers and architects may also expect to be called by their
professional titles.
The Germans are also notable for the amount of formality they bring to business. As an outsider, it is
often difficult to know whether colleagues have been working together for 30 years or have just met
in the lift. If you are used to calling people by their names this can be a little strange. To the Germans,
titles are important. Forgetting that someone should be called Herr Doktor or Frau Direktorin might
cause serious offence. It is equally offensive to call them by a title they do not possess.
In Germany, as you walk sadly back to your hotel room, you may wonder why your apparently friendly
hosts have not invited you out for the evening. Don’t worry, it is probably nothing personal. Germans
do not entertain business people with the same enthusiasm as some of their European counterparts.
These cultural challenges exist side by side with the problems of doing business in a foreign language.
Language, of course, is full of difficulties – disaster may be only a syllable away. But the more you know
of the culture of the country you are dealing with, the less likely you are to get into difficulties. It is
worth the effort. It might be rather hard to explain that the reason you lost the contract was not the
product or the price, but the fact that you offended your hosts in a light-hearted comment over an
aperitif. Good manners are admired; moreover, they can also make or break the deal.
30
an English proverb = Dok si u Rimu, ponašaj se kao Rimljani.
93
POLITICALLY CORRECT LANGUAGE – HE vs. SHE
In 1980’s some native speakers of English, especially those with liberal and socialist political
convictions, started to criticize the existing language and culture as “male-dominated” and
“patriarchal”. The history of society was written from the male point of view, e.g. mankind, chairman,
man-made, salesman, policeman, etc. To avoid this sexist, old-fashioned language, teaching politically
correct language began to be applied to a broad range of issues such as race, age, sexual orientation,
abilities, nationalities, ethnic groups. In the tables there are some examples which will help you change
and correct important cultural issues and be able to function in English-speaking academic and
business settings.
After everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone, and somebody etc., one of the plural pronouns they,
them and their, is often used: I hope nobody has forgotten their passport with them. Do not be
surprised when you see a sentence like: Every student has to pass their exams. Although the second
example violates traditional rules of subject-verb agreement, it conforms to new rules of gender
neutrality and reflects a growing respect for others.
instead of
you should say
policeman
steward, stewardess
police officer
flight attendant
salesman, saleswoman
sales person
chairman
chairperson, chair
mankind
humanity, humankind, people
man-made
artificial
Negro, colored, Afro-American
African American
Australian Aborigines
Native Australian
white
Caucasian
oriental
Asian
elderly, aged, old, geriatric
older person, senior citizen, senior
genocide
ethnic cleansing
MORE JOKES
He: I’m a photographer and I’ve been looking for a face like yours!
She: I’m a plastic surgeon. I’ve been looking for a face like yours!!!
He: Hi! Didn’t we go on a date once? Or was it twice?
She: Must have been once. I never make the same mistake twice!!
He: How did you get so beautiful?
She: I must have been given your share!!!
He: I think I could make you very happy.
She: How? Are you leaving?
He: What would you say if I asked you to marry me?
She: Nothing. I can’t talk and laugh at the same time.
He: Can I have your name?
She: Why, don’t you already have one?
94
A HANDSHAKE, A BOW OR AN EMBRACE
The way that people greet each other differs from one country to another, but all greetings are meant
to show friendship and respect. In Japan, whether meeting someone for the first time or seeing an old
friend, people usually greet each other with a bow In Thailand, the custom is to put one’s hands
together at the chest or in front of the face, with the head bowed. In Latin countries, women often
greet each other with an embrace, putting their cheeks together while exchanging greetings. Friendly
backslapping is often a part of the embrace that Spanish men use to greet each other In France the
way to greet friends is with a kiss on both cheeks. But possibly the most unusual way to greet a friend
is the one used by the Eskimos in Alaska - an enthusiastic rubbing of noses! More and more, however,
the handshake is becoming the most popular greeting around the world.
The handshake got its start in the Middle ages, when all strangers were seen as possible enemies.
When two men who didn’t know each other met on a road, they immediately pulled out their weapons.
When they were satisfied that the other person was not an enemy, they would put their weapons
away and hold out their hands in a gesture of friendship. While they were talking, they often
maintained the handshake until they were sure they could trust the other person.
Variations of the handshake have developed over the years. In European countries, the handshake has
become so popular that it is used almost every time people get together - sometimes several times a
day with the same person In Europe, people take each other's hands gently and don't move them as
much as in other parts of the world In Arabic countries, men usually don't release the handshake until
many greetings have been exchanged In the United States, the handshake is used when meeting
people for the first time or when greeting people on important occasions. The American handshake is
usually a very strong one. Some people even think it’s too strong. Also. Americans move their hands
up and down (shake them!) more than Europeans do. But whatever greeting is used - a handshake, a
bow, or an embrace - we can all recognize and understand a gesture of friendship. After a handshake,
a bow or an embrace small talks usually begin, particularly if people meet for the first time and do not
know each other very well. You may find the following hints quite useful. In most English-speaking
countries, it is normal and necessary to make "small talk” in certain situations. Small talk is a casual
form of conversation that "breaks the ice" or fills an awkward silence between people. Even though
you may feel shy using your second language, it is sometimes considered rude to say nothing. Just as
there are certain times when small talk is appropriate, there are also certain topics that people often
discuss during these moments.
Talking about the weather
Beautiful day. isn't it?
Can you believe all of this rain we've been having these days?
It looks like it's going to snow.
I'm sure it would be nice to be at the seaside right now.
I’ve heard we'll have thunderstorms this weekend.
We couldn’t ask for a nicer day. could we?
How about this weather?
Have you ordered this sunshine?
95
Talking about current events
Have you heard the news today?
You don’t know anything about the fire last night?
What do you think about this strike?
I read in the paper today that the City Mall is closing.
Have you heard on the radio that they are finally going to start
building the new bridge?
What about the Championship and our injured players?
Do you think we’re going to win tonight?
At the office
It’s Friday, looking forward to the weekend?
Have you been working here long?
Has it been a long week?
What a busy day today, isn’t it?
You look like you could use a cup of coffee. What happened?
Has the boss given you a day off?
What do you think of the new PCs?
At a social event
Are you enjoying yourself?
Pretty nice place, isn’t it?
So, how long have you known Jane?
Have you tried the rolls that Jane made?
It looks like you could use another drink.
I love your dress? Can I ask where you got it?
Out for a walk
How do you like the new park?
How old is your baby?
Look at those boys fighting! What are they fighting about?
What’s your puppy name?
Nice day to be outside, isn’t it?
The tulips are sure beautiful at this time of year, aren’t they?
Waiting somewhere
The bus must be running l late today.
Where is that booking-office clerk? I’ve been here since 5.
I didn’t think I would have to wait that long.
It looks like we are going to be here for a while.
I’ll have to remember not to come here on Mondays.
How long have you been waiting?
96
CHOOSE ONE OF THE ABOVE TOPICS AND WRITE YOUR OWN SMALL TALK WITH THE COLLEAGUE
SITTING NEXT TO YOU:
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
CAREFUL WITH GREETINGS!
I was arrested at the airport. Just because I was greeting my cousin Jack.
When I saw him, all that I said was “Hi Jack”, but very loud.
97
SOME HINTS ABOUT SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATIONS
Let us now give some hints about an issue called successful negotiations in English. After “small talks”
and the weather, business people start talking business. Therefore, if you find yourself having to
negotiate with an English-speaking person, e.g. about getting the best possible deal from your supplier,
about asking for a pay rise or promotion, or even making social arrangements with your colleagues,
the following “instructions” might help you. Although some negotiations are more important than
others, there are some useful phrases you can use at different stages of negotiations in order to make
your position clear and to make sure that the other party agrees with you.
It goes without saying that the better prepared you are, the more likely you are to get what you want.
Think about your goals - as well as those of the opposing party - to make sure you are clear about what
you want. What can you trade with the other party? Do you have any alternatives that are acceptable
to you? If you can also work out possible solutions, then it is easier to find an acceptable outcome.
Finally, you should be clear about your "bottom line": the point at which you can offer no more. In rare
cases you may even have to be prepared to walk away from the negotiation if you reach a stalemate:
a position from which it is impossible to negotiate any more.
Starting and outlining your position
Agreeing
Disagreeing
Clarifying
Summarizing
I'd like to begin by saying…
I'd like to outline our aims and objectives.
There are two main areas that we'd like to
concentrate on / discuss.
We agree.
This is a fair suggestion.
You have a good point.
I can't see any problem with that.
Provided ….
As long as you…., we will….
I'm afraid that's not acceptable to us.
I'm afraid we can't agree with you there.
Can I just pick you up on a point you made earlier.
I understand where you're coming from
I understand your position, but…
We're prepared to compromise, but…
If you look at it from our point of view,…
As we see it…
That's not exactly as we see it.
Is that your best offer?
Does anything I have suggested seem unclear to
you?
I'd like to clarify our position.
What do you mean exactly when you say …?
Could you clarify your last point for me?
Can we summarize what we've agreed so far?
Let's look at the points we agree on.
So the next step is…
98
During a negotiation, you're likely to hear "if" sentences, as the negotiation moves from the stage of
exploring issues to the stage of making a deal. It is very important to use the right type of “if” or
conditional sentences or you could “blow up” your deal. Here are a few examples to remind you about
the tenses you should use in the different types of negotiations. Translate them into Croatian.
If you increase the order, we'll reduce the price by 5%.
_________________________________________________________________________________
If you increased the order, we could / would reduce the price.
_________________________________________________________________________________
I’m sorry, but if you had increased the order, we would have reduced the price by 5%.
_________________________________________________________________________________
WHAT CAN YOU HEAR INSTEAD OF “IF” (e.g. “unless” = if not) - TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES INTO
CROATIAN:
As long as you increase your order, we can give you a greater discount.
________________________________________________________________________________
Unless you increase your order, we won't be able to give you a bigger discount.
________________________________________________________________________________
Provided you increase your order, we can give you a bigger discount.
________________________________________________________________________________
99
JOKES
IF and IF ONLY
MORE Ifs
THE ORIGINAL VERSION
AT THE DOCTOR’S
Patient: Doctor, I think that I've been bitten by a vampire.
Doctor: Drink this glass of water.
Patient: Will it make me better?
Doctor: No, I but I'll be able to see if your neck leaks.
If you love something or somebody, set it/her free.
e.g. If it comes back, it's yours. If it doesn't, it never was
yours.
THE PESSIMIST VERSION
If she ever comes back, she's yours. If she doesn't, well, as
expected, she never was.
THE OPTIMIST VERSION
Don’t worry, she will come back.
THE SUSPICIOUS VERSION
If she ever comes back, ask her why.
THE IMPATIENT VERSION
If she doesn't come back within some time limit, forget
her.
ENJOY CONFUSING MEANINGS AND FUNNY QUESTIONS
Johnny: If big elephants have big trunks31, do small
elephants have suitcases?
Bobby: If vegetarians eat vegetables, what do
humanitarians eat?
TRAIN SCHEDULE
A passenger: What's the use of having a train schedule if
the trains are always late?
The railroad engineer: How would we know they were
late, if we didn't have a schedule?
THE PATIENT VERSION
If she doesn't come back, continue to wait until she comes
back.
A GOOD QUESTION
Sam: Would you punish me for some thing I didn't do?
Teacher: No, of course not.
Sam: Good, because I didn't do my homework.
THE BILL GATES VERSION
If she comes back, I think we can charge her for reinstallation fees and tell her that she's also going to get an
upgrade.
A “CLEVER” QUESTION
Q: If you drop a white hat into the Red Sea, what does it
become?
A: Wet.
THE STATISTICIAN'S VERSION
If she loves you, the probability of her coming back is high.
If she doesn't, your relationship was improbable anyway.
THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
A family of mice was surprised by a big cat.
Father Mouse jumped and said, "Bow-wow!" The cat ran
away.
"What was that, Father?" asked Baby Mouse.
"Well, son, that's why it's important to learn a second
language."
THE POSSESSIVE VERSION
If you love somebody don't ever set her free.
THE FINANCE EXPERT VERSION
If she comes back, it’s time to look for fresh loans. If she
doesn't, write her off as an asset gone bad.
A person who speaks two languages is bilingual...
A person who speaks three languages is trilingual...
A person who speaks four or more languages is
multilingual.
What is a person who speaks one language?
An American.
NO IFs, BUT…
A: When I stand on my head the blood rushes to my
head, but when I stand on my feet the blood doesn't
rush to my feet. Why is this?
B: It's because your feet aren't empty.
31
what is the meaning of “trunk” here; what else can it mean?
100
PART 4
IS GRAMMAR IMPORTANT?
is the most frequent question students ask as soon as the word “grammar” is mentioned for the first
time in the lecture room. Here is a clear and simple answer: “Grammar is the backbone of a language”.
Grammar provides the structure one needs to organize and convey one’s messages and ideas.
Grammar provides the structure needed to organize and put messages and ideas across. If you want a
more vivid picture, it is the railway through which messages will be transported. In the same way as a
train cannot move without railways, ideas cannot be conveyed to their full extent without a good
command of the grammar patterns and structures of the language. Grammar is essential in order to
master a language, it is important to use and apply the rules and not to recite them by heart.
Moreover, there is the Bologna process which emphasizes the importance of learning foreign
languages and for that, grammar is needed. The main outcomes of the process are language and
academic mobility, employability and lifelong learning.
Since the introduction of the Bologna process into the higher education in Croatia in 2005/2006, the
“3+2” formula has entailed an overall revision of the contents of the degree courses and has introduced
a series of important innovations, such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
formation credits, ECTS (a new system of evaluating the knowledge acquired by the students)
verification of the students’ suitability for the course they have chosen
new courses
compulsory knowledge of one or more foreign languages.
Pay attention to the last item, “one or more foreign languages”. For a Croatian engineer, this last item
is an imperative, and to master a foreign language, grammar is needed. Let’s focus on the English
language in general. English is not just the international language of science. Increasingly, English has
become the international language of business and of the computer. You already know that. English
has become lingua franca – just imagine an Italian engineer speaking English with his Polish partner in
Berlin. Some picture! An everyday picture, though. So if you are still fighting with word order, grammar
and English tenses, you are going to lose, not only one battle, but the war as well. It simply is no longer
possible to do science or business except in English. No longer can a scientist depend on colleagues for
help in literature searchers or for translating manuscript. When the time comes, if you are good at
English, you will be competitive not only on Croatian market but on all markets as well.
The chosen chapters here are those which will help students in the so called small talks, i.e. the choice
of tenses and structures mostly used in everyday communication and those used in specific
engineering discussions.
Before going on with this grammar issue, it is worth mentioning that the only common feature
between the Croatian and English language is the Latin script. The two grammars have nothing in
common. So, let’s repeat the most important parts a future electrical engineer is going to use.
101
TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT
PRESENT CONTINUOUS - PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
AM
S32
ARE
- ING
IS
Remember
i.
ii.
verbs ending in –e, lose it when –ing is added: come - coming
one-syllable verbs ending in a consonant, double that consonant when –ing is added:sit sitting run - running
AM
S
ARE
NOT
- ING
IS
AM
ARE
S
- ING
IS
Present Continuous
- is used to describe situations or states which are temporary:
Mary is living in London at the moment.
Mary is not at home. She’s having a haircut.
- is used to describe activities or processes:
The boys are playing football in front of the house.
Why are you crying? Is something wrong?
- is used to talk about future happenings or definite arrangements in the future:
What are you doing this evening?
Peter is flying to London on Friday.
- is used to talk about developing or changing situations:
The weather’s getting worse and worse.
32
S = subject
102
She’s growing to be more and more like her mother.
- is used with always, constantly, continually, forever to express something unexpected or annoying:
She is always borrowing money and forgetting to pay you back.
He’s always asking silly questions.
- of “to be” is used to talk about people’s activity and behaviour at the moment of speaking:
You are being stupid (=behaving stupidly, not trying to understand).
Peter is being selfish; he is going to eat this cake all by himself.
Some verbs are not used in the continuous tenses. The most important of these verbs are:
appear
astonish
believe
belong to
concern
consist of
contain
depend on
deserve
dislike
doubt
feel (=have an opinion)
fit
guess
hate
have (=possess)
have to (=must)
hear
imagine
impress
include
involve
know
lack
like
love
matter
mean
measure
need
owe
own
please
possess
prefer
realize
recognize
refuse
remember
resemble
satisfy
see
seem
smell (=give out a smell)
suppose
surprise
taste (=have a flavour)
think (=have an opinion)
understand
want
wish
PRESENT SIMPLE
S
BARE INFINITIVE
3RD PERSON SING. – (E)S
remember
1. verbs ending in [s], [z], [∫], [3], [t∫] and [d3] get an -es [iz]:
dress [dres]  dresses [dresiz]
teach [ti : t∫]  teaches [ti : t∫iz]
if the verb ends in –e, only –s is added: freeze [fri : z]  freezes [fri : ziz]
2. verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant, change the –y into –ie when
3. person singular ending is added: try  tries
fly flies
DO
S
DOES
DO
N
O
T
BARE
INFINITIVE
BARE
S
DOES
INFINITIVE
103
Present Simple
- is used to describe situations which are permanent (universal truths):
Water freezes at 0º C.
The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
or are regarded as permanent:
Peter works in a bank.
Mary lives in Brighton.
- is used to talk about habits or things that happen regularly (habitual actions):
My father reads a newspaper every day.
Mary never takes sugar in her coffee.
- is used to talk about states in the present at the moment of speaking:
Peter looks ill today.
This food tastes awful!
- is used in explanations, instructions and demonstrations:
When we repair an appliance, we make sure that the current is switched off.
First I put some butter into a frying-pan and light the gas. Then I break two eggs ….
- is used with the verbs that are not normally found in the continuous form, but if they are, see
what happens and compare the differences in meaning:
I think you shouldn’t do it.
He is thinking about his girlfriend.
I measure 75 centimetres round the waist. Why’s he measuring the roof?
I see what you mean.
I’m seeing Peter tonight.
I’m just tasting the soup and I can tell you it tastes wonderful.
- is used to talk about the future, particularly after if, and after conjunctions of time (when, before, as
soon as, until, while, after):
I hope it will stop raining before the bride leaves the church.
If you don’t study, you won’t pass your exam.
1. UNDERLINE THE WORD(S) WHICH REQUIRE EITHER THE PRESENT SIMPLE or THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
AND THEN FILL IN THE GAPS:
1. Every morning my friend (hurry) __________________ to the bus stop, because he always (get)
______________ up late.
2. Where is Bob?
He (sit) ____________________ on the sofa and (watch) ________________________ TV.
3. The Smiths (not, know) ____________________________ London very well.
4. Lillian usually (travel) ____________________ by train, but tonight she (travel) _________________
by plane. She (be) _____________ in a hurry.
5. Mrs Wells (want) _____________________ to stay in London for two weeks.
104
6. When the Wells (come) ___________________ to London, they (stay) ____________________at
the Grand hotel.
7. This time they (stay) ______________________ at the Royal hotel, there (be) _______________
no vacant rooms at the Grand hotel.
8. (Jenny, like) ____________________________ the Royal hotel?
Well, I (not, know) _______________________, I (suppose) _______________ she ___________,
she always (stay) ________________ there.
9. (Peter, wash) ______________________________ his car every week?
No, he ________________. He (wash) __________________ it when it (get) ________________
dirty.
10. Come here, Jimmy! What (you, do) _______________________________ over there?
11. What car (Peter, usually, drive) __________________________________________ ?
He usually (drive) ___________________ a VW, but this morning he (drive) _________________
his father's BMW.
12. The Sun (rise) _____________________ in the East.
13. Excuse me, I (look) ________________________ for a good restaurant. Can you tell me if there
(be) ____________ one near here?
2. PUT THE VERBS IN BRACKETS INTO THE CORRECT PRESENT TENSE (SIMPLE or CONTINUOUS):
1. These apples (cost) __________________ $2 a bag. (You, think) __________________________
that (be) ________________ expensive?
Well, it (depend) ___________________ on the size of the bag.
2. I (see) ___________________ my solicitor tomorrow (I have arranged this); I (change)
___________________my will. You (always, change) _____________________________ your will. Why (you,
not, leave)_______________________________ it alone?
3. You (look) ____________________ very thoughtful. What (you, think) ______________________
about?
I (think) ______________________ about my retirement. But you (be) ________________ only 25. You (only,
just, start) ____________________________ your career.
I (know) ___________________; but I (read) ___________________________ an article which
(say) ___________________ that a sensible man (start) _______________________ thinking
about retirement at 25.
4. My next door neighbour (always, knock) _____________________________ on my door and (ask)
____________________ me to lend her small coin pieces.
What (she, do) _________________________ with them?
She (put) ___________________ them in her gas meter. I really (not, mind) __________________
lending her a few pieces but what (annoy) ___________________ me is that she (know) ________
how many she (need) ___________________ each week but never (take) ___________________
the trouble to bring the right number home.
What (she, do) _______________________ if she (run) __________________ out of them when
you (be) _________________ away?
105
Oh, she (borrow) _________________ from her other neighbour, Mr White; but this always (take)
____________________ longer because he always (want) ________________ her to stay and
chat and she (find) ___________________ it quite hard to get away from him.
How much (she, owe) _______________________ you now?
I (not, know) ______________________; I (not, keep) _______________________ an account.
Anyway she (leave) ____________________ next week; she (get) __________________ married.
I (try) ________________________ to think of a suitable wedding present.
Why (you, not, offer) ___________________________________ to cancel her debt?
That (sound) ______________________ rather a mean sort of present. Anyway she probably
(not, realize) ___________________________ that she (owe) ___________________ me money.
5. What (all those people, do) ________________________________________ in the middle of the
street? And why (they, wear) ________________________ such extraordinary clothes?
They (make) ________________________ a film. Most of the crowd (be) ____________ local
people who (work) __________________ as extras.
It (sound) ___________________ great. (You, think) _______________________ I could get
a job as a film extra?
I (not, know) __________________________ but I (see) ___________________ Ann over there;
when they (finish) ____________________ this scene I’ll ask her if she still (take) _____________
on extras.
(Ann, act) __________________________ in the film?
She (have) ___________________ a small part. She (not, act) ______________________ very
well. I (imagine) ____________________ she got the part because she (know) ______________
the director.
6. If you (ask) __________________ a friend if she (like) _________________ your new dress she
usually (say) _________________ “Yes”; so you (not, know) ______________________ whether
she really (think) _____________________ it (suit) ____________________ you or whether she
(merely, be) ____________________________ polite.
If you (want) ___________________ a candid opinion ask my sister. She never (tell) ___________
white lies33; she always (say) __________________ exactly what she (think) ________________ .
(Your sister’s frankness, annoy) __________________________________________ people?
Yes, it ___________________. The average person (not, want) _______________________ a
truthful answer; he (want) ___________________ you to say something agreeable.
7. What (the word “Establishment”, mean) __________________________________________? My
dictionary (not, give) _____________________________ an explanation.
It roughly (mean) ______________________the government and people who (have) ___________
power and authority. So, if we (say) _____________________ that Mr Brown (belong) _____________
to the Establishment we also (imply) _____________________ that he (accept) _______________
the existing system. He (not, try) ________________________ to overthrow it.
(All rich men, belong) _________________________________ to the Establishment?
Middle-aged rich people probably (do) ____________________ but rich young men like pop singers always
(jeer34) ___________________ at the Establishment. The word (be) _____________used chiefly in a pejorative
sense.
8. Bob and I used to do the accounts and check the figures; now the computer (do) _________ it all.
And who (check) __________________ the computer?
No one. The computer (not, need) _______________________ a second opinion.
And what (happen) ____________________ if the computer (make) _______________ a mistake?
The computer never (make) _____________________ a mistake.
33
34
white lie = innocent, well-intentioned lie
jeer = mock, laugh rudely
106
PRESENT CONTINUOUS, PRESENT SIMPLE - How to put a question
35
WH -
AM
ARE
IS
S
- ING
WHO36
IS
/
WHAT
3. PUT QUESTIONS TO THE UNDERLINED WORD(S):
1. Pamela is buying a new dress in the department store.
a
b
c
-------d-----a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
2. Three hundred American tourists are flying to Dubrovnik next week.
a
b
c
--------d--------a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
3. Next week Peter’s friends are going to London to buy a house.
a
b
c
a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
35
36
____________________________________________________________________________
all question words: who, what, where, why, how, ..
who=tko and what=što – questions to the subject of the sentence
107
4. Peter is meeting Mary in front of the cinema at a quarter to seven.
a
b
c
d
-----------e-------a) ___________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
e)
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Mr Brown is going to bed because he is very tired.
a
a) _____________________________________________________________________
6. The Greens are giving the waiter a dollar tip.
a
b
------c----- ------d-----a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
7. My brother is taking Paul’s sister to the disco tonight.
a
b
c
d
a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
108
WH-37
DO
BARE
S
DOES
INFINITIVE
WHO38
WHAT
/
/
-(E)S
4. PUT QUESTIONS TO THE UNDERLINED WORD(S):
1. The Browns take their children to the Zoo every Sunday.
a
b
c
--------d------- -----e-----a)
_________________________________________________________________________
b) _________________________________________________________________________
c)
_________________________________________________________________________
d) _________________________________________________________________________
e)
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Peter records late night movies on weekends.
a
b
c
----------d--------a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________________
c)
__________________________________________________________________________
d) ____________________________________________________________________________
3. Italian tourists usually stay in Dubrovnik for two weeks.
a
b
c
a)
____________________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________________
c)
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Peter’s friends spend summer holidays in Croatia.
a
b
c
a)
________________________________________________________________________
b) ________________________________________________________________________
37
38
all question words: who, what, where, why, how, ..
who=tko and what=što – questions to the subject of the sentence
109
c)
________________________________________________________________________
5. Her parents always meet her at the airport because she usually has a lot of luggage.
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Mary’s father owns three race horses.
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Mary goes riding twice a week.
____________________________________________________________________________
WRITE ADVERBIALS/HINTS FOR THE USE OF THE PRESENT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
PRESENT SIMPLE
110
WORD ORDER
Peter
is meeting
Mary
S
P
O
Peter
is meeting
Mary
S
P
O
Peter
is meeting
Mary
S
P
O
in front of the school
adverb of place
at a quarter past seven.
adverb of time
in front of the school
adverb of place
at a quarter past seven.
adverb of time
Peter
is giving
his sister
a book.
S
P
O39
O40
Peter
is giving
a book
TO his sister.
S
P
O41
O42
There are/is
five girls/a girl
P
S
in front of the school.
adverb of place
5. CROATIAN and ENGLISH WORD ORDER
Write the following sentence into the table and define the parts, Subject, Predicate, etc
Pero
čeka
Maricu
pred kinom
u 6.
How many different word orders are there for the above sentence in Croatian language?
There are ____________ different word orders.
Now translate the above sentence into English. How many different word orders are there?
39
indirect object = komu čemu?
direct object = koga što?
41
direct object = koga što?
42 indirect object = komu čemu?
40
111
TALKING ABOUT THE PAST 1
PAST SIMPLE - PAST CONTINUOUS
PAST SIMPLE
S
- (e) D
Remember
1. to regular verbs ending in –e, a –d is added only: hope  hope-d
2. to regular verbs which do not end in an –e, -ed is added: wash  wash-ed
3. verbs ending in a –y, preceded by a consonant, change the –y into –ie:
try  tried but : play  played
4. short verbs ending in a consonant preceded by a vowel, double that consonant:
stop  stopped
 irregular verbs can be found at the end of this manual
S
DID
DID
S
N
O
T
BARE INFINITIVE
BARE INFINITIVE
Past Simple
- is used to describe a completed action in the past:
I lived in London then.
Yesterday, I painted the ceiling in my room.
- it is used to speak about past habits:
When I was a student, I went to the cinema every week.
My grandfather always carried his walking stick.
- it is used when the time is asked about:
When did you meet Mary last?
When did you come home last night?
- it is used when the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not mentioned:
The train was ten minutes late.
How did you get your present job?
- to describe a regular activity in the past used to or would are used:
They used to visit their parents every Sunday.
They would visit their parents every Sunday.
- only used to talks about an ability or skill which the person no longer has or no longer practises:
I used to play the piano when I was a child.
When I was in college, I used to gamble for money.
- only would is used when we want to show that it was something we refused to do:
I would never arrive late at school.
She would never go to the cinema. She thought it was sinful.
112
PAST CONTINUOUS
WAS
S
- ING
WERE
WAS
S
NOT
- ING
WERE
WAS
S
- ING
WERE
- it is used for an action that is interrupted by another action:
He was trying to install a new program when somebody rang the bell.
When I arrived, Tom was talking on the phone.
- it is used for an uncompleted action in the past or an action where it is uncertain if it was completed:
He was working on his car last night.
Yesterday I was redecorating my living room.
- it is used for two or more actions that took place at the same time over a long period:
While I was redecorating the living room, my wife was cooking the dinner.
All the time while she was dancing with her husband, she was thinking about her first boy-friend.
- it is used with “always” for an action that irritated you:
She was always arriving late.
He was always ringing me up so I decided to change my number.
6. INSERT SIMPLE PAST or PAST CONTINUOUS:
Yesterday afternoon, while I (walk) ___________________ my dog in the park I (notice) ___________ a group
of boys playing hide and seek. The boys (run) _______________________ through the park, when it (begin)
__________________ to rain. While they (look) _________________________ for a place to hide, they (see)
________________ a small cottage a few hundred meters away. As soon as they (enter)
______________________ the cottage, they (realise) __________________ that one of the boys (miss)
____________________. When the rain (stop) _____________________, they (go) _________________ out to
see where he (be) ________________. They soon (find) _____________ him lying under a tree. He (fall)
_____________ while they (all, run) ___________________________ towards the cottage and (break)
__________ his leg. He (cry) _____________________ and he (ask) ____________ his friends to call for help.
One of the boys (run) _____________________ to the park gates and (wave) _____________________ to the
drivers passing by. Although the drivers (drive) _______________________ pretty fast, one of them (see)
_________________ the boy and (stop) _____________________ the car. I (run) ____________________ to
help him put the injured boy into the car and he (take) _________________ him to hospital.
I (go) ______________ to the hospital this afternoon to visit the boy. As I (go) __________________ there, I
(meet) _________________ the driver in front of the hospital. He (go) __________________ to visit the boy,
too.
When we (enter) _____________________ the boy’s room, he (read) ______________________.
113
He (look) ___________________ up and (smile) ___________________. He (be) _______________ surprised
to see both of us coming at the same time. He (be) ___________________ even more surprised when he (see)
__________________ that the driver (have) _____________________ a present for him. He (bring)
______________________ him a video game. I (give) _______________ him some DVDs and (ask)
_____________________ him how he (feel) _______________________.
The boy (be) ______________ better and (hope) ___________________ to go home in a few days. He also
(promise) _____________________ to be more careful playing hide and seek next time.
7. INSERT THE SIMPLE PAST or PAST CONTINUOUS:
Last night, while I (study) _______________________ for an exam, Ann (call) __________________. She said
she (call) _______________________ me on her cell phone from her lecture room. I (ask)
__________________ her if she (wait) __________________________ for class, but she (say) ____________
that the professor (be) _________________ at the front of the hall lecturing while she (talk)
__________________ to me. I (be) ________________ sure that she (joke) _______________, I (can, not)
____________________ believe she (make) ________________________ a phone call during the lecture. I
(ask) ____________________ what (go) _______________________ on.
She (say) _______________________ her math professor (be) __________________ so boring that several of
the students (sleep, actually) ___________________________________ in class. Some of the students (talk)
_________________________ about their plans for the weekend and the student next to her (draw)
_________________________a picture of a boat he (plan) ___________________ to buy one day. Then Ann
(tell) _____________________ me she (be, not) ____________________ satisfied with the class. I (mention)
_____________________ that my math professor (be) _________ quite good and (suggest)
____________________ that she switch to my class. While we (talk) ___________________________, I (hear)
__________________ her professor yell, "Miss, (you, make) ______________________________ a phone
call?" Suddenly, the line (go) ______________ dead. I (hang) _________________________ up the phone and
(go) ________________________ to the kitchen to make dinner. As I (cut) ___________________________
bread, the phone (ring) __________________ once again. It (be) ____________________ Ann, but this time
she (sit, not) ____________________________ in class.
8. INSERT THE PRESENT SIMPLE, PRESENT CONTINUOUS, SIMPLE PAST or PAST CONTINUOUS:
1. What (make) ____________________ that terrible noise early this morning?
It (be) ______________ a pneumatic drill. They (repair) ________________________ the road.
2. Cuckoos (not, build) ______________________ nests. They (use) ___________ nests of other birds.
3. (You, wear) ____________________________ your hair long when you (be) ____________ at
school?
Yes, my mother (insist) ___________________ on it, but I (cut) ____________ it when I (finish)
_____________________ high school.
4. I (fly) ______________ over Loch Ness last week.
(You, see) ______________________________ the Loch Ness monster?
Of course not, Nessy (not, exist) ___________________________, it (be) _____________ a
story for tourists and small children.
5. (You, lock) _______________________ the door before you (leave) _________________ the house?
Of course I _____________, how can you ask such a stupid question. I never (leave) __________
the door unlocked.
6. Whenever my grandfather (go) ______________ for a walk, he (put) _________________ on his
114
hat and (take) _________________ his walking stick.
7. I never (read) ________________ a story that (interest) ____________________ me so much as
the one I (read) ________________ last night.
8. Beethoven (write) ________________ nine symphonies; he (write) __________________ another
symphony when he (die) __________________ .
9. I always (tell) _____________ you to comb your hair, but you never (do) ________________ what
I (say) _______________. That’s why people (laugh) _______________________ at you.
10. Where (you, go) _______________________ to school, Mary?
I (go) _________________ to the primary school in London, but then we (move) ______________
to the USA and I (finish) __________________ college in New Jersey.
11. What (you, do) __________________________ before you (get) _________________ this job?
I (live) ___________________ in London and (go) _________________ to college.
12. Last night as I (walk) ______________________ down the street, I (notice) _________________
a police car. When I (come) _________________ closer, one of the police officers (get) _______
out and (ask) ________________ me for my identity card.
13. John Lennon (sing) _________________ and (play) __________________ on many records with
the Beatles. After that he (record) _____________________ several songs without the Beatles.
He (prepare) ______________________ a new record when Mark Chapman (shoot) __________
him.
115
PAST SIMPLE, PAST CONTINUOUS - HOW TO PUT A QUESTION
WH-43
DID
S
BARE INFINITIVE
/
/
- (e) D
WHO44
WHAT
9. PUT QUESTIONS TO THE UNDERLINED WORD(S):
1. The Browns washed their car yesterday afternoon.
a)
b)
c)
----d)---a) ______________________________________________________________________
b) ______________________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________________
d) _____________________________________________________________________
2. Mary called Peter's office because he was ill.
3. He knew they were not at home.
4. Phillip went to the travel agency to book a room at the hotel.
5. The Browns met the Smiths at the station last night.
a)
b)
c)
a) ___________________________________________________________________
b) ___________________________________________________________________
c) ___________________________________________________________________
WAS
WH-
S
WERE
- ING
WHO
WAS
/
WHAT
6. The students were having lunch when the Minister entered the campus canteen.
a)
b)
c)
a) ____________________________________________________________________
b) ____________________________________________________________________
43
44
all question words: who, what, where, why, how, ..
who=tko and what=što – questions to the subject of the sentence
116
c) ____________________________________________________________________
7. Susan and her husband were in Paris last week.
a)
b)
c)
a) ___________________________________________________________________
b) ___________________________________________________________________
c) ___________________________________________________________________
8. The weather was nice and warm yesterday.
9. The boys were playing computer games when the lights went out.
a)
b)
c)
a) ___________________________________________________________________
b) ___________________________________________________________________
c) ___________________________________________________________________
117
TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE
GOING TO - PRESENT CONTINUOUS - WILL – FUTURE - PRESENT SIMPLE
GOING TO
S
AM
ARE
IS
GOING TO45
- is used to talk about things we have decided to do in the future:
I’m really going to stop smoking.
I’m going to meet Tom at the airport at six.
- is used to predict the future, using the information we know now:
It’s six o’clock, we are going to be late.
Look at the sky, it is going to rain.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
- is used for arrangements which exist now for the future:
What are you doing next week?
I’m starting a new job on Monday.
THE WILL – FUTURE
SHALL46
S
BARE INFINITIVE
WILL47
- is used for predictions, promises, offers, requests, suggestions, future facts:
It will rain soon.
I’ll phone you.
Shall I make you a cup of coffee?
Will you give me a lift if it rains?
Shall we see a film tonight?
My mother will be fifty years old next week.
THE PRESENT SIMPLE
- is used for impersonal and formal definite future agreement, usually with the time mentioned:
The film starts at 7.30.
What time does your flight arrive?
= ću, ćeš, će,…/namjeravati
shall = abbreviated ‘ll with personal pronouns
47
will= abbreviated ‘ll with personal pronouns
45
46
118
10. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES USING ONE OF THE ABOVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE AND PUT IN WHEN,
BEFORE, AS SOON AS OR UNTIL WHERE NECESSARY:
1. I (drive) ______________________ this car ___________ I buy a better one.
2. (You, buy) __________________________ some stamps for me ____________ you are in the post office?
3. I (go) ___________________ (keep) ____________________ working _____________ I finish this.
4. Don’t forget, you (get) __________________ an invitation for the job interview ______________ you answer
their letter.
5. We (wait) _____________________ _____________ it stops raining, and then we (go) ________ out.
6. The express train (leave) ___________________ from platform eight. Hurry up ____________ it’s too late.
7. She studies a lot, she (go) __________________ (pass) __________________ her exams.
8. (You, come) _______________________ to the party tonight?
Yes, but I don’t know exactly when. I (let) ____________________ you know ______________ I check with my
wife.
9. They (start) _____________________ work _______________ the material (arrive) __________ .
10. My parents (celebrate) ____________________ their wedding anniversary in December.
11. Hurry up, the game (be) _______________________ over ___________ you (reach) __________ the
stadium.
12. All the cinemas and the theatres (close) ______________________ on Christmas Day.
13. (You, finish) ______________________ this report ___________ the boss (return) ___________?
119
ARTICLES
The correct use of the articles (a /an and the) is one of the most difficult points in English grammar.
Fortunately, however, most mistakes in the use of the articles do not matter too much. Even if we leave all the
articles out of a sentence, it is usually possible to understand it:
Please can you lend me pound of butter till end of week?
the correct sentence is:
Please can you lend me a pound of butter till the end of the week?
So, let’s mention here only the most important rules – it is obviously better to use the articles correctly if
possible.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
- is used with singular countable nouns (a cat, an apple), but not with plurals:
We live in a small house.
I’ve got an idea.
I’m afraid of spiders.
She always wears blue trousers.
He is an engineer.
- is used with some numerical expressions: a dozen, a hundred, a lot of, a great many of
- is used with speed, ratio etc: sixty miles an hour, four times a day
- is used in exclamations:
What a nice day!
What a pretty girl!
- is used with Mr./Mrs./Miss + surname/last name means “an unknown person”:
A Mr. Smith is at the door, he wants to speak to you.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
- is not used with uncountable mass nouns: tea, milk, grass, glass, iron, stone, paper, wood,
I always drink tea with milk.
This house is made of stone.
but some or a little may be used with them:
Give me some milk, please.
remember: Some of these nouns may become countable, but then they change their meaning:
a glass of water
an electric iron
- is not used with abstract nouns such as: truth, happiness, beauty, life, work
Work is better than laziness.
- is not used with few and little meaning “not enough”:
I have few friends in London and I always feel very lonely.
I have little money to spare for discos and girls, I need all the money I have to live.
120
- is not used with some nouns which are usually “uncountable” in English, for instance:
advice
furniture
health
knowledge
news
research
travel
English
hair
information
luggage
progress
spaghetti
weather
My parents are in very good health.
Can you give me some advice?
We are having terrible weather this summer.
Pablo speaks very good English.
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
- is used with nouns already mentioned or spoken about:
There is a man at the door. The man wants to see Mr. Brown.
Once upon a time there was a little boy. The boy grew up and ….
- is used when it means “the particular one” or “the only one”:
This is the book that I promised to lend you.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
- is used with last names in plural meaning the whole family:
The Smiths always spend their summer holiday at the seaside.
- is used with superlatives:
Zagreb is the biggest town in Croatia.
Jenny always buys the most expensive things.
- is used with the names of seas and rivers and mountain ranges, island groups and names of countries which
contain a common noun, large areas of the world:
the Adriatic Sea
the United States of America
the Thames the West Indies
the Federal German Republic
the Alps
the Middle East
- is used with the names of ships, most names of buildings:
The Titanic sank with 1500 passengers after striking an iceberg.
Thousands of tourists visit the Taj Mahal every year.
- is used with the names of musical instruments:
Peter’s brother plays the piano.
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
- is not used with the names of countries, towns, streets, names, continents, languages:
Peter is going to England to buy a house in London.
They all speak both English and Spanish.
- is not used with the names of sports:
All my friends play football but I play chess.
121
SPECIAL RULES AND EXCEPTIONS
In a number of common expressions, an article is dropped after a preposition:
TO / AT / FROM school
IN / TO class
TO / AT / FROM university / college
TO / AT sea
to go TO sleep
TO / IN / INTO / FROM church
AT / FROM home
TO / IN / INTO / OUT / OF prison / hospital / bed
ON foot
TO / IN / FROM town
TO / AT / FROM work
FOR breakfast
AT lunch
TO dinner
AT night
BY car / bus / bicycle / plane / train / tube / boat
In American English,
IN school / university / college are more common than
AT school.
When the above expressions are used with articles, they have special meanings:
He’s in prison. (as a prisoner)
He’s in the prison. (as a visitor)
When with or without is followed by a singular countable noun, an article is normally necessary.
You can’t get there without a car.
Articles are often dropped in double expressions with prepositions like:
arm in arm
from top to bottom
on land and sea
with knife and fork
day after day
inch by inch
with hat and coat
COMPLETE RULES FOR THE USE OF ARTICLES WITH UN(COUNTABLE) NOUNS
1st
2nd
A or AN can only be used with singular countable nouns (a cat).
THE can be used with all kinds of nouns (the cat, the cats, the water).
Plural nouns and uncountable nouns can be used with no article (cats, water), but singular countable nouns
cannot.
a/an
the
no article
singular
countable
a cat
the cat
/
plural
countable
/
the cats
cats
uncountable
/
the water
water
A very important point: singular nouns must always have an article (or another determiner like my, this). We
can say a cat, the cat, this cat, my cat, but not *cat.
122
GOLDEN RULES
If the rules for the use of articles seem too complicated, just remember these three:
1st do not use THE (with plural and uncountable nouns) to talk about things in general:
Life is hard.
2nd do not use singular countable nouns without articles:
the car
a car
3rd use A/AN to say what people’s professions or jobs are:
She’s a bank manager.
11. PUT “A”, “AN” or “THE” WHERE NECESSARY:
1. His friend ___________ John lives in ____________ new building at ____________ end of our street.
2. He is from ___________ America but now he lives in ___________ same street as I do.
3. In __________ spring he usually goes for __________ trip to ____________ Dubrovnik.
4. He has __________ friend who is _________ excellent footballer.
5. On __________ Sunday they usually go to ___________ mountains.
6. _________ boys play _________ football, and _________ girls like playing with __________ dolls.
7. _________ Dinara is ____________ highest mountain in ________ Croatia.
8. We learn __________ English and __________ French.
9. ___________ Browns are our good friends.
10. If you are tired, take _________ chair.
11. You are _________ doctor and I am __________ engineer.
12. What ________ beautiful day!
13. _________ sun is in ________ sky.
12. PUT “A”, “AN”, “THE” or “SOME” WHERE NECESSARY:
1. We came to ____ house we hadn't seen before. All ______windows were closed, but there was
______ window near _____ front door which was open. We looked through and saw ____ man
sitting in ____ front of ______ television set but he wasn't watching ______ programme. ______
man seemed to be asleep.
2. Last time when we went to ______ London we stayed at _________ Grosvenor hotel.
3. _____ American astronauts reached _____ Moon in 1969.
4. My father is ______ engineer and my mother is ______ teacher.
5. _____ Ann saw ______ lot of ______ people who were waiting in front of ______ station.
6. There are ______ apples on _____ table.
7. He always comes to ______ Zagreb on ______ Friday.
8. Do you like ______ football?
9. I always go to ______ Adriatic in ______ summer.
10. _____ Browns are ______ best people I know.
11. There is ______ old lady in _____ kitchen. She wants to speak to you.
12. ______ Mr Smith is at _____ door. He says he has ______ message for you.
13. Put ______ sugar in my tea. It is not sweet enough.
123
13. ARTICLES or NO ARTICLES IN A STUDENT’S LIFE:
1. He got interested in politics when he was in _____ college.
2. Last year my son entered _____ Department of Electrical Engineering in Zagreb.
3. He took _____ exam yesterday but he didn’t pass. He is _____ good student and he can’t believe he
failed.
4. Peter wanted to be _____ engineer but _____ entry requirements were too high.
5. Going to _____ university is expensive. First, there is _____ tuition fee, then all _____ books _____
student needs, etc.
6. If _____ student lives away from _____ home, they have to pay for their accommodation.
7. _____ few students get _____ scholarship, but most have to take out _____ grant from _____ bank.
8. Most students have to do _____ part-time job in order to survive.
9. _____ academic year begins in October and ends in June.
10. I’ll be very busy this weekend. I have to finish _____ assignment and hand it on Monday.
11. Peter failed all _____ exams last term and I think he’s going to drop out and get _____ job.
12. _____ exam is _____ formal written, spoken or practical test to see how much you know about _____
subject.
13. _____ lot of students suffer from _____ exam nerves.
14. INSERT THE PRESENT SIMPLE or CONTINUOUS, PAST SIMPLE or CONTINUOUS, FUTURE
or GOING TO:
1. When I (get) ____________________ home last night, I (see) _________________ the light (be)
__________ on in the living room. Mother (forget) __________________________ to switch it off
before she (leave) _______________ .
2. When Peter (get) _____________________ up in the morning, he (brush) ___________________
his teeth first. Then he (go) _______________________ to the kitchen and (have) _______________ a huge
breakfast.
Why (he, always, eat) ______________________________________ so much?
Well, he (want) ____________________ to be a heavy-weight boxer.
3. (You, go) _______________________________________ to the cinema last night?
No, I (not, get) ___________________________________ the ticket.
4. I (have) _______________________ two tickets for the cinema for tonight, and my girl-friend can’t
come with me. She (go) ______________ out with her parents. What (you, do) _______________ this
evening? Would you care to join me?
Yes, why not, Peter (not, fix) _______________________________ my TV set yesterday, so I
can’t watch TV and I never (go) __________________ to bed before midnight.
5. Mary, wait here until I (return) ________________________. I (tell) __________________ you
everything when I (come) ______________________ back at about 9 p.m.
6. What (you, do) ____________________________, Peter? Let’s go. If we (not, start) ____________
now, we (go) __________________ (be) _______________ late and if we (be) _______________
late, your mother (be) _________________ angry.
In a minute, I (just, look) __________________________________ for my jacket.
Your jacket (be) ________________ in the wardrobe. I (put) _________________ it there when I
(bring) ________________ it from the cleaner’s.
7. How (Peter, be) ______________________ when you (see) _______________ him yesterday?
He (sleep) _________________________ and I (not, want) ______________________ to wake
him up. I (go) __________________ (visit) __________________ him tomorrow and if he (wake)
_____________ up, I (tell) __________________ him you (send) _________________ best
wishes for his recovery.
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8. “How (I, get) _____________________ to the station?”
“You (go) _____________________ straight on for half a mile, then you (come) _______________ to a garage,
you (turn) __________________ left and then you (take) ______________ the first right.”
9. Where (you, learn) ______________________ to speak such good Spanish, Mary?
Well, my dad (be) _____________ Spanish and I (go) _________________ to school in Madrid until I (be)
________ nine so I (be) _______________ basically bilingual.
10. A recent report (say) ________________ that in some parts of London, more than a quarter of young
people (regularly, use) __________________________ drugs. Most teenagers (start) _______________ by
taking soft drugs like cannabis and marijuana, but many soon (begin) ________________ to experiment with
cocaine and heroin. Once they (move) ____________ on to hard drugs, they (be) _____________ much likely
to become addicted. People in the worst affected area (say) _________________ that it (be) _________
impossible to leave the house without being stopped by addicts asking for money to buy drugs or by dealers
trying to sell them.
Last week a 14-year-old boy (die) _______________ from a heroin overdose.
11. We (hear) _______________ a lot today about child abuse but it (not, be) _____________ new. In
the past people just (not, talk) ________________________ about it.
12. My dog (bark) _____________ a lot, but right now he (not, bark) ______________________. My
father (take) ______________ him for a walk half an hour ago. It (be) _______________ the neighbour’s dog .
13. I (ring) ________________ you up several times last night, but nobody (answer) _____________.
Where (you, be) __________________ ? (Anything, happen) ___________________________ ?
No, I (have, probably) ___________________________ a bath and I (not, hear) ______________ the phone.
REMEMBER
ALL TENSES WHICH USE ONE OF THE AUXILLIARY VERBS (am, are, is; was, were; shall, will; had; have, has
etc) FOR THEIR AFFIRMATIVE FORMS, MAKE THE NEGATIVE FORM BY SIMPLY ADDING “NOT” TO THE
AUXILLIARY (you are not reading, he was not sleeping…) AND THE INTERROGATIVE BY INVERSION OF THE
SUBJECT AND THE AUXILLIARY VERB (are you reading, was he sleeping..).
THE EXCEPTIONS ARE THE SIMPLE PRESENT AND THE SIMPLE PAST:
-
THEY ARE THE ONLY TWO TENSES WHICH HAVE SOME KIND OF ENDINGS (-s or -es for the third
person singular in the Present Simple and -d or -ed for the Simple Past of regular verbs)
-
THEY NEED THE AUXILLIARY VERB “TO DO” (do, does, did) TO MAKE NEGATIVE (you do not read,
he did not read…) AND INTERROGATIVE FORMS (do you read, did he read…).
125
TALKING ABOUT THE PAST 2
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE & CONTINUOUS - FUTURE IN THE PAST
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
PAST
S
HAD
PARTICIPLE
Past Perfect Simple
- is used to describe an action that had already happened before another past action took place and
to express the idea of an earlier past:
I explained that I had forgotten the keys.
I could see from his face that he had received bad news.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
S
HAD
BEEN
- ING
Past Perfect Continuous
- is used to talk about something which had been in progress up to the past time we are talking about
(e.g. when the bus arrived):
Mr Black had been working for 40 years when he finally retired in 2006.
We had been climbing for two hours when it suddenly began to snow.
15. SUPPLY THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE or SIMPLE PAST:
1. We immediately (recognize) _______________________ each other, although we (not, meet)
_______________________________ for years.
2. I (call) _________________ at the manager’s office, but (discover) _______________________
that I (just, miss) _____________________________ him. As it (be) _________________1 p.m.,
I (be) _____________________ sure he (go) _________________________ out for lunch.
3. When I (get) __________________ home last night, I (find) _______________________ out that I
(lose) ____________________________ my wallet.
4. The scientist suddenly (see) ______________________ the answer to the problem that (occupy)
_______________________________ his mind for the last two months.
5. We (leave) ___________________ the restaurant after we (have) _________________________
an excellent dinner there.
6. Nobody (come) ______________________ to the meeting because Angela, the boss’s secretary
(forget) _______________________________ to send the invitations in time.
7. The results last term (be) _______________ better than anyone (expect) __________________.
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8. The motorist (discover) __________________ to his relief that he (not, take) _________________
the wrong road after all.
9. After the prisoner (jump) ______________________________ out of the window, he (run)
_______________________ across the yard.
10. The reporter (write) ___________________ a full report on the accident he (see) _____________
through his bedroom window the night before.
11. We (get) ___________________ down to business as soon as we (hand) __________________
in the financial report for the last year.
12. When Queen Victoria (die) _______________ in 1901, she (reign) _________________________
for over 60 years.
13. Once the Government (settle) ____________________________ the agenda, the vice-president
(distribute) __________________________ it to all members of the board.
16. SUPPLY THE PAST PERFECT or SIMPLE PAST:
1. A friend of mine (return) ____________________ to his house after a holiday to find that
somebody (break) _______________________ into it.
2. Last week I (write) ____________________ to the suppliers asking why they (not, send)
_____________________________ the goods yet. To my surprise they (reply) _______________
that they (already, deliver) ________________________________ them.
3. None of my brother’s teachers (understand) __________________ how he (manage) __________
to fail his final exam. He (always, be) _______________________________ one of the best students.
4. Peter (give) _________________ up hope of passing the driving test, since he (already, fail)
_______________________________ it twice.
5. The Government (find) ______________________ itself forced to adopt policies it (earlier, reject)
______________________________ .
6. He (drop) ____________________ out of the race after he (trip) ___________________________
over another runner.
7. Because Mr. Black (not, check) _____________________________ the oil for so long, his car
(break) ______________________ down.
8. The family never (find) _______________ where he (hide) _______________________ the money.
9. Last month I (send) ______________________ a job application. It (be) _____________________
a firm that I (never, hear) _________________________________ of.
10. When he (come) ___________________________ in, we all (know) _______________________
where he (be) __________________________ .
11. After everybody (have) _______________________________ a chance to say what they (think)
_______________________, we (take) ______________________ a vote.
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17. SUPPLY THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE or CONTINUOUS or SIMPLE PAST:
1. I (feel) _________________ very cold because I (stand) ______________________ outside for two hours.
2. We (drive) ________________________ for about half an hour when we (realize) ______________
that we (be) ______________________ lost.
3. The strange thing (be) ________________ that we (just, talk) _________________________ about
ghosts when we (hear) __________________ the noise in the attic.
4. My brother (try) ___________________________ to get his driving licence for two years before he
finally (give) ____________________ up.
5. Peter (realize) ____________________ that he (overwork) __________________________, so he
(decide) ___________________ to take ten days off.
6. Monica (move) ___________________ from L.A. to Washington in 1999. How long (she, live)
__________________________ in Los Angeles?
7. When I finally (hand) _______________________ in my thesis, I (write) ______________________
it for six months.
18. SUPPLY THE PAST PERFECT, SIMPLE PAST or PAST CONTINUOUS:
When I (go) _________________ to Paris last spring for a job interview, I (not, be) _________________ there for
five years. I (arrive) _______________________ in the evening before the interview, and (spend) _____________
a happy hour walking round thinking about the good times I (have) _____________ there as a student.
As I (stroll) ____________________________ by the Seine, I suddenly (see) _________________ a familiar face –
it (be) ______________ Julia, the woman I (share) _____________________ a flat with when I (be) ____________
a student, and whose address I (lose) _____________________ after leaving Paris. I (can) ___________________
tell she (not, see) ___________________________ me, so I (call) ______________________ her name and she
(look) _________________________ up. As she (turn) __________________ towards me, I (realise)
_________________________ that she (have) _______________________ an ugly scar on the side of her face.
She (see) ________________ the shock in my eyes, and her hand (go) ____________________ up to touch the
scar. Julia (explain) ________________________ that she (get) ________________________ it when she was a
journalist reporting on a war in Africa.
She (not, be) ____________________ uncomfortable while she (tell) _________________________ me all this.
We (feel) _________________ as if the years (not, pass) __________________________, as if we (say)
____________________ goodbye the week before. She (arrive) ____________________ in Paris that morning,
and she (have) _______________________ a hospital appointment the next day. The doctors (think)
________________________ that they (can) ______________________ remove the scar, but she (have)
_______________________ to stay in Paris for several months. Both of us (have) _______________________ the
idea at the same time: if I (get) ________________________ the job, we (can) ______________________ share a
flat again. And we (can) _____________________ start by having a coffee. While we (have) __________________
coffee and (tell) ______________ one another everything that (happen) __________________________ to us in
the past five years, we (not, notice) _______________________ how fast the time (pass) ___________________.
When I (look) ________________________ at my watch, it (be) ________________ almost midnight.
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FUTURE ACTIONS IN THE PAST
WOULD48
S
BARE
INFINITIVE
WAS / WERE GOING TO49
WAS / WERE
- ING
The above table gives three different ways of expressing a future action taking place in the past, i.e. a future
action which is related to the past:
- with would it is used to describe an action that will happen after a past action in the main sentence:
I didn’t know they would come so early.
Peter got a job on an oil-rig but he did not realize it would be such hard work.
International News said that when he died, he would probably leave more than $ 500 million.
- with was/were going to it means that something was planned for the future at a past time:
Last time I saw you, you were going to start a new job.
I thought you were going to visit me yesterday. Why didn’t you?
- with the Past Continuous, something planned is expressed (see Present Continuous):
He didn’t have time to talk, because he was leaving in two hours.
Note and explain the difference. Translate the sentences:
1. Mary says she would go home as soon as the show is over.
_______________________________________________________________
2. It was late and Mary said she would go home as soon as the show was over.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Mary would like to go home as soon as the show is over.
_______________________________________________________________
Supply the correct Past tense and translate the three sentences:
1. I (think) ______________/_____________ they (be) ______________/_____________ at home.
2. I (think) ______________/_____________ they (be) ______________/_____________ at home.
3. I (think) ______________/_____________ they (be) ______________/_____________ at home.
48
49
= ću, ćeš, će…
= ću, ćeš, će…/ namjeravati
129
Supply the correct Past or Present Tense and translate the sentences:
1. Peter (not, know) _________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
2. Peter (not, know) _________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
3. Peter (not, know) _________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
4. Peter (not, know) _________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
5. Peter (not, know) _________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
6. Peter (not, know) __________________ that they (come) _________________ at 3 o’clock.
19. COMPLETE THE TEXT SUPPLYING THE CORRECT WAY OF EXPRESSING PAST:
1. When I (meet) ______________________ Paul on Monday, I (ask) _______________ him what he
(do) _______________________ next week. He (say) _______________ he (study) _____________
for his final examination.
2. A) Yesterday while I (watch) _________________________ TV, Paul (ring) ___________________
me up.
B) What (he, tell) _____________________________ you?
A) He (say) ____________ he (be) ______________ afraid he (not, pass) _____________________
his final examination next Monday.
B) Why (he, think) ______________________________ so?
A) Well, he (know) _______________________ he (not, study) ___________________________
enough.
3. A) (Paul, pass) ____________________________ his exam last week?
B) No, he ______________, he (say) _______________ he (try) ___________________________
again in January.
A) What (happen) ________________________?
B) Well, he (say) __________________ the questions (be) ____________________ too difficult.
A) (You, believe) ________________________________ him when he (say) __________________
that the teacher (ask) ________________________________ him difficult questions?
B) Not quite, whenever he (fail) ___________________, he (blame) _________________________
somebody else.
4. A) What (Paul, do) _______________________________ when you (come) _________________ to
see him last night?
B) When I (get) ________________ there, he (study) __________________________. He (be)
________________sure he (pass) _____________________________ his final exam next time.
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20. SUPPLY THE CORRECT PAST TENSE:
1. Although it (be) _______________late when I (get) _____________ up yesterday morning, I
(hope) __________________ I (not, be) _____________________________ late for work.
2. While I (have) _________________________ breakfast, the phone (ring) __________________.
It (be) _____________ Tom. He (promise) __________________ he (pick) __________________
me up as soon as he (have) __________________ his breakfast.
3. Jane (land) _______________ last night but nobody (meet) ___________________ her at the
airport. She (call) ________________ her husband but nobody (answer) ___________________ .
She (hang) _________________ up and (go) ___________________ to the coffee bar. She
(know) _________________ he (already, leave) _______________________________ the house
and (be) ___________________ there in a minute.
4. While she (have) ______________________ coffee, another plane (land) ________________ and
she (see) __________________ a friend of hers among the passengers. As, Betty, her friend
(have) ___________________ three large suitcases, Jane (say) _______________ her husband
(be) _____________________ on his way to the airport and (offer) __________________ her to
give her a lift.
5. The Browns (go) ________________ to the cinema last week. While they (watch) _____________
the film, the police (come) ___________________ and (ask) ___________________ them to leave
because somebody (plant) _____________________________ a bomb there. When they (hear)
________________ that, Mrs Brown (look) _______________ at her husband hoping he (not, be)
___________________ too upset. She (worry) _________________ about him, because last year
he (have) ______________________ a massive heart attack. However, he just (put) ___________
on his coat calmly and they (leave) ____________________ .
6. I (be) ____________ pleased to see my old college friends at the conference last week as we (not,
see) ___________________ each other since we (graduate) _____________________ . Before
the amusing night (be) ______________ over, we (decide) ____________________ we (organise)
_____________________ similar reunions every year.
7. Yesterday we (have) _____________________ to wait for hours at the airport because bad
weather (delay) _____________________ all the flights.
8. At the end of the meal Mr. Brown (realize) _____________________ that he (not, can) ________
pay the bill because he (not, have) _________________________ his wallet with him. The waiter
(ask) _______________ him if he (have) ________________ a credit card but he (not, have)
________________ it either. Fortunately, his cell phone (be) _________________ in his pocket.
He (call) ________________ his son and (tell) _____________________ him what (happen)
______________________ . The boy (promise) __________________ he (come) ____________
in a few minutes with the money.
9. The children (be) __________________ thrilled when they (unwrap) _______________________
their electronic toys, but when they (see) __________________ that nobody (buy) ____________
the batteries, they (be) _________________ very disappointed.
10. When I (come) _____________________ out of the cinema I (find) ____________________ that
somebody (steal) ___________________ my car radio. While I (wait) _____________________
for the police to come, a friend (see) _________________ me, (stop) _____________________
his car and (say) ____________________ he (keep) ____________________ me company.
11. At first the authorities (think) ______________________ the athlete (take) ___________________
drugs, but soon they (realise) _______________________ that they (mix) ___________________
up the results of the tests.
131
12. When the film star (come) _________________ into the restaurant, everybody (run) ___________
towards her asking for her autograph. I (not, recognise) _________________________ her
because I (not, see) ________________________ any of her films.
13. Although their son (not, commit) ____________________________ the crime, his parents (give)
_____________________ him no support.
132
COMMANDS
Commands, orders, requests and advice are reported by using an infinitive construction:
POSITIVE COMMANDS
1. Mother: “GO to the bathroom at once, Peter.”

She told him TO GO to the bathroom at once.
2. Mother: “Philip, BRING me your homework, please.”

She asked him TO BRING her his homework.
3. Mother: “TAKE a look at yourself in the mirror, Mary.”

She told her TO TAKE a look at herself in the mirror.
Note the changes of personal pronouns, adjectives etc.
NEGATIVE COMMANDS
1. Father: “DON’T DRIVE so fast, John.”

He told him NOT TO DRIVE so fast.
2. Father: “DON’T SPEND all your money on food and drink, John.”

He told him NOT TO SPEND all his money on food and drink.
3. Father: “DON’T MAKE me angry with your stupid remarks, John.”

He told him NOT TO MAKE him angry with his stupid remarks.
Verbs used for introducing commands, requests, advice:
advise, ask, beg, command, invite, offer, order, remind, tell, urge, warn….
 TO INFINITIVE
TELLS ME
HE TOLD ME
‘LL TELL ME
 NOT TO INFINITIVE
133
21. PUT THE FOLLOWING COMMANDS INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH INTRODUCING THEM WITH
DIFFERENT VERBS:
1. Jane: Write down my phone number in your diary, Peter.
________________________________________________________________________
2. Mary: Mother, make some tea for me, please.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Peter: Send a telegram to your mother, Mary.
________________________________________________________________________
4. Beth: Don't put your books in my bag, John.
________________________________________________________________________
5. Jane: Don't take my lipstick, Mary.
________________________________________________________________________
6. The teacher: Be careful about your spelling, children.
________________________________________________________________________
7. Father: Mary, don't leave the window in your room open.
________________________________________________________________________
8. Molly: Give me my umbrella, Jane.
________________________________________________________________________
9. Mrs. Brown to Peter: Show me your essay, please.
________________________________________________________________________
10. Peter: Mary, don't tell Mother anything about my bad marks.
_______________________________________________________________________
11. Ron to Jack: Ask Jane to meet me in the bar at six.
________________________________________________________________________
12. Don’t worry about anything, Mrs. Pitt, said the solicitor. Leave it all to me.
________________________________________________________________________
13. Mother: Don’t put sticky things in your pockets, Bill.
________________________________________________________________________
22. REPORT THE FOLLOWING ORDERS, OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS AND REQUESTS:
1. Please move your car.
A policeman ________________________________________________________
2. Laura, don’t touch the electric wires!
Bob _______________________________________________________________
3. Would you mind turning the music down?
We asked our neighbours _______________________________________________
4. You mustn’t leave the door unlocked.
The coach warned us __________________________________________________
134
5. Please don’t wear these boots in the house.
I asked them _________________________________________________________
6. Bob, stop copying from your neighbour!
The teacher __________________________________________________________
7. Will you give me some of these brochures, please?
Mary asked the travel agent _____________________________________________
8. We’ll pay for the damage.
We offered __________________________________________________________
9. I’ll finish this digging by the end of the week.
You promised ________________________________________________________
10. I think you should take a taxi.
Peter advised us _____________________________________________________
11. Don’t forget to ring me up, David.
Jenny ______________________________________________________________
12. The doctor: Ken, you must take more exercises.
The doctor __________________________________________________________
13. Ken’s boss: Would you mind not playing computer games in the office?
Ken’s boss __________________________________________________________
23. SUPPLY DIRECT AND INDIRECT COMMANDS:
1. Jane, (not, go) _______________________________ out without your coat. It is cold.
What did you say, Mum, I can’t hear you?
I told you (not, go) ______________________ out without your coat.
2. If you are hungry, (make) ________________________ a sandwich yourself, Peter. (Not, ask)
_________________ me (do) ________________ it for you, I don’t have time.
3. As soon as our teacher enters the classroom, she tells us (open) _____________________ the windows.
4. (Not, play) __________________________ with the matches, Billy. It’s dangerous.
What did mother tell you, Billy?
She told me (not, play) ________________________ with the matches.
5. (Not, just, stand) ________________________ there! (Do) __________________ something!
6. (Sit) ____________________ down and (open) ______________________ your notebooks, class. You are
going to write a dictation.
7. When mother came home, she told me (set) ______________________ the table and (cut)
__________________ the bread. She also asked me (hurry) _____________________________ because the
guests were coming in ten minutes.
8. Peter, (hurry) _________________ up and (not, forget) ______________________ to lock the door.
135
9. The telephone bill was big last month, so I told Peter (not, speak) ________________________ on the phone
for too long.
10. (Not, be) __________________ such a fool, Peter! (Ring) ______________ her up and (apologize)
___________________ .
11. (Be) ________________ careful, (look) ____________________ in the mirror before you drive off.
12. (Unplug) ___________________ electrical appliances before repairing them!
What? I can’t hear you, what did you say?
I told you (unplug) _______________________ electrical appliances before repairing them.
13. They advised him (work) ___________________ hard if he wanted to keep his job.
24. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. Dok sam se divio jednom starom dvorcu i parku oko njega, netko je ukrao torbu u kojoj su bili svi moji
putnički čekovi.
2. Vratio sam se u hotel i pitao recepcionara što da napravim. Nisam imao gotovine platiti hotelsku sobu. Rekao
mi je da ne brinem zbog toga i da će on razgovarati s vlasnikom hotela.
3. Dok sam večerao, došao je vlasnik hotela. Rekao je da je nazvao policiju i da ih je obavijestio što mi se
dogodilo.
4. Jedan je policajac rekao da su uhvatili jednog čudnog tipa i kad su tražili da im da osobnu iskaznicu, on je
rekao da ju je izgubio pred nekoliko dana. Međutim, sa sobom je imao jednu crnu torbu i policajac mu je rekao
da je otvori.
5. Kad je otvorio torbu, jedan novčanik je pao na pod. Policajac ga je podigao i u njemu našao osobnu iskaznicu,
ali slika na njoj nije odgovarala. Odmah je znao da tip laže.
6. Vlasnik hotela mi je ponudio da će me odvesti do policijske postaje. Bio sam mu zahvalan, sjeli smo u auto i
za pet minuta smo stigli u policijsku postaju.
7. Čim sam vidio torbu, znao sam da je moja. Srećom, kradljivac nije imao dovoljno vremena unovčiti čekove.
8. Jako volim ići na turistička razgledavanja i slikati stare dvorce. Ali, dok slikam, obično spustim torbu. Idući
puta ću biti oprezniji i držat ću torbu na oku. Nikada me nitko više neće opljačkati!
136
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
CONTINUOUS TENSES
ADJECTIVES
SHORTENED SENTENCES
AFTER VERBS OF
SENSATIONS
He is reading a book.
a burning house
Opening the drawer, he took out a revolver.
I see him passing my house
every day.
They were watching TV.
an exciting story
Going to the cinema last night, he met a friend.
Did you hear the clock striking?
We are trying to install the
programme.
an interesting
person
Fearing that the police would recognize him he
never went out in daylight.
I felt the car skidding.
When I get back, they’ll be
having dinner.
a terrifying
experience
Realizing that he didn’t have enough money, he
decided to buy a smaller car.
She smelt something burning
and saw smoke rising.
While he was sleeping, his wife
was cooking.
running water
The man sitting in my office is a new employee.
Just look at all those dogs
running across my garden!
25. INSERT THE INFINITIVE WITH “TO” or THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE:
1. I was glad (hear) ___________________ of your success.
2. (Sit) _______________ in the dentist’s chair, I suddenly fell asleep.
3. A man entered my office yesterday (bring) ___________________ a beautiful bunch of flowers.
4. Peter didn’t get that job. I was so sorry (see) ___________________ his disappointment.
5. I used (ride) ___________________ a lot but I haven’t had a chance (do) ________________ it since I came
here.
6. When I got home I heard the children (talk) ___________________ about Peter’s bad marks.
7. Not (know) __________________ the language and (have) ___________________ no friends in the town, he
found it hard (get) ___________________ work.
8. As we were passing your house in the car, we saw you (cross) _____________________ the road.
9. (Climb) ________________ the tree to get birds’ eggs, the boy had a bad fall.
10. Peter says that Mary would like (have) ___________________ a cup of tea.
11. He saw the lorry (begin) ________________ (roll) ___________________ forwards but he was too far away
(do) _____________ anything (stop) _______________________ it.
12. (Become) __________________ tired of my complaints about the TV programme she turned it off.
13. People (sleep) ___________________ in the next room were wakened by the sound of (break)
__________________ glass.
26. SUPPLY THE CORRECT FORM OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS
1. Peter, what (you, do) ________________________________ over there?
Nothing, I (just, try) ______________________________ (repair) _________________ Dad's
watch.
What? (You, be) ___________________ crazy? What (Dad, tell) ____________________________
you the other day?
Well, he (say) _________ something like “(Not, touch) ______________________ my things, Peter."
So, why (you, not, listen) ________________________________ to him? You (know) ____________
137
that he (be) _________________ angry when he (find) _________________________ out about the
watch.
Oh, no, he _________________, his watch (be) _________________ O.K. now.
2. Hi, Bob. This (be) _________ Billy. How (you, be) ______________________?
I (be) ______________ fine. (Listen) ________________ Billy, where (you, be) _________________
last night? I (try) _____________________ (reach) ________________ you, but whenever I (call)
___________________ your mother (say) __________________ that you (be) _____________ out.
Well, as a matter of fact, I (be) __________________ at home the whole day.
Why (your mother, say) ______________________________ that you (be) ________________ out?
(Not, blame) ______________________ her, she (not, tell) ________________________ you the
truth because she (not, want) _________________________ you (know) _________________ that
she (punish) ____________________________ me.
Why (she, punish) __________________________________ you?
Because of my bad marks.
3. Hello, it (be) _______________ Tom, I'd (like) _______________ (talk) ______________________
to Bill, please.
Hi, Tom. I (be) ___________ sorry, but Bill (not, be) ________________ at home. (You, want)
_______________________________ (leave) ____________________ a message?
Yes, please. (Tell) _____________ him (ring) __________________ me up as soon as he (get)
__________________ home. It (be) ___________ rather urgent. I (be) _____________________
at home the whole day.
4. Bill, Tom (call) ______________ an hour ago. He (say) ____________ it (be) _____________ urgent
and (add) ______________ he (be) _________________________ at home the whole day.
(He, tell) _______________________________ you what (go) ___________________________ on?
No, he ______________.
5. Hi, Tom. This (be) _________ Bill. My mother (tell) ____________ me that you (call) ____________ .
What (the matter, be) ___________________________ ?
Well, I (be) ___________ afraid I (have) ______________ some bad news. John (have) __________
an accident last night. He (be) _______________ badly injured and an ambulance (take) _________
him to hospital. He (be) _______________ operated on at once. The doctors (say) ______________
that he (stay) __________________________ in hospital for a month at least.
How (it, happen) _________________________________ ?
Oh, you (know) ______________ John. He always (drive) ___________________fast. When he
(see) _________________ that a truck (drive) ____________________________ toward him in the
wrong direction he (try) ____________________ (stop) ________________ but it (be) __________
too late. He (be) _________________ lucky (be) __________________ alive.
6. Who (inform) ___________________ his parents what (happen) ___________________________ ?
I (go) _______________ (see) ________________ them while they (operate) __________________
138
on him. His father (say) __________________ he (never, give) ______________________________
him the car keys again.
When (we, go) _____________________ (visit) ______________________ him?
Well, the doctor (tell) ________________ me (call) ______________________ first.
7. Tom and Bill (visit) ________________ John in the hospital today. He (feel) ____________________
better but he still (not, remember) ________________________ what (happen) ________________
that night.
8. (Go, not) ___________________ out, Mary, it (rain) ______________________.
What (you, say) _________________________ ? I (not, hear) ________________________ you.
I (tell) ____________ you (go, not) ___________________ out because it (rain) ______________.
But if you (have) _______________ (go) ________________ out, (forget, not) ________________
(take) ________________ an umbrella with you. It (go) _______________ (rain) ____________ .
9. When we (meet) __________________ last night, Peter (invite) __________________ me (have)
____________________ coffee with him, but I (say) _____________ I (have) ______________ no
time, I (just, go) ________________________ to the theatre, but I (promise) _________________
we (have) ________________ coffee next week.
10. After I (lock) _______________________ my office and (try) _______________ (find) _________
my car in the parking lot, I (realize) _________________ it (be, not) ____________________
there. I (look) ___________________ around for some time, but then I (remember) ____________
that my son (call) ______________________ an hour earlier and (ask) _________________ me
(let) _________________ him (take) __________________ it for a couple of hours. I (feel)
_________________ relieved. I (be) _____________ afraid somebody (steal) ________________ it.
11. Mary, what (you, do) ___________________________ in this dark room all day? The weather
(be) ____________ so nice. (Call) __________________ Jenny and (go) _______________ for a
walk with her.
But, Mum I (like, not) _______________________ (walk) _________________, I (prefer)
________________ (surf) ___________________ the Internet. You (can, not) ________________
(understand) _______________________ that, when you (go) ___________________ to school
there (be) ___________________ no computers.
12. We (miss) ____________________ our train, so by the time we (reach) _________________ the
concert hall, the show (end) ____________________ and the audience (leave) ______________ .
13. (You, understand) ___________________________ the use of tenses or (I, have) ____________
(explain) _____________________ some of them once more? - our English teacher asked us yesterday.
27. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:
Mary je rođena u Indiji ali je došla u Britaniju kad je imala 18. Počela je učiti engleski dok je kao dijete gledala
crtiće na televiziji. Kasnije je rekla da su joj crtići puno pomogli u učenju drugih jezika. Danas Mary govori četiri
strana jezika i nada se naučiti još nekoliko.
John, njen brat ne voli učiti, pa ne zna nijedan strani jezik. Kad putuju nekuda zajedno, sve je u redu - Mary je
prevoditelj. Ali kad ide sam, nastaju problemi. Pred nekoliko mjeseci Mary ga je htjela natjerati da nauči nekoliko
139
rečenica na francuskom, ali ne - nije htio ni čuti o tome. Ipak, otišao je u Francusku. Siguran sam da ne želite znati
što se tamo dogodilo! Upao je u neprilike već na aerodromu. Čekao je na svoju prtljagu kao i svi ostali putnici, ali
nje jednostavno nije bilo. Nakon što su svi putnici uzeli svoje putne torbe i počeli napuštati aerodrom, John je i
dalje stajao i čekao nadajući se da će se njegova plava putna torba pojaviti. Kad je shvatio da neće, pošao je
prema šalteru za informacije i pitao …. Zapravo nije ništa pitao, sjetio se da nije poslušao sestru kad mu je govorila
da nauči bar nekoliko rečenica na francuskom. Međutim, bilo je kasno o tome razmišljati.
Djevojka na šalteru je vidjela da je zbunjen i počela je prvo govoriti na francuskom. Kako John nije reagirao,
postavila je isto pitanje na njemačkom, pa na talijanskom. Ništa. John se počeo znojiti i osjećao se užasno. Štoviše,
djevojka je bila ljubazna i sve je to izgovorila smiješeći se. Koja sam ja budala, pomislio je John. A onda je konačno
začuo na engleskom: Mogu li vam kako pomoći?
Želite znati kako je priča završila? Pa, budući da je djevojka bila ne samo ljubazna nego i zgodna, a John tako
zbunjen i posramljen, počeli su razgovarati. Malo pomalo, John, koji je bio impresioniran njenim znanjem, odluči
da će je pozvati na piće kad završi s poslom. I ona je prihvatila.
Čim se John vratio iz Francuske, upisao je tečaj francuskog. Ima francuski dva puta tjedno, a kad dođe kući piše
zadaću i uči riječi. Upravo sada ponavlja nepravilne glagole i nada se da će uskoro svojoj Michelle napisati jedan
mail na francuskom. Bit će iznenađena, ne očekuje to od njega. A njegova sestra se samo smješka iza njegovih
leđa! „Mene nisi htio slušati. Znala sam da ćeš platiti za to jednog dana,“ misli ona.
140
TALKING ABOUT THE PRESENT PERFECT
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE: PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
HAVE
PAST
HAS
PARTICIPLE
S
up to now
time -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
present perfect
present
future
Present Perfect Simple
- is used to connect the past and the present; the action happened in the past but we either do not know
when it happened or it does not seem to be important to us - the results or consequences of that action
are evident now:
I have broken my glasses; I am as blind as a bat.
Peter can’t go on holiday, he has broken his leg.
- is used for things which have happened during a period of time that continues up to now:
I have been to Africa several times.
John has crashed his car again.
- is used with adverbs of indefinite time: already, so far, yet = već (?), just 50, yet = još (neg.), lately, ever,
recently, never, nearly, before ( = već prije):
What’s the best film you have ever seen?
I have never eaten Chinese food.
- is used if the period of time we are talking about has not finished yet: today, this morning, this week:
I have written six e-mails this morning. (it is 10 a.m.)
No more cinemas, Mary! You have been to the movies five times this week.
- is used with since (= the starting point of period) and for (= length of time):
I have not seen Peter since Christmas.
I have not seen him for six months.
I haven't seen him since he returned.
I haven't seen him since he returned last month.
50
just + Present Perfect in British English only; in American English, Simple Past is used
141
28. SUPPLY THE PRESENT SIMPLE, PRESENT CONTINUOUS or PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE:
1. Someone (use) ___________________________ my umbrella! It's all wet! And it was wet yesterday and the
day before!
Well, it wasn't me. I (not, be) ________________________ out of the house for a week!
2. John (not, be) __________________ at home. He (go) ___________________ to the pictures again although
he (be) ___________________ twice already this week.
3. Why (John, go) _________________________ to the pictures so often?
I (not, know) _____________________, maybe because he (not, like) ___________________ TV.
4. Bad students never (work) _____________________ hard, they (spend) ________________ their spare time
in coffee bars or (play) _____________________ stupid video games.
5. That girl who (cross) ____________________ the street now (be) ___________________ my brother’s girl
friend. She (live)__________________ in London.
And why (she, come) ______________________ here?
Well, my brother (be) ____________________ in hospital for a week now, so she (probably, come)
__________________________ to visit him.
6. Listen, our neighbours’ baby (cry) ______________________ again! That baby always (cry) ______________.
I (never, hear) ___________________ that baby crying and by the way, it (not, be) ______________ their baby.
They (just, go) _________________________ out for a walk.
7. Since you gave me Mary’s phone number I (phone) _____________________ her ten times but I (not, find)
_______________________ her at home.
8. I (read) ______________________ all the books about Harry Potter. How many (you, read)
__________________________?
I (not, read) _________________________ any of them, but I (see) ____________________ one of the films
and I (think) _______________ Harry Potter (be) __________________ for children only.
9. Peter (only, write) ___________________________ to me once since he went away; I (send)
____________________ him five e-mails, but he (not, answer) ___________________________ yet.
10. I (type) ____________________________ 16 letters this morning and I (not, want) __________
to type any more. My fingers (ache) ______________________.
11. Mr. Grant (be) ___________________________ in France for the last three weeks. He
(visit) ____________________________the Louvre in Paris and he (climb) ___________________ the stairs to
the top of the Eiffel Tower.
142
29. SUPPLY THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE or SIMPLE PAST:
1. Have they repaired the road?
2. Have you seen that play?
3. Have they done their homework?
4. Have you found the matches?
5. Have you made the coffee?
6. Have you been here before?
7. Have you been to the Opera this week?
8. Have you ever driven this car?
9. Has he missed the train?
No, they
They (only, repair)
part of it so far.
Yes, I
Yes, I (see)
it last night.
Yes, they (do)
it all.
Yes, they (do)
it before they left school.
No, I
No, I (not, find)
them yet.
Yes, I
I (make)
some yesterday, we can use that.
No, I
Yes, I (be)
here several times.
Yes, I
Yes, I (go)
to Faust on Friday.
Yes, I (drive)
it once or twice.
Yes, I (drive)
it when you were away.
No, he
Yes, he
. It (go)
five minutes ago.
30. SUPPLY THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE or SIMPLE PAST:
1. Columbus (discover) _____________________________ America more than 500 years ago.
2. I (not, see) ________________________________ you for more than a week.
3. I (not, eat) __________________________________ caviar since I (be) __________________ in Moscow.
4. Since when (you, know) ___________________________________ him?
5. How long ago (the last war, be) _____________________________________?
6. (You, ever, hear) _____________________________________ Pavarotti singing?
7. I (listen) _________________________ to Pavarotti when I (be) _________________________ in London.
8. Peter (just, go) ______________________________ out, but you can leave a message for him.
9. We (know) _________________________________ each other for a long time.
10. She (work) ___________________________________ here since 1997.
11. I can’t go on holiday because I (break) __________________________________ my leg.
12. I’m sure we (meet) __________________________________ before.
13. I (meet) ________________________ Peter when he (come) ________________________ here last month.
31. COMPLETE THIS CONVERSATION BY PUTTING THE VERBS IN BRACKETS INTO THE PRESENT PERFECT OR
SIMPLE PAST.
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Hello, Jenny.
Hello. I (not, see) ________________________ you since our graduation ceremony.
I (see) _________________ you downtown a few days ago, but you (not, see)
______________________ me. I (be) _______________ on a bus.
Well, how are things? Are you still living with your parents?
No, I (move) ________________________. I (find) __________________ a small flat just
before I (get) _____________ a job. I (be) ________________________ there for a year now.
(You, pass) ____________________________ your driving test yet?
Yes, I ___________. I (pass) _____________ it as soon as I (start) ______________ to work. I
(not, buy) ____________________ a car yet, though. What about you, Jenny? (Anything
exciting, happen) _____________________________________ to you lately?
Well, I (get) __________________ married after our graduation.
143
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Jenny:
Mark:
Congratulation, Jenny! Who is the lucky guy? Do I know him?
I don’t know. We (go) _________________ to high school together.
I (not, know) _____________________ you then. Any children?
Yes. I have a girl. She (be) _____________ born in July last year. And you?
I (not, find) ________________________ my soul-mate yet. And you (not, want)
_____________________ me, remember?
Oh, we (be) _________________ kids then. By the way, you (be) ____________ crazy
about Laura, (you, forget) ____________________________?
No, I ________________. It (be) ________________ only because you …..
OK, let’s drop the subject. How about a cup of coffee, my treat?
Good idea.
32. SUPPLY THE PRESENT PERFECT or SIMPLE PAST:
Some thirty years ago few people (realise) _______________________ that computers (be) ________________
about to become part of our daily lives. The last fifty years of the nineteenth century (witness)
________________ dramatic changes in business, education and public administration. Clerks (use)
___________________ to spend weeks to complete, copy and check calculations. It (be) _________________ a
boring and tedious task. But then the clatter of typewriters (be) __________________ replaced by the soft
hum and clicking of word processors. Very soon, schoolchildren (become) ____________________ as familiar
with hardware and software as their parents (be) ____________________ with pencils and exercise books.
Although computerisation (enable) _______________________ public administration to analyse the needs of
citizens in detail, some people still doubt whether their lives (really, improve)
__________________________________. Since then many jobs (disappear) ___________________, and the
office (become) _________________________ dependent on computers and calculators and white-collar
workers cannot do simple arithmetic. Moreover, there are fears that governments (not, do)
_________________________ enough to keep secret the personal information held on computers.
No wonder that we keep asking ourselves if the spread of computers (bring) ______________________
us as many problems as it (solve) __________________________ . And yet, another question - is there
anything we could do about it?
33. COMPLETE THIS NEWSPAPER STORY WITH THE SIMPLE PAST, PRESENT PERFECT OR PAST PERFECT:
David Williams from Manchester (have) _____________________ such a terrible time this year that he ought
to be in The Guinness Book of Records. The trouble (start) _________________ one morning last January when
David (find) ______________ that his car (go) _____________________ from outside his house. He (not, see)
_____________________ it since.
In February David’s joy at winning £ 200,000 on the football pools (not, last) ___________________ long – he
(forget) ____________________ to post the letter. In March he (buy) _______________ a new car, but he (not,
have) ______________________ it more than a week when someone (crash) _________________ into the
back of it. These disasters (continue) _______________________ right up to the present time. Two days ago
David (sit) _______________ on a seat that someone (finish) _______________________ painting only minutes
before. He (have) ______________ on a new suit that he (buy) ___________________________ only the
previous week. August (be) _______________ the worst so far this year. David (spend) ________________
three days of his holiday at airports because of strikes. When he (arrive) __________________ home, he
(discover) ________________ that someone (break) _____________________ into his house. His videorecorder and television (disappear) ___________________________.
David doesn’t know what he (do) __________________________ to deserve all this bad luck. He just hopes his
luck will change soon.
144
34. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:
1. Sekretarica gospođe Brown je pred jedan sat dobila puno pisama, ali ih još nije otvorila. Ima pune ruke posla
otkako je ušla u ured. _____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Peter, gdje je moja prtljaga? Treba mi mobitel.
Nije ovdje, nosač ju je već odnio u našu sobu. Što će ti mobitel?
Moram nazvati mamu i reći joj da smo stigli.
Nazvat ćeš je kad dođemo u sobu, ima vremena.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Peter je posjetio Brownove kad je bio u Londonu, ali ih od tada više nije vidio. _______________
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Jesi li sinoć vidio prometnu nesreću ispred tvoje kuće?
Ne, nisam.
Ne mogu vjerovati! Zar nisi čuo jedan strašan tresak?
Ne, spavao sam i ništa nisam čuo.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Vrijeme je u zadnjih nekoliko dana užasno. Iako je proljeće svaki dan kiša pada i puše vjetar.
Da, u pravu si. I hladno je već danima. __________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Jesi li u posljednje vrijeme čuo nešto o Tomu? Znaš li gdje je?
Ne, ali netko mi je rekao da je otišao u inozemstvo. Dobio je stipendiju i odlučio da će studij nastaviti u Poljskoj.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
7. Peter mi kaže da si se upravo oženio. Kada je ceremonija održana? ________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
8. Zdravo, Pero. Tako mi je drago što te vidim. Reci mi gdje si bio otkako sam te zadnji puta vidio.
________________________________________________________________________________
9. Ne znam što da napravim, izgubio sam ključ od auta i ne mogu se sjetiti gdje sam ga ostavio.
I što ćeš sada napraviti?
Ako ga ne nađem, razbit ću jedan prozor i ući u auto. _____________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
10. Moji su susjedi bili tako dobri prema meni kad su mi roditelji doživjeli prometnu nesreću da do današnjeg
dana nisam zaboravio njihovu ljubaznost. Uvijek su me pozivali na ručak, vodili u bolnicu posjetiti roditelje i
brinuli o mojim ocjenama. __________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
11. Pogledaj, kiša je upravo prestala padati. Hajdemo van!
Ali ja još nisam napisao zadaću. Pričekaj još nekoliko minuta. _______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
145
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
have
S
been
- ING
has
Present Perfect Continuous
- is used to express an action beginning in the past, continuing up to the present moment and probably going
on in the future; it emphasises the continuity of the action:
You look tired.
Yes, I have been working all day.
I’ve been translating this letter for two hours but I haven’t finished it yet.
Peter has been sleeping since he came home from school. Is he all right?
35. SUPPLY THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS or SIMPLE:
1. Nobody (come) ______________________ to see us since we (live) _______________________ in this outof-the-way place.
2. What (you, do) __________________________ here all day?
I (sit) _________________________ here writing my presentation, but I (not, quite, finish) ________
_________________________ it yet.
3. That helicopter (fly) ___________________________ round the house for the last hour; do you think it’s
taking photographs?
4. Do you know that Mary (cry) __________________________ in the kitchen for five minutes now?
No, she (not, cry) ____________________________, she (peel) ____________________________ onions.
5. Your fingers are very brown. You (smoke) _____________________________________ too much.
6. Ever since he came to work here that man (try) _____________________________________ to make
trouble.
7. Peter (not, be) _______________________ here since Christmas. I wonder where he (live)
________________________________ since then.
8. We (live) _______________________ here for the last six years, and (just, decide) _____________________
to move.
(You, find) ____________________ another apartment yet?
No, but we (look) _________________________ for one for some time and I think we’ll decide soon.
9. Bob (not, have) ____________________ a holiday for years because he (be) ________________ too busy.
10. Ann (fail) ________________________ her driving test three times because she’s so bad at reversing. But
she (practise) ________________________ reversing for the last week and I think she (get)
_____________________ a bit better at it.
146
11. The police (not, find) _____________________ the murderer yet, but the dead man’s brother (be)
__________________ in the station all day. The police say that he (help) ______________________ them with
their inquiries.
12. Since my brother became Mayor, he claims that he (eat) ____________________________ 30 official
lunches and 22 official dinners, and he (lose) _________________________ count of the number of receptions
and parties he (attend) _________________________ .
(He, put) ______________________________ on a lot of weight?
Yes, he ______________, he is as fat as a pig.
13. Secretary: Customers (ring) _________________________________ up all morning complaining about
getting incorrect bills.
Manager: I know, something (go) _____________________________ wrong with our computer. The mechanic
(work) __________________________ on it. I hope he (find) _______________________ what’s wrong.
36. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS:
1. While I (walk) _____________________ through Hyde Park yesterday afternoon, I (hear) ________________
a scream, but before I (get) __________________ to the place where a woman (scream)
_________________________, the thief (already, run) ____________________________ away.
(He, steal) ____________________________ anything from her?
No, he ______________. He (not, have) _______________________ enough time. She (begin)
_______________________ screaming as soon as she (see) _____________________ him.
2. Mary (go) __________________ to hospital last week. She (think) __________________ that she (come)
________________________ home in two days but she (not, leave) __________________ her hospital bed yet.
The doctor (say) ___________________ to her mother that she (probably, stay) ____________________ in
hospital for two weeks to run all the necessary tests.
3. Peter, (not, go) ____________________ anywhere now. Mary (just, call) ____________________ and (say)
_________________ she (come) _________________________ in half an hour.
4. Mr. Brown’s secretary (receive) _____________________ a lot of letters an hour ago, but she (not, open)
_________________________ them yet. If she (not, open) ________________________ them by noon, her
boss (take) ____________________ them home and (answer) ___________________ them himself first thing
tomorrow morning.
5. (Take) ___________________ the Browns’ luggage to the platform, the porter (remember)
___________________ he (see) _________________________ them at the same station last week. As Mrs.
Brown (have) _____________ so many bags and suitcases, he (ask) _________________ another porter for
help.
6. The Browns (come) ________________ (see) ________________ me last night. When I (invite)
_______________________ them (stay) _________________ for dinner, they (say) _____________ they (be)
__________________ in a hurry. A friend (wait) _________________________ for them in his hotel.
7. Nothing ever (happen) ____________________ in this village! It (become) __________________ a dead
place – all young people (drift) ___________________________ to towns.
8. (You, see) _________________________ Philip lately? I (phone) ____________________ several times last
week but nobody (answer) __________________________.
147
Oh, he (be) _______________________ in America for the last month. He (fly) _________________ for a
conference but then he (make) _________________________ up his mind (stay) _____________ for six weeks.
(You, hear) _____________________________ from him?
Yes, I (get) _________________ an e-mail letter shortly after he (arrive) _____________________.
9. We often (go) ___________________ out on Saturday evenings, but it (be) ____________ so cold last
Saturday that we (stay) ________________________ in and (play) __________________ cards.
What (you, play) ____________________________?
We (play) ______________________ poker. I (lose) _____________________ five pounds. (You, play)
____________________________ poker?
I _______, but I (not, play) __________________________ since I (graduate) ______________.
10. What (the matter, be) ___________________________ with you? You (look) ________________ awful.
I (have) _______________________ a terrible toothache for days.
(You, be) ____________________________ to the dentist?
Yes, I ______________, but he just (tell) _____________________ me (take) __________________ some painkillers and antibiotics. When the swelling (disappear) ____________________ , he (take) _________________
that tooth out.
11. When I (meet) ___________________ Tom last night, I (ask) ____________________ him when he (take)
___________________________ his degree. I (be) ___________ really surprised (hear) ___________________
that he (already, take) ______________________________ it.
12. Yesterday our neighbour (fall) _______________ while he (mount) ________________________ the new
antenna system on the roof. Fortunately, my father (be) ________________ at home, so he (take)
____________ him to hospital at once. The doctor (say) ___________ he (stay) ___________ overnight,
because he (be) ______________ afraid of possible complications. We (go) ___________ (visit)
_______________ him this afternoon.
13. Where (Peter, be) _______________________?
Well, he (not, finish) __________________________________ his test yet. He (still, write)
____________________________ when I (leave) ________________ the classroom.
37. PUT THE WORDS IN THE CORRECT ORDER (the first words are written in capital letters):
1. Peter’s, his, dirty, because, has, hands, he, are, mending, bike, been
____________________________________________________________________________
2. a, been, since, tennis, I, small, have, I, playing, child, was
____________________________________________________________________________
3. was, the, Jenny, good, until, friend, was going to, latest thriller, see, her, no, told, it, her
____________________________________________________________________________
148
4. an, While, was planning, the owner of the company, to give, Mr Black, decided, him, to retire,
extra bonus
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. In, 10, Britain, at night, big, at, o’clock, supermarkets, 7, open, o’clock, close, as late as, in the morning, and
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. you, any further, You, for two hours, won’t make, study, progress, every other day, if
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. has, Oxford University, different, which, in the world, colleges, one of the oldest, is, many
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. manager, her, a, later, promised, Sally’s, in pay, get, year, rise, would, she, that
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. his roommate, he, yesterday, him, Peter, was, that, visit, sure, but, was, going to, didn’t
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. you, been, Where, so long, have?
met, a cup of coffee, I, and, Well, had, a friend, we
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
149
DEFECTIVES
TENSE
PRESENT
SIMPLE PAST
CAN51
CAN
COULD52
MUST54
MUST53
FUTURE
PRESENT
PERFECT
PAST
PERFECT
FUTURE IN
THE PAST
WILL
HAVE / HAS
HAD
WOULD
BE ABLE TO
BEEN ABLE
TO
BEEN ABLE
TO
BE ABLE TO
WILL
HAVE / HAS
HAD
WOULD
HAVE TO
HAD TO
HAD TO
HAVE TO
HAD TO
HAVE TO55
HAS TO
38. SUPPLY THE CORRECT VERBAL FORMS OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS:
1. Hi, Peter why (you, run) _____________________________?
I (have) ___________________ (catch) _____________________ the 8.50 train to London.
2. Look at her, our baby (be) _______________________ able (walk) ____________________ in a few weeks.
3. I (can, not) _____________________ (pay) ________________ you today. (You, can) _________ (wait)
_______________ till tomorrow, please?
4. Since his accident he (not, be) __________________________ able (leave) __________________ the house.
5. He said he (lose) ________________________ his passport and (not, be) ___________________ able (travel)
_____________________ anywhere until he (find) __________________ it.
6. You (get) _________________________ fat; you (must) _________________ (join) ___________ a fitness
club.
7. I (have) ___________________ (go) ________________ to work every day except Sunday. But I (not, have)
____________________ (work) ___________________ a full day on Saturday.
8. In this office even the senior staff (have) ______________________ (be) ___________________ at their
desks by 9.00.
9. If there (be) ____________________ no taxis here, we (have) _____________________ (walk)
________________.
10. During last term I (run) ______________ out of money and I (have) ____________________ (borrow)
____________________ some from Tom.
51
52
53
54
55
no continuous
also for polite requests and as a conditional
no continuous
must not=ne smjeti; ne morati=don’t have, doesn’t have
negative and interrogative with “TO DO”
150
11. Ann (not, have) _______________________ (wait) _________________ long last night. Her train (be)
______________ only a few minutes late.
39. SUPPLY THE CORRECT FORMS OF “CAN” & “MUST”:
1. You ________________________ take more than two of these pills at once. Three might be fatal.
2. A police officer _____________________ ask a driver to come to the police station and give a statement.
3. When I have a mobile phone of my own I _________________________ waste time waiting outside these
wretched telephone boxes.
4. He has a house in London and another in Paris, so he ______________________ be rich.
5. The sign in the Zoo says: “Visitors _________________________ feed the animals!”
6. Measles __________________________ be quite dangerous for adults.
7. You ______________________ read this book. It’s marvellous!
8. When I’m an old age pensioner I ______________________________ pay any more bus fares.
9. You _______________________ drive fast. There is a speed limit here.
10. He read the message but he _________________________ understand it.
11. Doctor: You _____________________ cut down on your smoking.
12. Notice in shop: “Staff _________________________ smoke when serving customers.”
13. You ______________________ get up earlier when you start work, won’t you?
40. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:
1. Moram napisati prezentaciju o osiguračima, ali nemam pojma kako se to radi. Možeš li mi pomoći?
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Ne znam ni ja. Pitaj Petra, siguran sam da će ti on moći pomoći.
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Zdravo, jesi li napravio onu prezentaciju?
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Ne, još je nisam završio! Petar jučer nije mogao doći i pomoći mi. Sutra ću se morati primiti posla, rok je
blizu.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Kada moraš predati tu prezentaciju?
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Prekosutra.
_______________________________________________________________________________
151
CONDITIONALS - TYPE 0 & TYPE 1
TYPE 0
IF - CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT SIMPLE
- is used to express that one thing always follows automatically from another:
If you heat metal, it expands.
If the mains supply fails, the batteries take over.
If you press this switch, the computer comes on.
TYPE 1
IF CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
PRESENT SIMPLE
FUTURE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT PERFECT
PRESENT (CAN, MUST...)
- is used to express an open condition (something will happen or it will not happen in the future):
If it doesn’t rain, the wedding reception will take place in the garden.
If we are expecting twenty guests, we’ll have to borrow a few chairs from our neighbours.
If you have been a good boy, I’ll buy you an ice-cream.
If you are afraid of flying, take a bus.
If it is raining already, don’t go without an umbrella.
If you have finished your homework, help me with the dishes.
If I see Ann at school, I can give her the book.
If it isn’t raining, we can eat outside.
If they have offered you the job, you must accept it.
152
41. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS AND TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES:
1. If Mary can (type) ______________, she (be) __________________________ able to get a job easily.
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. If you (not, be) ____________________ here by six, we (not, wait) ___________________________ for you.
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. (not, open) ______________________ the window if you (not, dress) ________________________ up yet.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. What (you, do) ________________________ if they (not, give) ________________________ you the
scholarship?
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. If you (buy) __________________ that car, you (spend) __________________________ a lot of money on
gas.
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. (give) __________________ my love to Kevin if you (see) ______________________ him.
________________________________________________________________________________
7. If I (have) _____________________ enough money next year, I (go) _______________________ to China.
___________________________________________________________________________________
8. If I (not, be) _____________________ better tomorrow, I (stay) ___________________________ at home.
________________________________________________________________________________
9. (not, tell) ____________________ him anything if he (not, ask) ______________________________ .
________________________________________________________________________________
10. What (happen) _____________________ if my parachute (not, open) _____________________ ?
_________________________________________________________________________________
11. Mary (come) ___________________ to your birthday party if you (invite) ____________________ her.
_________________________________________________________________________________
12. If you (finish) ______________________________ your dinner, (put) _________________ the plate into
the sink.
________________________________________________________________________________
13. If she (not, be) ________________________ hungry now, she (have) ______________________ dinner
with us later.
________________________________________________________________________________
153
42. SUPPLY THE CORRECT VERBAL FORMS:
1. If you (lift) ____________________ up a heavy object, you (use) _________________ up energy.
2. If I (miss) __________________ the bus this afternoon, I (get) _________________ a taxi instead.
3. They (refund) ______________________ your money if you (keep) _______________________ your receipt.
4. If I (make) _____________________ some coffee, (you, cut) ________________________ the cake?
5. If you (smoke) ____________________ in a non-smoking compartment, the other passengers (object)
_______________________.
6. If you (feel) __________________ too hot during the night, (turn) _____________________ off the central
heating.
7. I always (wake) ____________________ up in time even if I (not, set) ______________________ my alarm
clock.
8. If there (not, be) __________________ enough wine in that bottle, (go) ___________________ to the cellar
and (bring) ______________ a new one.
9. The ship (run) ___________________ aground if the pilot (make) ____________________ one mistake.
10. They (force) _________________________ their way into the house if the convict (not, come)
_________________________ out.
11. If Tom (pass) ___________________ his final exam today, we (have) _____________________ a great party
tonight.
12. If we (not, do) _________________________ something soon, thousands of people in Africa (die)
_____________________ of hunger.
13. The new road (keep) _____________________________ the traffic out of the town if they (build)
_____________________ a by-pass.
43. SUPPLY THE CORRECT VERBAL FORMS:
1. If you (forget) ______________________ your password, (click) _____________________ here.
2. If the price of petrol (go) ___________________ up, I (have) ______________________ (sell)
_________________ one of my cars.
3. If Peter (take) _______________________ a course in computer programming, he (be)
______________________ able (get) ________________ that job more easily.
4. We (have) _______________________ (break) __________________ the ice on this pond first if we (want)
__________________ (fish) ___________________ here.
5. If you (see) _______________________ this film before, why (you, go) ______________________ to the
cinema again?
6. (Tell) ___________________ Peter (hurry) __________________ if he (want) ________________ to come
with us.
7. If the pain (return) _____________________, (take) ______________ two of these pills after food.
154
8. If you (tell) ___________________ the police the truth, I (be) __________________ sure they (believe)
______________________ you.
9. What (you, do) ___________________________ if you (graduate) __________________ in May?
Well, if I (get) ______________________ a job soon, I (work) _____________________. If I (not, get)
_________________________ a job, I (travel) ________________________ .
10. If I (can) ______________ (find) _______________ a cheap room, I (stay) __________________ for two
weeks.
11. I (accept) ________________________ your apology if you (promise) _____________________ you (never,
do) _________________________ the same thing again.
12. What (happen) _______________________ if your parents (find) ______________________ out about
your bad marks before you (manage) _______________________ (get) _________________ passing grades?
I (not, must) _________________________ even (think) _______________________ about it!
13. (Not, look) ______________________________ up the answer at the back of the book unless you really
(want) __________________ (check) ______________________ only.
44. MAKE A CONDITIONAL SENTENCE WITH THE SAME MEANING:
1. Mary left this morning. She will probably send us an e-mail tonight.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Stop making that noise, I’ll hit you.
______________________________________________________________________________
3. You are driving too fast. The police will stop you.
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Be in touch. Use a Samsung mobile phone.
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Save money by buying an IBM computer.
______________________________________________________________________________
6. The children mustn’t go near Tom’s dog. He’ll bite them.
______________________________________________________________________________
7. It might rain. If it does, everyone can eat inside.
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Is Peter going to enter the race? He will probably win.
______________________________________________________________________________
9. You lose your credit card. You must call your bank.
155
______________________________________________________________________________
10. I can’t sleep. I get up and read.
______________________________________________________________________________
11. You’re hungry. Why don’t you prepare something to eat?
______________________________________________________________________________
156
CRIB NOTES
ACTIVE
PRESENT TENSES
time ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
present perfect
present
future
continuous
continuous
continuous
HAVE
S
BEEN
- ING
HAS
do
sada i
dalje
sada
PAST
do
S
sutra
SHALL
inače
sada
-ING
future simple
S
PARTICIPLE
BE
WILL
INFINITIVE
S
HAS
SHALL
-ING
present simple1
present perfect simple
HAVE
AM
ARE
IS
S
S
-(E)S
INFINITIVE
WILL
PAST TENSES
time ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
past perfect
past
future-in-the past
continuous
continuous
continuous
S
HAD
BEEN
- ING
radnja
prije
yester
day
WAS
S
yester
day
S
past simple1
past perfect simple
PAST
S
-ING
WERE
HAD
PARTICIPLE
radnja
prije
yesterday
S
-(E)D
DO
DOES
S1
BE
-ING
future-in-the past simple
yesterday
N
O
T
WOULD
S
WOULD
INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE
DID
who=koga, kome?
what=što?
where
why
when
how
how much
how many
etc
DO
DOES
INFINITIVE
S1
DID
WHO=tko?
-(E)S
/
WHAT=što?
/
-(E)D
157
PASSIVE
PRESENT TENSES
time -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
present perfect
present
continuous
AM
ARE
IS
S
present perfect simple
PAST
BEING
PARTICIPLE
present simple
HAVE
S
future
PAST
BEEN
S
HAS
PARTICIPLE
AM
ARE
IS
future simple
PAST
PAST
S
WILL
BE
PARTICIPLE
PARTICIPLE
PAST TENSES
time -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
past perfect
past
continuous
future-in-the past
WAS
S
PAST
PARTICIPLE
BEING
WERE
past perfect simple
past simple
PAST
S
HAD
BEEN
WAS
PAST
PAST
S
PARTICIPLE
Negative: NOT
future-in-the past simple
S
WERE
WOULD
PARTICIPLE
BE
PARTICIPLE
interrogative: INVERSION
INFINITIVE
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
TO INCREASE
TO BE INCREASED
They are going TO INCREASE overtime rates.
Overtime rates are going TO BE INCREASED.
CAN, COULD
MUST
HAVE TO, HAS TO
HAD TO
WILL HAVE TO
SHOULD
MAY
MIGHT
BE
PAST PARTICIPLE
158
TALKING ABOUT THE PASSIVE VOICE
tense
present simple
present continuous
future
present perfect
past simple
past continuous
past perfect
active
passive
We serve lunch at 12 o’clock every day.
We are serving lunch now.
We will serve lunch at 1 o’clock tomorrow.
We have already served lunch.
We served lunch at 12 yesterday.
We were serving lunch from 12 till 1 p.m. yesterday.
We had served lunch before you came.
Lunch is served at 12 o’clock every day.
Lunch is being served now.
Lunch will be served at 1 o’clock tomorrow.
Lunch has been already served.
Lunch was served at 12 yesterday.
Lunch was being served from 12 till 1 p.m. yesterday.
Lunch had been served before you came.
negative: be + not
interrogative: inversion
THE PASSIVE VOICE
- is used when the speaker is more interested in the action than in the person(s) doing the action:
The streets are swept every day.
The gates will be closed this evening.
- is used when we either do not know who the doer of the action is, or it is of little or no importance:
This castle was built in the 18th century.
My car has been crashed.
- is used far more often in English than in some other languages (in French it is “on”, in German “man” and in
Croatian, the passive voice is often replaced by reflexive verbs),
- is more usually found in written language than in speech, particularly in scientific and technical writing to convey
information and to develop logical arguments.
The first step toward the passive would be converting active into passive. Such exercises are useful for practical
purposes, but the process is essentially an artificial one. Nevertheless, it will teach us how to form the passive. It is
made by putting the verb TO BE into the required tense (the rules for the use of passive tenses are the same as those
for the active) and adding the Past Participle of the main verb. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject
of the passive one:
They make these suits in Italy.
When did they produce the first video recorders?
They told us to stop talking.
Has anyone corrected the mistakes?
They are making a new road here.
These suits are made in Italy
When were the first video recorders produced?
We were told to stop talking.
Have the mistakes been corrected?
A new road is being made here.
Defectives and modals (can, must, may, should..) are followed by BE and the past participle:
They must take the luggage to the check-in desk.
Somebody can easily mend this door.
They will have to operate on him tomorrow.
Nobody can repair the broken vase.
People should cut down that tree.
The luggage must be taken to the check-in desk.
This door can easily be mended.
He will have to be operated on tomorrow.
The broken vase cannot be repaired.
That tree should be cut down.
Verbs which cannot be passive: become, happen, have (=own), lack, resemble, seem, stay, suit (=be right for).
Verbs which can be passive: believe, contain, include, intend, know, like, love, mean, need, owe, own, understand,
want.
The agent (the doer of the action), if required, is introduced at the end of the sentence with BY.
159
45. PUT THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO THE PASSIVE VOICE:
1. Boys play football all over the world.
2. She is just washing your pullover.
3. They had to write the report yesterday.
4. You will take it to the cleaner's.
5. They have repaired her steering wheel.
6. She can serve dinner at 6 p.m.
7. Her attitude shocked me. (agent)
8. Someone must teach that boy a lesson!
9. When will they paint the house?
10. He hasn’t painted the house since they built it ten years ago. (two passives)
11. Why did they send him to prison?
12. Haven’t they promised you a rise in salary?
13. Dickens probably wrote this play. (agent)
46. PUT THE FOLLOWING VERBS INTO THE PASSIVE VOICE
1. The answer to the question that Michael Faraday had put to himself (find) ______________________ in the last
century.
2. The letter (send) ______________________________________ tomorrow.
3. This generator (drive) ____________________________________ by a steam turbine since last year.
4. A lot of noises (hear) ___________________________ before the window (close) _______________.
5. A number of problems must (solve) ________________________________ before our next holiday.
6. Bits of paper (attract) ____________________________________ by an electrified plastic stick.
7. The charge on the glass stick (call) ________________________________ positive.
8. Everything can (do) ____________________________________ in time.
9. This film (see) ___________________________________ by many people since it (project)
_______________________ last Monday.
10. This event (write) __________________________________ about in newspaper tomorrow.
11. Nowadays these machines (control) __________________________________ by computers.
12. Have you heard that three children (injure) ___________________________________ in the gas
explosion yesterday?
13. How much money (receive) ______________________________________ from oil exports so far?
160
47. PUT THE FOLLOWING VERBS INTO THE PASSIVE VOICE:
1. All these grammar drills (already, print) ________________________________________ for the students.
2. The museum (open) ________________________________ to visitors every day.
3. These lorries (produce) ______________________________________ in our factory for ten years.
4. Mary (take) ______________________________________ to hospital last week.
5. This picture (always, admire) _____________________________________________.
6. The box (not, open) __________________________________________ for 200 years.
7. The living-room window (break) ______________________________ yesterday.
8. This tragic accident (forget) ______________________________________ in a few years' time.
9. The Browns' children (usually, dress) ______________________________________ very badly.
10. In the past the Tower of London (use) ____________________________________as a prison.
11. Mary (give) _____________________________________ a bulldog for her last birthday.
12. Two of my dinner-plates (break) ___________________________________________ so far.
13. My book (publish) _____________________________________ next year.
48. PUT THE FOLLOWING VERBS INTO THE PASSIVE VOICE:
1. A lot of destroyed houses (re-build) ________________________________________ here since my last visit.
2. The matter (discuss) ____________________________________ just now.
3. I (give) _______________________________________ all the details about the trip next Saturday.
4. The door (already, shut) _____________________________________________________.
5. Sometimes dinner (serve) _________________________________________ here at 7 p.m.
6. Lots of things (find) ________________________________________ on trams and buses every day.
7. I (punish) _________________________________________ for something I didn't do.
8. Peter (tell) ______________________ that all the tickets (already, sell) ________________________ out.
9. A strange man (see) ______________________ here an hour ago.
10. Peter (teach) __________________________________ French when he was in France.
11. After the thief (give) ____________________________ a fair trial, he (send) ____________________ to prison.
12. The box (lock) _________________________________ and it can’t (open) ____________________ now.
13. Several new motorways (build) ___________________________________ here but European standards (not,
reach) _______________________________ yet.
49. PUT THE VERBS IN BRACKETS INTO THE PASSIVE VOICE:
1. New Colleges (establish) ________________________________________ as soon as an agreement
between the Prime Minister and the Government (sign) _________________________ . We all hope it
(sign) __________________________ next week.
2. (You, tell) _____________________________ at the meeting yesterday that our company (sell)
___________________________ to an American businessman?
3. Have you read that our railway system (modernize) ____________________________________ before the
beginning of the next holiday season?
4. If a fast answer (require) _______________________, the letter should (send) _______________ by air mail.
5. The dog (leave) _______________________ in the garden overnight, so when it (find)
_____________________ in the morning, it (already, freeze) ________________________________ for a couple
of hours.
6. Let's go to the cinema. I hope that the tickets (not, sell) _____________________________________ out yet.
7. It was raining the whole day yesterday. Many roads (flood) _______________________, the current (cut)
_____________________ out and the traffic (block) _______________________ because there was too much
water on the roads.
8. This room (not, clean) _______________________________ since my grandmother (take)
__________________________ to hospital.
9. I (tell) ___________________ that Peter (already, give) _______________________________ a scholarship for
medicine.
161
10. Shakespeare's plays (perform) ____________________________________ throughout the world for centuries
but some of his plays (never, perform) _______________________________________ in our theatre.
11. Do you know how English language (bring) ______________________________________ to the American
continent?
Well, the first colony on the American ground (found) ___________________________________ in Virginia at
the beginning of the 17th century so it (bring) ________________________ by the settlers then, wasn’t it?
12. My car (have) _____________________ (repair) ________________________ as soon as possible. It (badly,
damage) ______________________________ in a traffic accident last week.
13. This beautiful old house should (repair) ___________________________ and (open) ____________ for public
as soon as possible.
50. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO ENGLISH. USE THE PASSIVE VOICE WHEREVER POSSIBLE:
1. Ne možete ovdje prelaziti rijeku jer se most upravo popravlja.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Ljudi se boje jer su pokraj skijaške staze viđeni vukovi.
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Shvatio je da će biti kažnjen za ono što je učinio.
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Ovo je strašno. Pogledaj! Ozlijeđenog igrača upravo iznose sa terena.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. Smeće opet nije odnešeno! A svi su računi plaćeni.
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Ako ti je ruka slomljena, morat će se slikati.
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Upravo je objavljeno da je sinoć ubijen jedan od ministara.
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Ovo mi već ide na živce! Takva vrsta oglasa može se vidjeti posvuda.
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Vjeruje se da Tom ima informacije koje će policija koristiti u istrazi.
____________________________________________________________________________
10. Čuo sam da nam neće platiti prekovremeni rad.
____________________________________________________________________________
O čemu ti pričaš? Pa nikad nismo ni bili plaćeni za prekovremeni rad.
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Zar je Tom sinoć uhićen?
Mislim da je, oko 2 u noći probudila me buka policijske sirene.
____________________________________________________________________________
162
PAST PARTICIPLE
ACTIVE
TENSES
PASSIVE
TENSES
ADJECTIVES
SHORTENED PASSIVE
SENTENCES
HAVE/GET SOMETHING
DONE
Peter has
bought
a new car.
If your hand is
broken, it will be
X-rayed first.
stolen
money
The letter written yesterday has
to be mailed at once.
While I was having my hair cut the
police towed away my car.
He said he
had paid
$ 20.000 for it.
The rubbish hasn’t
been collected yet.
broken
glass
The house built at the end of the
street looks great.
His house is too small and he is having
a room built on.
She wondered
who had left
the door open.
The streets in our
town are swept
every day.
an
infuriated
woman
Convinced that they were trying
to poison him, he refused to eat
anything.
Do you have your car washed or do
you wash it yourself?
We have
known
each other for
a long time.
Those pyramids were
built around 400 A.D.
a
written
report
The printer bought yesterday
does not give good copies.
I’ve been getting a lot of annoying
phone calls so I’m going to have my
number changed.
51. INSERT PRESENT or PAST PARTICIPLES IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. There is a (break) __________________ window in the hall. It should be (repair) ______________ at once.
2. You said you were (bore) ________________ but I think the lesson was quite (interest) _________.
3. Who’s the fat man (sit) ___________________ in the corner?
I don’t know. I have never (see) ______________________ him before.
4. The speaker was so (bore) ________________________ that most people left before the lecture was over.
5. Peter is so (interest) _________________________ in astronomy that he has already (decide)
____________________ to study it.
6. I’ll never get (marry) _______________________! I don’t want to spend my life (surround)
_____________________ by dirty washing and (scream) _________________________ children.
7. Most of the people (invite) ________________________ to the party didn’t turn up so the food was (take)
____________________ to a charity home.
8. Peter’s scholarship will be (grant) ____________________ in a few days. At least he was (tell)
___________________ so.
9. If a story is (excite) ____________________, you will be (excite) ____________________ when you read it.
10. (Open) _____________________ the door of my room, I saw him (drink) ____________________ my
whisky.
11. He told me somebody had (phone) ____________________ while I was out.
12. They were (quarrel) ___________________ about the property their father had (leave) _________ them
when he died.
13. I wanted to go to the theatre last night, but when I got there I saw that it was (close) ___________ by the
police on the orders of the mayor.
52. INSERT PRESENT OR PAST PARTICIPLES IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. I was (ask) ___________________ to send a (stamp) ____________________ envelope as soon as possible.
2. Peter was (wonder) _________________________ why he had been (appoint) ________________ the chief
designer.
3. Too many books have been (write) ______________________ about the Second World War.
4. Have you ever (hear) ______________________ a nightingale (sing) ______________________?
5. (Take) ____________________ everything into consideration, they should be (give) ____________ another
chance. Everybody deserves a second chance!
163
6. My wife had a long talk with Sally, (explain) ______________________ why she didn’t want the children to
play together.
7. Not (wish) _____________________ to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress designer.
What did your parents say when they heard that? Were they (disappoint) _____________________?
Yes, it was very (disappoint) __________________ for them but a few years later they had to admit it was a
good decision.
8. The men (work) ____________________________ on the oil rig were in great danger when the storm broke.
9. It rained for two weeks on end, completely (ruin) ______________________ my holiday.
10. Not (know) _______________________ what to do, I telephoned the police.
11. The printer which was (bring) _______________________ yesterday must be (test) __________________
at once.
12. The printer (bring) ______________________ yesterday must be (test) ________________ immediately.
13. Billy, there is a printer on your desk. It is (wait) __________________ to be (test) ____________.
Active is used when the subject of the sentence actually DOES the action expressed by
the verb.
Passive is used when the subject of the sentence DOES NOT DO the action expressed by
the verb, it “suffers” the action of the verb. Remember the Croatian word for the Passive
Voice!
53. INSERT PRESENT SIMPLE, ACTIVE or PASSIVE
ABOUT SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy (be) ___________________ clean green electricity that (either, create) _____________ from
sunlight or from heat from the sun. Having solar energy in your home, usually (mean) _______________ setting
up a solar photovoltaic system on your roof. What (photovoltaic, mean) ________________________________?
Photo (stand) ____________for light and photons (be) ________________ energy particles coming from
sunlight. Voltaic (denote) _________________ “producing a voltage or volts”. Abbreviation for “photovoltaic”
(be) ___________ PV.
Solar energy (be) ________________ one of the renewable energy sources. Although it (not, be)
_________________ inexhaustible, it (be) _________________ sustainable unlike fossil fuels which (be)
____________ finite. It is also a non-polluting source of energy and it (not, emit) _____________ any greenhouse
gases when producing electricity. The solar energy that (produce) ______________ can supplement your entire
or partial energy consumption. Using solar power (mean) _____________ reducing your energy bills and saving
money. If a PV system (install) _____________________ on the roof of your home, the value of your home
(increase) ____________________. The system (require) _________________ low maintenance. Solar thermal
applications (be) ______________ the most widely used category of solar energy technology. They (use)
_______________ heat from the sun for water and space heating, ventilation, and many other applications.
164
54. INSERT THE PRESENT SIMPLE or SIMPLE PAST (ACTIVE or PASSIVE):
The power of moving water (recognize) _____________________ a long time ago and rivers have been used as
transport corridors for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians, for example, (float) ______________________
down the Nile River on the water current and they (learn) ____________ to harness the wind’s energy to sail up
it again. Essentially, river-based water power (be) __________ another form of indirect solar energy because it
(use) ______________ the potential energy in rain water (or melted snow) as it (drain) ________________ back
to the oceans. The available energy (depend) _________________ on the quantity of water and the drop in
elevation along the path of flow. The energy in the stream of water (convert) ____________________ to
rotational energy by means of a water wheel or turbine. One liter of water, falling about 150 meters per second,
can generate one kilowatt of electricity.
Around 200 BC, the water wheel (be) ___________________ the first invention created to harness the
mechanical power of water. The water wheel (develop) _____________________ more than 2000 years ago in
two forms - horizontal and vertical. The vertical wheel (first, use) __________________ to lift water and drain
mining pits. Soon afterwards, people (recognize) ___________________ that flowing water (can)
___________________ turn the wheel. Then dams and channels (build) __________________ to control the
flow of water. The horizontal wheel (can) ___________________ drive millstones directly and (be)
________________ simple to build and repair. The vertical wheel (need) _________________ a pair of gear
wheels to turn the rotating force through 90 degrees but it (be) ___________________ much more powerful and
efficient.
Water wheels (put) ____________________ to work in a wide variety of activities during the Middle Ages, which
(last) ___________________ until the fifteenth century. The power of water wheels (use) _________________
to grind grain, make paper and cloth and operate some kinds of ancient tools. In 1090, a 12-metre high clock
driven by waterwheels (build) __________________ in China.
55. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS (ACTIVE or PASSIVE, all tenses):
1. Where (transformers, use) ________________________________________?
2. They (tell) ______________________ she'd meet them.
3. This project must (study) ___________________________ very carefully.
4. The meeting (organize) __________________________ as a protest against the war but in the end it (use)
_____________________ by politicians for their own promotion.
5. She (tell) _____________________ to meet them at the airport at 9 p.m..
6. She (tell) _________________ me she (meet) ___________________ them at the airport at 9 p.m.
7. We (ask) ____________________ what device (use) _____________________ to prevent the short circuit, but
nobody had a clue.
8. The boiler (explode) ________________________ while the steam (heat) ____________________ to the
temperature of more than 200o C.
9. What (you, do) _______________________ if you (win) ______________________ a million pound?
10. Mary, all these letters must (answer) ____________________ before you (go) _________________ home.
11. Yesterday our geography teacher (explain) _____________________ why Africa (discover)
____________________________________ before Australia.
12. The induction motor (construct) ____________________________ more than a hundred years ago. Tesla
(patent) _______________________ it in 1888.
13. What (a power plant, supply) ____________________________________________ us with?
165
56. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS (ACTIVE or PASSIVE, all tenses):
1. Although it was C. Columbus who (discover) _________________________________ America, the continent
(name) _________________________ after Amerigo Vespucci.
2. President John F. Kennedy (assassinate) _________________________________ in Dallas in 1963, but the true
about his assassin (never, confirm) ______________________________ .
3. Oldtimers can (see) ___________________________ in the Technical museum from 9 a.m. till 6 p.m. every day.
4. (You, ever, visit) _____________________________________ the Mimara art collection?
Not really, but I (hear) ____________________ that since it (open) _________________________ in 1986, it
(visit) ________________________ by thousands of people.
5. Yesterday evening the club (close) _____________________________ by the police because a snitch (badly
injure) ________________________ and (leave) ___________________ under the staircase.
6. The principles of electromagnetism (first, formulate) ___________________________________ by Ampere,
in whose honour the unit of current intensity (later, name) ___________________________.
7. Energy may (define) _________________________ as the capacity for doing work.
8. The principle of the conservation of energy may (state) _______________________ as follows: "Energy cannot
(create) ______________________________ or (destroy) ______________________________ but it may (convert)
___________________________ from one form to another.
9. When the police (open) _______________________ his apartment they (find) _________________ out that
he (be) ________________________________ dead for two days.
10. Look, a new road (make) ___________________________________ here. I hope it (finish) ________________
before it (begin) __________________ to snow.
11. Customers (ask) ______________________ to ensure that they (give) _____________________ the correct
change before leaving the shop, as mistakes cannot afterwards (rectify) ______________.
12. The money must (return) ____________________ within two days or the bank manager (call) _____________
the police.
13. The method for storing solar energy (not, discover) _____________________________________ yet although
scientists (work) ____________________________________ on it very hard for years.
57. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS:
1. This generator (drive) ________________________________ by a steam turbine since the power plant (open)
________________________.
2. A number of problems must (solve) _________________________ before the new manager (appoint)
________________________.
3. While we (try) _________________________ to solve the problem of heating, the new employee (come)
______________________ with a good idea. He (say) _______________ his idea (elaborate, already)
______________________________. He (hope) _______________ it (even, publish) _________________
in a scientific newspaper.
4. When Mr. Smith (come) ___________________ to his office yesterday, he (tell) _________________ that his
manager (already, call) ________________________________ and (leave) ________________ a message. He
(ask) ________________ (ring) ____________________ up his manager as soon as possible. When Mr. Smith
(call) ______________, the manager (tell) _______________________ him he (need) _____________________
the report about the factory financial situation as soon as possible.
5. This morning, after the report (print) _________________________, it (fax) ___________________ to all
departments.
6. Peter (use) _________________ (carry) _____________________ a lot of cash with him, but last year after
he (rob) ______________________ he (say) _____________ he (use) _______________________ credit cards
only.
7. Peter, our department (get) ___________________ some new computers last week.
How nice, but (you, have) _____________________________ (arrange) ______________________ the old
computers differently before (install) ___________________________ the new ones?
Oh, yes, we _____________, and it (be) _________________ really a nasty work. I (be) ___________
so glad it (already, finish) ________________________ .
166
8. My friend (have) _______________________ this TV set for a very long time and it (be) _________ O.K. since
it (buy) ___________________________.
9. I (be) ___________ sorry but I (think) ______________ that nothing can (do) _________________ about it
now.
10. (Look) ________________, Peter! The man who (explain) ____________________________ the operation
of our new scanner (be) ___________ a famous expert. That's why everybody (stand)
_______________________ around him and (listen) _____________________________ carefully.
11. Peter is a really suitable applicant. I (be) __________ sure he (offer) _______________________ a high
salary.
58. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS (ACTIVE or PASSIVE):
The first known wind turbines (build) ___________________ in Persia as early as 200 BC and (use)
_____________________ for grinding grain. The same type of wind turbines (later, introduce)
__________________________ into the Roman Empire by about 250 AD. By the 14th century the Dutch (use)
____________________ wind turbines for pumping and as mills. By 1900, the Dutch (have)
____________________ about 2500 wind turbines that (produce) __________________ an estimate peak
power of about 30 mega-watts.
The first wind turbine that (use) ______________________ for producing electricity (build)
_______________________ in Cleveland, Ohio by Charles F. Brush in 1888, and in 1908 there (be)
_______________________ 72 wind-driven electric generators from 5 kW to 25 kW. By the 1930, wind turbines
(mainly, use) ____________________________ in remote areas to produce electricity as the electricity
distribution grid (not, widespread) _______________________________.
The technology of transforming the kinetic energy of the wind into useful mechanical energy (apply)
___________________________ by man since antiquity. Together with the energy from streaming water, wind
energy (be) ___________________ the oldest source applied by mankind. The popularity of using the energy in
the wind (always, fluctuate) _________________________ with the price of fossil fuels. When the fuel prices
(fall) ______________________ after World War II, interest in the wind turbines (wane)
____________________. But when the price of oil (skyrocket) _________________________ in the 1970s, so
(do) ___________________ worldwide interest in wind turbine generators. Wind energy (be)
_______________________ the world’s fastest-growing energy source and (power) ______________________
industry, businesses and homes with clean, renewable electricity for many years to come.
59. HYDRO ELECTRICITY - ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES
Fill in the gaps and write down the numbers of sentences in the table below:
1. Hydro-electricity (be) ___________ a renewable resource.
2. Hydro-electric generation often (require) ________________ the construction of dams (cover) ___________
areas of land with a large amount of water.
3. Water storage schemes (be) ______________ very costly to build.
4. HEPPs56 (be) ________________ useful for (respond) ______________ to sudden increases in the demand
for electricity by customers.
5. HEPPs (have) __________________ a direct impact on fish breeding.
6. HEPPs can (begin) ________________ (generate) ___________________ electricity very speedily.
7. Hydro-electric power scheme may (involve) _________________ the serious inundation of large areas of
land and the loss of wildlife habitat.
8. HEPPs (cause) ________________ changes in water flow and the river eco-system.
9. They (not, consume) _____________________ limited fossil fuels.
10. These stations (need) ________________ only a small staff (operate) __________________ and (maintain)
___________________ them.
56
HEPP=hydro-electric power plant
167
11. Hydro-electricity (continually, produce) _________________________ by the movement of fresh water
from rivers and lakes.
12. The potential energy of water can (store) ____________________ in dams or river systems and (release)
____________________ (generate) ____________________ as and when it (require) __________________.
13. Hydro-electricity (not, depend) __________________ on fluctuations in fuel prices.
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
60. FILL IN THE GAPS IN THE NEWSPAPER ARTICLE:
“120,000 KILLED BY TSUNAMI”
Thousands of people (kill) ____________________ yesterday when an earthquake near Sumatra (cause)
_________________ a massive “tsunami”. The entire coastal area of the Bay of Bengal (affect) ________ as
buildings and whole villages (destroy) ___________________ by the huge waves.
“The exact number of casualties cannot (confirm) _______________________,” (say) ______________ a
government official, ”but thousands more (injure) ______________________.”
The earthquake (register) ___________________ 8.9 on the Richter scale. By yesterday afternoon, over 60,000
dead bodies (find) ____________________ and much higher figures (predict) ______________ .
Aid (go) ________________ (send) __________________ by many countries and rescue teams from Europe (fly)
_____________________ in tomorrow.
Most of the buildings on the coast (say) ___________________ (be) ________________ in ruins. The problems
(make) _____________________ worse because lots of hospitals (badly, damage)
____________________________.
The area (often, threaten) ___________________________ by tsunami.
168
INDIRECT SPEECH
- is used when we report somebody else’s words and introduce them by a reporting verb in the past tense; the
original tense should change, i.e.:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
present perfect
present
future









---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
     
past perfect
past
future-in-the-past
It may also be necessary to change adverbs of time or place as well as some other expressions, e.g.:
here = there now = then this = that yesterday = the day before ago = before next week = the following week
STATEMENTS
1. Peter told Jane: “I’ll meet you here at the same time tomorrow.”

He TOLD Jane he would meet her there at the same time the following day.
2. Kevin complained: “I’m feeling hungry.”

He COMPLAINED he was feeling hungry.
3. Jennifer said:” I think John is ill.


She SAID (that) she thought he was ill.
4. Mary said: “I don’t know where Peter has gone.”


She SAID she didn’t know where Peter had gone.
5. Pit promised: “I’m going to do it as soon as I get back.”


He PROMISED he was going to do it as soon as he got back.
6. His parents complained: “He always does what his wife tells him to do.”


They COMPLAINED that he always did what his wife told him to do.
Verbs used for introducing statements:
E
admit
assure
complain
insist
promise
say
think
CRO
E
CRO
agree
believe
explain
point out
protest
tell
understand
EXCEPTION
- when the subordinate clause mentions an eternal truth (namely, a statement that is forever true), it should be in
simple present tense even the main clause is in past tense:
• The teacher said that the Sun rises in the east.
• Columbus proved that the Earth is round.
• Newton discovered that it is the gravitational force that keeps the planets moving round the Sun.
169
63. PUT THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH INTRODUCING THEM WITH A VERB IN THE
PAST TENSE:
1. "I must go now."
Peter ___________________________________________________.
2. "It is not my problem," said John.
________________________________________________________.
3. "There are too many people," said Helen.
________________________________________________________.
4. "The Prime Minister will lose the election," the journalist predicted.
________________________________________________________.
5. "We are considering all possible options," said the politician.
________________________________________________________.
6. Mary: "I am going to play tennis today."
________________________________________________________.
7. “I have bought this handbag for my sister.”
Mary ___________________________________________________.
8. Mary: “I went shopping as soon as I came home from the office.”
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
9. Mary said to her brother: “I will cook dinner for my children and for your wife while you are away.”
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Mary: “I surf the internet in the evening when everybody else watches television.”
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
11. Max: "I often read a book when I am on holiday."
Max told me that _______________________________________________________________.
12. Stephen and Claire: "We have cleaned the windows."
Stephen and Claire told me that ___________________________________________________.
13. Charles: "I didn't have time to do my homework."
Charles remarked that __________________________________________________________.
14. Mr. Jones: “My mother will be 50 years old.”
____________________________________________________________________________.
170
64. PUT THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH INTRODUCING THEM WITH THE PAST TENSE:
1. Mary said: I’m going to Tom’s birthday party with my sister.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Mother: Bob, ask your sister to show you how my remote control works.
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. Bob: I really don’t know where my sister has gone.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. Mother: Helen, don’t buy clothes you are not going to wear.
__________________________________________________________________________________
5. The spokesman: The buses will not run on Sundays because the drivers refuse to work overtime.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
6. The husband: The meal you have prepared for today is an excellent one.
___________________________________________________________________________________
7. Nick: Don’t be late, please, your boy-friend won’t wait, Sue.
___________________________________________________________________________________
8. Jack: Susan, ask the Tailors where their son works.
___________________________________________________________________________________
9. Mary: I don’t think my parents will come back before I tell them what has happened.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
10. The boy: I’m sorry Mrs Brown, but I have broken your window with my catapult.
___________________________________________________________________________________
11. The treasurer: We don’t have enough money to carry out your plan, Peter.
__________________________________________________________________________________
12. Henry: Don’t switch the TV off before I hear the football match results, father.
___________________________________________________________________________________
13. Father: John, explain why you were not at home last night.
___________________________________________________________________________________
171
65. PUT THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH INTRODUCING THEM WITH THE PAST TENSE:
1. Mr Jones: I don’t understand why you waste your time polishing the car every day.
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. John: Peter, drive as fast as you can, I don’t want to be late.
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Peter: When I find out who stole my bike, I’ll knock his head off.
___________________________________________________________________________________
4. The man said: That car you are driving is my property.
___________________________________________________________________________________
5. The student said: This teacher doesn’t know what he’s talking about.
___________________________________________________________________________________
6. Bob: It’s half past five but I hope we can get there before dark.
__________________________________________________________________________________
7. Mother: Children, eat your soup while it is still hot.
___________________________________________________________________________________
8. Mother: I’ll explain what has happened as soon as the film is over.
___________________________________________________________________________________
9. Mary: I have an excellent book which you can read while you wait in the queue, Sue.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
10. The guide warned us: Boil the river water if you have to use it.
___________________________________________________________________________________
11. The dietician said: Don’t eat anything between meals even if you feel hungry.
___________________________________________________________________________________
12. Mary said: The bread we’re getting now is absolutely tasteless.
___________________________________________________________________________________
13. Peter: Sit down, Mary and tell me what is worrying you.
___________________________________________________________________________________
172
WH-QUESTIONS
When reporting questions the original question “becomes” a statement, i.e. the verb form is no longer interrogative,
nor is a question mark used at the end of the reporting sentence. The word order of a reported question is Subject,
Predicate, and Object. For the original tense changes, see STATEMENTS.
1. Peter: “Where are you taking my book, Mary?
He ASKED her WHERE she was taking his book.
S
P
O
2. Peter: “How do you like this cake?
He ASKED me HOW I liked that cake.
S P
O
3. Mr. Brown: “What does Mary do in the evening?
He ASKED me WHAT Mary did in the evening.
S P
4. John: “What does it cost you to run this BMW, Mr Brown?”
John ASKED Mr Brown WHAT it cost him to run that BMW.
S P O
5. Mother: “Why did you come home so late last night, Mary”
She ASKED her WHY she had come home so late the previous night.
S
P
6. Peter: “When will you apply for your visa, Mary?”
He ASKED her WHEN she would apply for her visa.
S
P
O
7. Peter: “How old are you, John?”
He ASKED him HOW old he was.
S P
8. Mary: “Who has given you this beautiful ring, Jenny?”
Mary ASKED Jenny WHO had given her that beautiful ring.
S
P
O
O
9. Mother: Where were you when the rain started?”
She ASKED me WHERE I had been when the rain (had) started.
S
P
10. Bill: “What were you doing when I called, Mary?”
Bill asked Mary WHAT she had been doing when he called.
S
P
11. Mother: “Peter, when are you going to graduate?”
Mother asked Peter WHEN he was going to graduate.
S
P
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66. PUT THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE THEM WITH THE VERB IN THE
PAST TENSE:
1. John: What time will the dinner be served, mother?
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Peter: Where did you meet my mother, John?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Mary: When will my dress be finished?
________________________________________________________________________
4. Mary: Why did you go out last night, Peter?
________________________________________________________________________
5. Bob: How many cakes can you get into your mouth at once, John?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. A tourist: How far is it to the National Theatre?
________________________________________________________________________
7. The teacher: What do you think you are doing, Peter?
________________________________________________________________________
8. The English guide: How long have you been learning English, Mary?
________________________________________________________________________
9. Mother: What have you done to your hair, Peter?
________________________________________________________________________
10. My sister: What are you going to do in the evening?
________________________________________________________________________
11. What did you miss most when you were in prison? Asked Mary the ex-convict.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. How much do you think it will cost? my brother asked me.
________________________________________________________________________
13. How do you get on with your mother-in-law? Paul asked.
________________________________________________________________________
174
67. PUT THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE THEM WITH THE VERB IN THE
PAST TENSE:
1. Mary: Where are you taking me to dinner tonight?
________________________________________________________________________
2. Where must you take the parcel my father has given you, Peter? asked Bob.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Mary: When will the copies have to be taken to your office, Peter?
________________________________________________________________________
4. The Smiths asked their future daughter-in-law: What do your parents do?
________________________________________________________________________
5. Mother asked Peter: When are you going to teach your brother how to swim?
________________________________________________________________________
6. Peter: Why has the police car stopped in front of our house, Mother?
________________________________________________________________________
7. Mary: How many people did you invite to your party, Jane?
________________________________________________________________________
8. Bob: Why don't you write your homework before you go to school, John?
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
9. The chief clerk: Where are you going, Miss Grey?
________________________________________________________________________
10. Bob: When will you put these beautiful flowers into a vase, Mary?
________________________________________________________________________
11. Ann: Why is our neighbour's door wide open, mother?
________________________________________________________________________
12. Peter: Why didn’t you ask somebody to help you, Mary?
________________________________________________________________________
13. John: Where are you and your wife staying, Peter?
________________________________________________________________________
175
68. PUT THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE THEM WITH THE VERB IN THE
PAST TENSE:
1. Our teacher: Class, all your tests are very good.
________________________________________________________________________
2. My neighbours: Where did your children go to high school?
________________________________________________________________________
3. The police officer: The firemen are coming in 5 minutes.
________________________________________________________________________
4. John: Peter, teach your sister how to ride a bike.
________________________________________________________________________
5. My mother: I haven’t seen Peter since he moved to England.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. The teacher: When will you show your test to your parents, Bobby?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. John: I will not depend on my parents’ money when I start to work.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. John: Mary, what are you going to do if your parents saw us in the disco?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Mother: Our guests are leaving as soon as I come back from the office.
________________________________________________________________________
10. Peter: My brother catches a bad cold every winter.
________________________________________________________________________
11. Our coach: Have a good look at the other team before you start playing because they
are really good.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
176
12. How many people know the combination of the safe? said the detective.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
13. Mary: Jane, which way are you going home when the school is over?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
177
YES - & NO - QUESTIONS
YES- and NO-questions begin with a verbal form (full verb or an auxiliary) and the only possible answers are YES or NO.
In order to link the introductory clause and the question, since WH-question word is missing, IF or WHETHER should
be introduced. The word order of the indirect YES- and NO-questions is also S P O. For original tense changes, see
STATEMENTS.
1. Mother: “Are you hungry, Mary?”
Mother ASKED Mary IF she was hungry.
S P
2. Mary: “Do you like beer, Jane?”
Mary ASKED Jane IF she liked beer.
S P
3. The police officer: “Bob, did you check his driving licence?”
The police officer ASKED him IF he had checked his driving licence.
S
P
4. My parents: “Will you have time to make your bed before you go to school?”
My parents ASKED me IF I would have time to make my bed before I went to school.
S
P
5. The policeman: “Did any of you actually see the accident?”
The policeman ASKED IF any of us had actually seen the accident.
S
P
6. The secretary: “Have you asked Mr Brown when he will be back?”
The secretary WANTED TO KNOW IF / WHETHER I had asked Mr Brown when he would be back.
S P
7. Peter: “John, are you going to sell this old car?”
Peter WANTED TO KNOW IF John was going to sell that old car.
S
P
WH HE ASKED
S
PRESENT SIMPLE

SIMPLE PAST
U
PRESENT CONTINUOUS

PAST CONTINUOUS
B
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
SIMPLE PAST

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
PAST CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FUTURE SIMPLE SIMPLE

FUTURE IN THE PAST SIMPLE
J
E
IF
C
T
178
69. PUT THE FOLLOWING INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE THE SENTENCES WITH A VERB IN THE SIMPLE
PAST:
1. Peter: John, do you know when the registration starts?
________________________________________________________________________
2. Mother: John, will you have a bath before your brother returns?
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Peter: Can anybody tell me where Mary works?
________________________________________________________________________
4. Peter: John, does your mother know where Bill goes every night when school is over?
________________________________________________________________________
5. The coach: Did you have enough to eat, boys?
________________________________________________________________________
6. George: Do you remember when Mary came home last night, Paul?
________________________________________________________________________
7. Mother: Mary, will you have an apple before you go to bed?
________________________________________________________________________
8. Have you ever seen a flying saucer? said the man.
________________________________________________________________________
9. Do you think the actual government will be re-elected? My father asked.
________________________________________________________________________
10. Are there any letters for me? asked Mary.
________________________________________________________________________
11. Does anyone want tickets for the boxing match? said Charles.
________________________________________________________________________
12. Can you tell me why Paul left the university without taking his degree? Peter’s sister asked.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. Do you want to see the cathedral? said our guide.
________________________________________________________________________
179
70. PUT THE FOLLOWING INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE THE SENTENCES WITH A VERB IN THE SIMPLE
PAST, e.g. wonder, and want to know, ask:
1. A worker: Will the company be in profit this year, Mr Chairman?
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. Mary: Has Peter taken his degree, Paul?
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. A student: Can I submit a late application?
_____________________________________________________________________________
4. A student: Have I passed my written examination, Mrs. Smith?
_____________________________________________________________________________
5. The secretary: Is the meeting on Tuesday or Wednesday?
_____________________________________________________________________________
6. Bob: Is there any food in the house?
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. Peter: Mother, did Mary phone back?
_____________________________________________________________________________
8. Have you seen my car keys anywhere? said Peter to his wife.
_____________________________________________________________________________
9. Will you carry my briefcase for me please, James? said Peter.
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. Is this the knife he stabbed his wife with? asked the judge.
_____________________________________________________________________________
11. Are you going to the art exhibition which has been opened in town? my mother asked.
_____________________________________________________________________________
12. Will you tell me what is going on here? our teacher asked.
_____________________________________________________________________________
13. Do you wash your car every week, Peter? asked Bill
_____________________________________________________________________________
180
71. REPORT THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
Tina has left school but she hasn’t got a job yet. Yesterday she had an interview for a job at a pet shop. The next day
Tina told her friend Sharon what they had asked her. Give Tina’s words.
example: “How old are you?”
“Have you had a job before?”
They asked me how old I was.
They asked me if I’d had a job before.
1.
_______________________________________________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________________________________________
3.
_______________________________________________________________________________
4.
_______________________________________________________________________________
5.
_______________________________________________________________________________
6.
_______________________________________________________________________________
7.
_______________________________________________________________________________
8.
_______________________________________________________________________________
181
72. PUT THE SENTENCES INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH INTRODUCING THEM WITH:
he said and said saying
he asked and asked
he told me and told me telling me
asking
and added adding
AND LINK THEM TOGETHER:
example: “Don’t worry about a few mistakes, said Peter. I make mistakes all the time.”
Peter told me not to worry about a few mistakes and added (adding/and said/saying) he
made mistakes all the time.
1. It is cold in here. Is the window open?
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you think it will rain? It is very cloudy.
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. I must write some letters. What date is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. How do you like my girl friend's new dress? I bought it on a sale.
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Don't spend all your money on food and drink. You will need some for the rent.
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Tell me the time, please. My watch has stopped and I don’t know what time it is.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
7. This is a very interesting book. Have you read it?
_______________________________________________________________________________
8. Do you ever wash your car? It is so dirty.
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. Don’t switch on the TV, please. I’m reading.
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Give me some bread, please. I’m very hungry.
_______________________________________________________________________________
11. Do you like baseball? I played baseball when I was living in India.
________________________________________________________________________________
182
73. PUT INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. INTRODUCE IT WITH THE SIMPLE PAST:
1. Peter: Listen, Mary. My friends are singing me a song for my birthday.
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. The custom officer: Tell me, Mr. Brown did you buy anything in England?
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Mother: Don't be late, Peter, your teacher will be angry again.
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Jane: Can you tell me when my car will be repaired?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. John: Mary, I am afraid I have to tell you something. I think your mother took my letter.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Mary: Peter, as far as I know, my books were returned to the library in time.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
7. The coach: Boys, I am disappointed with your score but I hope you’ll be better this season.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
8. Mother: Don’t be so clumsy, Billy. Look where you are going, you’ll fall down.
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. Dad said: Go to the dentist, Tom, before your toothache gets any worse.
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. The secretary: I can leave the office when my boss returns from lunch.
_______________________________________________________________________________
11. The teacher: Don’t forget to put your name at the top of the page before you hand in your papers.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
12. Mother: Do you want an ice-cream, Mary or do you want me to order a cup of coffee for you?
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
13. Bob: I’ll call Mary and ask her where she is going for a trip on Sunday.
_______________________________________________________________________________
183
74. PUT THE FOLLOWING INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. LINK THE SENTENCES:
1. Mother: It is time to go. Do you have everything you need, Sue?
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Jim: I am throwing a party next week. Are you free to come, Pat?
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Mary: Don't touch my lipstick, Jimmy. I'll kill you.
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Father: You are late home, Peter. Where have you been so long?
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Mary: I learn French in a language school. Have you ever learned French, Susan?
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Mother: Stop snoring, Peter. The play will soon be over.
_______________________________________________________________________________
7. Jim: Kay, what is your son talking about? I don't understand him at all.
_______________________________________________________________________________
8. Susan: Where did you buy these apples, Mother? They look so nice.
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. Teacher: Do you understand it, class? I'll explain again if you don't.
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Tom (on the phone with Ann): I’ve got the tickets. Meet me at the air terminal at 6.30.
________________________________________________________________________________
11. Mary, keep an eye on your luggage, he said. This place is full of thieves.
_______________________________________________________________________________
12. Why didn’t Jane phone me? asked my brother. I am so worried.
_____________________________________________________________________________
13. When will you copy the texts I’ve given you, Peter? asked Mary.
_____________________________________________________________________________
184
75. PUT THE FOLLOWING INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. LINK THE SENTENCES:
1. Pat to Kay: Nothing grows in my garden. It never gets any sun.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Ron: I am going away tomorrow and I haven’t packed my suitcases yet. Mother, will you pack
them for me, please?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Tim: Take me with you, Ron. I've not been out for a month.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Pat: Have you listened to the forecast for tomorrow, Jane? I need to know if it is going to be nice.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Jane: Pat, tell me why do you want to know the weather forecast?
________________________________________________________________________________
6. The BBC announcer: The new underpass is being officially opened on Friday. Dear listeners, join us
for celebration.
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. My aunt: We have moved into our new flat. We don't like it nearly as much as we liked the old one.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
8. The housekeeper: We have a lift but very often it does not work. Be careful when you use it,
Jane.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. Peter to John: Hold the ladder, please. I’m afraid I’ll fall down, it’s rather unsteady.
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
185
10. The bathroom’s empty now, she said to her small son. Don’t forget to put the light out when you’re
finished.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
11. When I get back I’ll give you five bucks I borrowed from you yesterday. I am sorry, but I have no
money right now, my room-mate said.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
76. PUT THE FOLLOWING INTO THE INDIRECT SPEECH. LINK THE SENTENCES:
1. John: Why are you so sad, Mary? I want to help you if I can.
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. Mother: Why do you ask what I am doing, Mary? Put on your glasses if you don’t see well.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Paul: Pat, how far is it to the station? My bus leaves at 5.30.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. Ron: Dad, Pit has taken my bike. Do you know when he did it?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
5. Mr Brown: Sue, do me a favour. Find out when Mr Pitt last sent us the order.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. A police officer: Answer my question, Mr Grey. Where were you at the moment of the crime?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
7. Mr Grey: I think I was in a meeting. Officer, ask my secretary about it.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
186
8. The officer: Tell us the truth, Mr Grey. We have already talked to your secretary.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. The officer: Mr Grey, we would like you to come to the police station with us. We have some more
questions for you.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Mr Grey: In that case, I want to see my lawyer first. I’m not going to answer any questions without him.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
11. The officer: You’re allowed one phone call. You can call your lawyer from your office or from the
station as soon as we get there.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
77. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. Tom je rekao Mary da je jučer za nju stiglo pismo i pitao je da li ga je pročitala.
2. Mary je zamolila mamu da ne otvara pismo koje je poštar upravo donio i dodala da je to njezino
pismo.
3. Tom je rekao da ne razumije ništa što je profesor upravo rekao i zamolio ga da ponovi.
4. Dok su Mary i njena prijateljica šetale, naišle su na slastičarnu. Mary je pitala prijateljicu želi li
sladoled. Ona je odgovorila da je boli grlo i da neće jesti sladoled.
5. Tom je zamolio Petera da svojim ključevima otvori vrata i dodao da ne zna kuda je stavio svoje
ključeve.
6. Gost se žalio da je juha opet hladna i pitao konobara serviraju li u ovom restoranu uvijek hladnu
juhu.
187
7. Bob je pozvao Mary da ga posjeti kadgod ima vremena i dodao da će biti jako sretan kad ona
ponovo dođe.
8. Mama je jučer bila jako ljuta i rekla mi je da ne zna što će otac reći kad vidi kakvu su štetu
napravili moji psići na njegovim novim kožnim čizmama.
9. Budući da Bill nije želio biti prepoznat na zabavi, savjetovao sam mu da stavi periku i odjene se
kao žena.
10. Kad smo došli na plažu, spasilac nas je upozorio da se ne kupamo kad je istaknuta crvena
zastava.
11. Muž mi je rekao da će ići u kupnju ako mu napišem popis stvari koje hoću da mi kupi. Nije imao
namjeru pamtiti razne čajeve, špagete, sireve itd.
12. Mama je iz kuhinje viknula da ne skidam kaput jer opet idemo van. Nije kupila sve namirnice
koje joj trebaju da pripremi večeru.
13. Peter je rekao da će diplomirati u rujnu i nadao se da će odmah dobiti posao koji mu je još
prošli mjesec obećao direktor banke. To je banka čiju je stipendiju dobivao zadnje tri godine.
188
CONDITIONALS
CONDITIONALS TYPE 0 & TYPE 157
78. CHOOSE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE VERBS:
1. If you give up/’ll give up smoking, you’ll feel much better.
2. We’ll have to go without John if he doesn’t arrive/won’t arrive soon.
3. How much will you earn a month if you will get/get that job?
4. If I make some coffee, do you bring/will you bring the milk from the kitchen?
5. Will you work/do you work harder if I promise to take you to the cinema on Saturday?
6. Don’t sign anything if your lawyer hasn’t seen/won’t see the document.
7. If you heat/will heat ice it turns to water.
8. Is there any point in your coming with us if you don’t like/will not like climbing?
9. Make a note of the telephone number if you don’t want/didn’t want to forget it.
10. If anything has occurred to make you change your mind, just let me know/you will let me know.
11. I can’t possibly advise you properly unless you tell/don’t tell me the whole truth.
12. If you happen/will happen to pass a baker’s, pick me a loaf of brown bread.
13. If I lend/will lend you this book, will you promise me to take good care of it?
79. FINISH THE SENTENCES:
1. We’ll manage to catch the train if _________________________________________________
2. I’ll accept your explanation only if _________________________________________________
3. If my bank manager agrees to lend me the money, ___________________________________
4. What will happen if ____________________________________________________________?
5. Don’t look up the answer at the back of the book unless ________________________________
6. If you have already made up your mind what to study, _________________________________
7. If you have exams tomorrow, why _________________________________________________?
8. If you cannot come today, _______________________________________________________
9. What shall we have for dinner if __________________________________________________?
10. If the weather is bad, ___________________________________________________________
11. If you have finished your homework, _______________________________________________
12. Don’t mess with my computer, ____________________________________________________
13. Show me how to change a flat tyre if _______________________________________________?
57
revision of the two types, see page 149
189
CONDITIONALS - TYPE 2 & TYPE 3
TYPE 2
IF - CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
SIMPLE PAST
PRESENT CONDITIONAL
- is used to express an unreal present or future situation:
If I had a lot of money, I would travel all round the world.
If I were58 you, I’d apply for that job.
If he were older, he would have more sense.
80. INSERT TYPE 2 AND TRANSLATE:
1. You (catch) ________________________ the train if you (leave) _______________ earlier.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. He (wait) _______________________ for her if she (be) ____________________ late.
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. He (open) __________________________ the door if you (ring) _____________________ the bell.
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. If I (be) __________________ an orange I (be) ______________________ sweet and juicy.
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Is it raining?
No, it's not.
How do you know?
If it (rain) ____________________, the streets (be) _______________________ wet.
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. Don't drink this water. If you (drink) _____________________ it, you (be) _________________ sick.
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. Do you know that Peter is staying at the Savoy hotel in London? Is he very rich?
Don’t worry, if he (be) ______________ a poor man, he (not, stay) ____________________ there.
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. Of course I’m not going to give her a diamond ring. If I (give) ___________________ her a diamond
ring, she (sell) ________________________ it.
_________________________________________________________________________________
58
were is used for all persons (when asked to give advice, more formal style) = Da sam na tvom mjestu…
190
9. If he (agree) _________________ to let me go on working after marriage, I (marry) ______________ him. But
he is an old-fashioned man; he wants me to stay at home.
__________________________________________________________________________________
10. Look at you! You can’t walk, you are tired. If you (take) _______________________ more exercises, you (get)
______________________ fit.
__________________________________________________________________________________
11. What (happen) ________________________ if the bridge (break) _______________________?
__________________________________________________________________________________
12. If I (know) ___________________ her phone number, I (call) _____________________ her at once. I'm sure
she has already come home.
__________________________________________________________________________________
13. These apples (keep) ________________________ well and for a long time if they (not, be)
__________________ too soft. And they are too soft, believe me.
__________________________________________________________________________________
191
TYPE 3
IF - CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
PAST PERFECT
PAST CONDITIONAL
(would have + past participle)
- is used to express an unreal past situation:
If you had taken your coat with you, you would not have caught flu.
If we had seen Mary, we would have asked her to come with us.
If you had been a good boy, I would have bought you an ice-cream.
- is used with type 2:
If you had planned things at the start, we wouldn’t be in this mess now.
If I were not so busy now, I would have gone sailing with my friends yesterday.
If I had tidied up my room before I went out, my mother wouldn’t be mad at me now.
81. INSERT ALL THREE TYPES AND TRANSLATE THEM. SEE THE EXAMPLE:
1. If he (get)
AKO
2.
GETS
PRIMI
GOT
DA
3.
PRIMI
HAD GOT
DA
JE PRIMIO
the message, he (ring)
poruku,
WILL RING
NAZVAT ĆE
you up.
te.
WOULD RING
NAZVAO BI
WOULD HAVE RUNG
NAZVAO BI
Compare the above changes with the rules for Indirect Speech! You will find some similarity.
1st If he (wake) _____________________ up at 7.30, he (not, be) _______________________________ late for
school.
t: ___________________________________________________________________________________
2nd ___________________________________________________________________________________
t: ___________________________________________________________________________________
3rd ___________________________________________________________________________________
t: ___________________________________________________________________________________
1st If you (not, be) ____________________________ hungry, we (have) _________________________ dinner later.
t: ___________________________________________________________________________________
192
2nd ___________________________________________________________________________________
t: ____________________________________________________________________________________
3rd ___________________________________________________________________________________
t: ____________________________________________________________________________________
82. INSERT TYPE 3 AND TRANSLATE:
1. If I (study) _________________________ hard, I (pass) ______________________ the exam.
________________________________________________________________________________
2. If you (not, miss) __________________________ the bus, you (not, be) ____________________
late for school.
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Mary (go) ____________________________ to university if she (have) _____________________
the opportunity.
________________________________________________________________________________
4. If Peter (be) _________________________ more careful, he (not, have) ____________________
an accident.
________________________________________________________________________________
5. If I (not, be) ____________________ so busy yesterday, I (visit) _______________________ you.
_________________________________________________________________________________
6. My father (die) __________________________ if the doctors (not, operate) __________________
on him straight away.
_________________________________________________________________________________
7. The burglars (not, get) ____________________________ in if you (lock) ____________________
the door.
_________________________________________________________________________________
8. If I (buy) ________________________ that old car, I (spend) _____________________________
a lot of money on repairs.
________________________________________________________________________________
9. If Peter (have) __________________________ a steady job, he (be) ______________________
able to get a loan.
________________________________________________________________________________
10. If Peter’s high school grades (be) ___________________ better, he (get) ___________________
a scholarship.
193
_________________________________________________________________________________
11. If I (be) _______________________ promoted, my salary (increase) _______________________.
_________________________________________________________________________________
12. What (you, do) __________________________ if you (lose) ______________________ your job?
_________________________________________________________________________________
13. If I (not, arrive) ___________________________, you (not, know) _________________________
which way to go.
_________________________________________________________________________________
83. INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS (all three types):
1. You never listen to me! If you (take) _______________________ my advice, everything (be) _____________
better, but now it is too late.
2. Stop eating! Unless you (change) ______________________ your eating habits, you (be) _______________
fat as a pig.
3. Jane has been crying since she heard about the accident. If she (not, calm) __________________ down soon,
we (have) ____________________ (call) _____________________ a doctor.
4. Listen to her! If she (go) __________________ on playing like this, she (soon, have) ____________________
a recital in Carnegie Hall.
5. John, if this bottle (be) ________________ empty, (go) ______________ to the cellar and (bring)
______________ a new one. If you (need) _________________ a torch, you (find) _______________ one on
top of the stairs.
6. Why is Peter so sad?
Well, he has not passed his exam. If he (pass) ________________________ it, his parents (buy) _______________
him a new car.
7. I am sure my sister (accept) __________________________ your invitation to the disco if you
(ask) _____________________________ her nicely.
8. If you (buy) ___________________ this car, you (spend) __________________ a lot of money on gas.
It (be) __________________ better if you (take) ____________________ the one with a diesel engine.
9. If I (have) ______________ her phone number, I (ring) ______________________ her up immediately, but
unfortunately I have forgotten my mobile phone at home.
10. If you (finish) ____________________ your lunch, please (put) _________________ your plate into the
sink, but if you are hungry, (not, hesitate) ____________________________ to take some more.
11. If I (have) _____________________ a few hours to spare, I (be) _________________________ very glad to
join you. You just go!
12. I (promote) ______________________________ if I (stay) __________________________ in my last job.
13. If I (live) ______________________ near my office, I (never, be) ________________________ late for work.
194
14. If Bill (not, stop) _____________________________ the car, his little son (seriously, injure)
_______________________________.
15. If I (be) ___________________ you, I (plant) ______________________ some flowers and trees round the
house.
84. SUPPLY THE CORRECT FORMS OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS:
1. Mary, (you, hear) ________________________________ that Peter (go) ____________________ to London
next month?
No, but if you (see) _______________________ him before he (leave) _________________ , (tell)
________________ him he must (visit) _______________ the Tower of London and (send) ________________
me a postcard of the Houses of Parliament.
2. (You, repair) _______________________________ your car yesterday, Peter?
No, I ______________. There (be) __________________ nobody there (help) ______________ me.
What a pity! If I (be) ____________________________ at home, I (help) ______________________________ but I (have)
___________________ (work) _________________ overtime.
3. If I (be) __________________ you, I (not, buy) ___________________________ this car. Just (look)
_____________ at it, it (be) __________________ old and rusty.
4. If you (go) ________________ away, (send) ______________________ me an e-mail. But if you (be)
___________________ too busy (write) ______________________, just (give) ____________________ me a ring.
5. If men (be) ___________________ more reasonable, there (be) ___________________________ no more wars!
6. When (you, get) ________________________ to London last night?
Oh, it (be) ____________ past midnight. If we (not, miss) _________________________ the 10 p.m. plane, we (not,
get) _____________________________ to London so late.
7. Why (people, always, wear) _____________________________________ dark clothes at night? If
pedestrians (wear) __________________ light coloured clothes, drivers (see) _________________ them much
easier.
8. When Peter (leave) ___________________ school in 1998, he (become) __________________ a fisherman.
His family (not, like) ______________________ it at all. They (be) _________________ much happier if he
(become) _______________________ a greengrocer like his father.
9. (Be) _____________ careful about the time! If you (spend) ____________________ too long on the first
question, you (not, have) _______________________ enough time (do) _________________ the others properly.
10. The only thing I haven’t got (be) __________________ a balcony. If I (have) _________________ a balcony,
I (grow) ______________________________ plants in pots. Then my flat (be) __________ perfect!
11. My unmarried friends are always telling me how (bring) ______________________________ up my
children. I sometimes (think) _____________________ that if they (have) ___________________ children of
their own, they (make) _________________________ just as many mistakes as I do.
12. There (be) __________________ a bad accident here last night, but if the driver of the truck (not, react)
_____________________________ so quickly, the consequences (be) _____________________ much worse.
195
What (happen) _______________________?
Everyone (go) _____________________ much too fast. The pile-up (not, be) ____________________ nearly so
terrible if the drivers (reduce) ____________________________________ their speed.
13. How (be) _________________ your camping trip last Sunday?
Well, we (have) _________________ a lot of trouble (put) ______________________ the tent up. If it (not, be)
_____________________ so windy perhaps it (not, be) ______________________________ quite so difficult.
14. If you (want) _____________________ (lose) __________________ weight, (eat) _____________ less bread
and sweets. And no beer!
15. If someone (try) _____________________ (blackmail) _______________________ me, I (tell)
________________________ the police.
85. TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH
1. Hladno je i oblačno. Gledajte svoj crtić i nemojte me ljutiti. Da je sunčano, išli bi na plažu.
2. Ako ne ugasiš taj radio, vrištat ću. Kako možeš to slušati? Uostalom, kakva je to glazba?
3. Pogledaj, to je vozač koji je na vrijeme izveo djecu iz autobusa. Da nije, tragedija bi bila strašna.
4. Neću otvoriti prozor. Da ga otvorim, bilo bi prebučno i ništa ne bismo čuli.
5. Ako cijene benzina opet odu gore, morat ću prodati jedan od moja dva automobila.
6. Gdje ćeš provesti ljetne praznike ako položiš sve ispite u srpnju?
7. Da imamo bicikle, sad bismo se mogli otići voziti.
8. Gdje si dosad? Da si došao ranije, sreo bi se s Jane.
9. Ako ne prestanete pričati, izbacit ću vas iz učione.
10. Sve bi bilo u redu da nisam izgubio tatine ključeve od automobila. Više mi nikada neće dati svoj auto!
11. Zašto on tako brzo govori? Da govori polaganije, svi bismo ga razumjeli. Netko bi ga trebao upozoriti.
12. Nemoj ići van ako još nisi napisao zadaću.
13. Da nismo tako loše igrali, osvojili bismo prvenstvo.
14. Ako moj DVD još nije popravljen, morat ću gledati onu glupu sapunicu u sestrinoj sobi.
15. Da nađeš puno novaca na ulici, bi li nastojao naći osobu koja ga je izgubila?
196
THE UNREAL PAST
- is used after the expressions:
Croatian
I wish
if only
as if
would to God
Croatian
suppose
it’s (high) time
I’d rather
imagine
with the PAST TENSE for something unreal or wished-for NOW:
This room smells terrible. If only he didn’t smoke!
I wish Tom was/were here, he would know what to do.
Imagine you won a lottery, what would you buy first?
with the PAST PERFECT for something wished for or supposed IN THE PAST:
I wish you had told me about the trip to London. I would have come with you.
If only he had admitted the truth, he wouldn’t have been grounded.
Mary refused to work in the bank, but her parents wish she had accepted it.
Sentences with wish….would/wouldn’t express regret or annoyance that something will/will not happen:
I wish you would stop drinking.
I wish you wouldn’t keep listening to this loud music.
86. SUPPLY THE CORRECT TENSE OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS AND TRANSLATE:
1. I wish I (know) ____________________ his phone number! I’d send him an SMS.
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Midnight has passed, it's time we all (go) ___________________ home.
_______________________________________________________________________
3. I don’t want to argue any more. I'd rather you (go) __________________ away now.
_______________________________________________________________________
4. You look like a bum. It's about time you (get) ________________ your hair cut!
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Look, your Mum is angry. Don't you wish we (come) ________________________ earlier?
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Suppose I (get) _______________ there late! Will Dad be angry?
_______________________________________________________________________
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7. Look at him, he acts as if he (know) _________________ English perfectly.
_______________________________________________________________________
8. A wife to a drunken husband: Would to God you (be) ________________ a better husband to me!
_______________________________________________________________________
9. A widow: Would to God you (be) ________________ a better husband to me!
________________________________________________________________________
10. I can’t breathe. If only he (not, eat) ____________________ so much garlic!
_________________________________________________________________________
11. If only my husband (not, eat) _________________ so much garlic last night! I had to sleep in the living room.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
12. I wish I (know) _____________________ his address when I was in London. I would have visited him.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
13. Imagine you (get) _______________________ a car for your 18th birthday. What would you do?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
87. SUPPLY THE CORRECT TENSE OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS:
1. It's about time I (get) __________________ the sandwiches ready, the guests (come)
____________________ in 15 minutes.
2. I'd rather you (pay) ______________ me now. Suppose my landlord (ask) ______________ me for the
money tomorrow!
3. If only he (not, tell) _________________________ her the bad news! I am sure she (not, have)
_________________________________ a heart attack.
4. It's high time you (go) ________________ on a diet! You are as fat as a pig.
5. Yesterday I (feel) ___________________ as if my head (be) __________________________ on fire.
6. Why (you, look) ____________________________ so unhappy?
My girl friend (tell) _______________ me she (wish) _________________she (never, see)
_____________________________ me.
7. If only he (tell) __________________________ you the whole story! You'd know now what to do.
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8. Why (you, be) ___________________ so pale?
I (see) ________________________________ a terrible accident.
That's why you look as if you (can) _______________________ do with a drink.
9. I'd rather you (give) _______________________ me a new VCR instead of having it repaired as you did.
10. My wife says she wishes I (be) ________________ a thousand miles away; indeed, I wish I (be) ___________________.
11. If only I (know) ___________________________________ it earlier, I'd have sent you a telegram.
12. I am so sorry, Mother. I wish I (not, break) ___________________________________ your favourite tea pot.
13. He came in, looking as if he (see) ____________________________ a ghost.
88. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. Daj Bože da položim sve ispite u ljetnom ispitnom roku.
2. Brzo se spremi, ako odmah ne krenemo, zakasnit ćemo, a ako zakasnimo, tvoja nam mama nikada
neće oprostiti.
3. Ovdje nitko ne govori engleski. Da je bar Lily s nama. Da je ovdje, mogla bi biti naš prevoditelj.
4. Da si mi pomogao seliti, odveo bih te na večeru i u kino. Kad sam te zamolio, rekao si da nemaš vremena, ali
ako mi sutra pomogneš seliti, ….
Znam, znam, odvest ćeš me na večeru i u kino.
5. Da mi pomogneš seliti, odveo bih te na večeru i u kino.
6. Tinin vlak je stigao ranije. Da sam bar odlučio otići na stanicu odmah nakon posla, ona ne bi čekala
više od pola sata prije nego što sam ja došao.
7. Da imam novaca, kupio bih onaj novi Mercedes kojega smo vidjeli jučer na Auto showu. Zamisli da
dođem na faks u tom autu!
Daj se smiri, nemožeš si priuštiti ni rabljeni auto.
8. Prestani me pitati što ti je mama kupila za rođendan. Čak i da znam, ne bih ti rekao.
9. Mary mrzi televiziju. Misli da je televizija gubljenje vremena. Ako uopće i gleda televiziju, to je
obično neki dokumentarac ili vijesti.
10. Ja volim putovati. Pretpostavimo da odem na safari u Keniju.
Prestani sanjati. Prvo moraš diplomirati, naći dobar posao, a ako bušeš imao dobru plaću, tek onda počni
razmišljati o Keniji.
11. Krajnje je vrijeme da položiš taj zadnji ispit. Ako ne diplomiraš do ljeta, onaj posao u banci te neće čekati.
12. Nitko ne voli Billa. Ponaša se kao da je najpametniji i najbolji student.
13. Da sam bar poslušao brata kad mi je rekao da ne kupim taj laserski printer. Radi dobre kopije, ali je toner
strašno skup.
199
CAUSATIVE "HAVE" or "GET"
SUBJECT
HAVE or GET
SOMETHING
PAST PARTICIPLE
DATI
NEŠTO
NAPRAVITI
- is used to express the wish of the subject that something should/has to be done by someone else:
I don’t wash my car myself, I have it washed every month.
How often do you have your car washed?
I don’t have my car washed, I wash it in my backyard every Saturday.
89. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS NEGATIVELLY USING THE CAUSATIVE “HAVE/GET” CONSTRUCTION:
1. Did you redecorate your room yourself?
2. Shall we cut the grass ourselves?
3. Are you going to mend the puncture yourself?
4. Does she polish the floors herself?
5. Are you going to shorten the trousers yourself?
6. Does he wash his car himself?
7. Will you type the reports yourself?
8. Would you adjust your brakes yourself?
9. Do you iron the curtains yourself?
10. Did Peter adjust the brakes himself?
11. Have you repaired the clock yourself?
90. RE-WORD THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES BY USING THE CAUSATIVE “HAVE/GET CONSTRUCTION:
1. Someone washed my car for me yesterday.
2. Someone cleans the window in our office every week.
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3. I asked someone to paint the gate last week.
4. Someone tuned her piano for her yesterday.
5. I have asked a man to mend my shoes.
6. Somebody sends Mary her dresses from Paris.
7. Your hair wants cutting. You must ....
8. Tell someone to translate it into English.
9. Our season tickets need renewing. We must ...
10. I'll ask someone to make a new one.
11. We ordered someone to whitewash the ceiling.
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REVISION OF THE VERBAL FORMS
INSERT PROPER VERBAL FORMS:
1. Years ago, after some new methods (apply) ___________________________ our production
(increase) ____________________ significantly.
2. Look at that man (repair) ______________________ Peter's car. (Watch) ________________ him,
you (learn) ______________________ something.
3. Something must (do) __________________ about that fuel pump which (replace) _____________
only two weeks ago.
4. The storage battery (fill) ______________________ yesterday and now it (wait) _______________
(put) ___________________________ back in the engine.
5. Temperature and pressure in every nuclear power plant (have) ____________________ (control)
___________________________ every day.
6. Before (start) __________________ this new DVD, (read) __________________ the instructions
very carefully.
7. This problem (solve) _______________________ tomorrow. The new engineer (say) __________
that at the meeting yesterday.
8. While we (test) ________________________ our new air conditioning system last night, somebody (turn)
_______________________ the current off.
9. Since the new manager (come) ___________________ to our factory, our output (improve) _____________
greatly.
10. If this plan must (make) ____________________ by tomorrow, everything else (have) ________________
(wait) ____________________.
11. Who (you, hear) _______________________________ from that 20 new computers (buy)
___________________________ next month?
12. After the computers (install) _____________________________, we all (go) ________________ home.
13. So far nothing (do) ________________________ about our production plan for the next year.
14. This machine must (transport) _______________________ by train. It (be) _________________ too heavy
(put) ___________________________ on a truck.
15. (Discuss) ________________________ production control problems at the meeting yesterday, our new
engineer (say) ______________________ he (make) ____________________ a report about it.
16. All the chips (fabricate) ____________________ in our factory, (prove) __________________ (be)
_____________________ good but too expensive.
17. I (just, write) ___________________________ some letters and I (go) ____________________ (take)
_________________________ them to the post Office. They (deliver) ___________________ by noon.
18. Mary (be) ____________________ in London for three months now but I (not, get) ____________
any letters from her yet.
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19. The College Board (allow) ______________________ (buy) ________________ the new equipment only
after the Minister's office (approve) ____________________________.
20. While we (watch) _________________________ a basketball match on TV, Mary (come) ______________
and (tell) __________________ us what (happen) _______________________.
21. If you (think) ____________________ that these techniques (not, be) _________________ good, our
technology concept (have) __________________ (change) ______________________ .
22. The house (build) ________________ at the end of our street (look) _________________ very nice, indeed.
Who (know) ________________ how much it (cost) ____________________?
23. (Not, talk) ____________________ now, please. I (try) _____________________ (solve) _______________
a very difficult equation.
24. (You, want) ___________________________ me (help) __________________ you with your homework?
No, thanks. We (tell) _________________________ (not, ask) _____________________ for help. Anyway, I
(almost, finish) _____________________________ it.
25. What (your mother, do) ___________________________ when you (tell) _______________ her about your
bad marks?
You (not, want) _________________________ (hear) ________________ that! I (ground) _________________
for a month.
26. This machine (not, lubricate) __________________________________ since it (buy) ___________________ .
27. Your TV set (already, repair) ______________________________ and (return) _____________________
to you tomorrow.
28. All these elevators (drive) ____________________________ by d.c. motors.
29. (enter) ____________________ the manager's office this morning, I (be) ____________ sure that the man (sit)
_____________________ there (be) ________________ our new designer.
30. This dynamo (have) ______________________ (repair) _______________________ tomorrow morning.
31. The best experts from abroad (be) ___________________________ here for three months but their efforts
(not, show) __________________________ any results yet.
32. Railway carriages must (equip) ________________________ with hand brakes.
33. I (tell) ____________________ that you (buy) _______________________ a new DVD last week. How much
(you, pay) __________________________ for it?
34. I (can, not) ______________________ (start) ____________________ the engine this morning because I
(leave) ____________________________ the ignition key at home.
35. The letter which (bring) ___________________________ yesterday (wait) _________________
on your desk (translate) ____________________________ .
36. The letter (bring) ________________________ yesterday and now it (wait) ___________________
(translate) _____________________________ .
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37. When (you, go) _____________________________ (wash) _______________________ your car? It (be)
_______________ so dirty.
38. How long (you, work) ____________________________________ here?
39. While we (pack) ____________________________ our bags, a friend (call) _______________ and (say)
________________________ that all the flights (delay) ________________________ because of the fog.
40. Why (you, get) __________________________ up? It (be) ____________________ Saturday.
I must (go) ____________________ to the office. We (work) _________________________ on a new project.
204
ENERGY CRISIS
A word about the energy crisis: the world’s supply of petroleum (create) ______________________ over millions
of years ago and cannot (replace) _____________________ or (renew) _____________ in our time. Estimates
(vary) _________________ on how long the supply (last) _________________ but according to some experts not
much more than thirty years at the present rate of consumption. Automobiles, diesels, and jets (use)
__________________ enormous amounts of fuel (derive) _______________ from petroleum so do households
and power plants that (produce) ____________ electricity. Petroleum (be) ________________ also the basis for
petrochemical products (include) ______________________ many of today’s plastics, fertilizers, and
insecticides.
Therefore there (be) ____________ a mounting interest in engines that (not, use) _______________ petroleum
as fuel. Some power plants (already, convert) _________________________ from oil to coal, but while coal (be)
_______________ in much greater supply than petroleum it (be) __________ another non-renewable energy
source which (eventually, exhaust) ________________________. Experiments (be) _______________ under
way (harness) ___________________ such energy sources as the wind, the tides, and the sun. Nuclear fusion the release of energy when atoms (join) _______________ together – (explore) __________________ as a safer
alternative to nuclear fission with its hazardous by-products of radioactive wastes that (pose)
_________________ a serious threat to the environment and to human life. The difficulty with fusion (be)
_____________ that it (require) ______________ an enormously high degree of heat (start)
__________________ the reaction; to date it (not, be) ____________________ possible (generate)
____________________ that much heat even under laboratory conditions.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Current (move) _______________ from a point of high potential energy to one of low potential. It can only (do)
______________ so if there (be) ___________ a path for it (follow) _____________. This path (call)
______________ an electric circuit. All circuits (contain) ______________ four elements: a source, a load, a
transmission system and a control.
The source (provide) _______________ the electromotive force. This (establish) ________________ the
difference in potential which (make) ________________ current flow possible. The source can (be)
____________ any device which (supply) ______________ electrical energy. For example, it may (be)
______________ a generator or a battery.
The load (convert) _______________ the electrical energy from the source into some other form of energy. For
instance, a lamp (change) _______________ electrical energy into light and heat. The load can be any electrical
device.
The transmission system (conduct) ________________ the current round the circuit. Any conductor can
(consider) ____________________ part of a transmission system. Most systems (consist) _________________
of wires. It (be) ___________ often possible, however, for the metal frame of a unit (be) _____________ one
section of its transmission system. For example, the metal chassis of many electrical devices (use)
_______________ (conduct) __________ current. Similarly the body of a car (be) ______________ part of its
electrical transmission system.
The control (regulate) _______________ the current flow in the circuit. It may (control) ____________ the
current by (limit) ________________ it, as (do) _______________ a rheostat, or by (interrupt) _______________
it, as (do) _________ a switch.
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MODULATION
We can only (communicate) ___________________ information by radio waves by (change) _______________
the wave in some way. This change (know) ______________ as modulation. The simplest form of modulation
(be) __________ (turn) ______________ the wave on and off. This method (use) _______________ in the early
days of radio for telegraphic signals. The wave (stop) _______________ and (start) ______________ (represent)
________________ the dots and dashes of the Morse code by means of a telegraph key.
Speech and music (produce) _______________ audio frequencies which cannot (transmit) _______________
directly. But they can (use) _______________ (modulate) _______________ radio waves. This modulated radio
wave (then, transmit) ____________________. When it (receive) _______________ , the wave (demodulate)
___________________ and the original audio-frequency signal (recover) __________________. The high
frequency radio wave (act) ______________ only (carry) ________________ the audio-frequency signal and
(call) _________________ the carrier wave. The audio-frequency signal (term) ________________ the
modulating signal.
The wave (have) _______________ three quantities: amplitude, frequency and phase. Any of these quantities
can (modulate) _________________. The two commonest methods of modulation (be) ______________
amplitude modulation, am, and frequency modulation, fm.
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave (change) ________________ according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal. The frequency of the carrier (keep) _______________ constant.
In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave (keep) __________________ constant, but the
frequency (vary) ________________ in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Frequency
modulation (have) _________________ several advantages over amplitude modulation. The most notable (be)
______________ that reception (be) _______________ less likely (disturb) _____________________ . This (be)
_____________ because atmospheric disturbances and “noise” (generate) __________________ in the receiver
itself (result) _________________ in a change in the amplitude of the received signal. However, changes in
only the frequency would distort the modulated information.
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PART 5
GLOSSARY
“Someone once asked Albert Einstein how many feet were
in a mile.
“I don’t know,” he replied, “Why should I fill my head with
things like that when I could look them up in any reference
book in two minutes?”
A
acid rain - rain that has become acidic due to the emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
active power - see “real power“
alternating current (AC)- electric current that reverses direction periodically, usually many times per
second
alternator - an electric generator designed to produce alternating current; it usually consists of rotating
parts which created the changing magnetic field to produce the alternating current
ambient temperature- the surrounding temperature of an area
ammeter - an instrument used for measuring the electrical current flow in a portion of a circuit
ampacity - the current, in amperes, that a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of
use without exceeding its temperature rating.
ampere - a type of electric current produced by one volt applied across a resistance of one ohm, it is
also equal to the flow of one coulomb per second; named after French physicist Andre M. Ampère in
1836
amplification – the process of increasing the strength (current, voltage, or power) of a signal
analog - a measuring or display methodology which uses continuously varying physical parameters
while digital represents information in discrete binary form using only zeros and ones.
analog(ue) signal - the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information; the information
in the signal is degraded by the noise
appliance - utilization equipment, generally other than industrial, normally built in standardized sizes
or types, that is installed or connected as a unit to perform one or more functions such as clothes
washing, air conditioning, food mixing, deep frying, etc.
atomic number – the number of elementary positive charges in the nucleus of an atom, it is a different
number for each element, starting with 1 for hydrogen and going up beyond 103
atomic orbital - the region in space around the nucleus of an atom in which an electron with a given
set of quantum numbers is most likely to be found
207
B
band - a collection of orbitals, each delocalized throughout the solid, that are so closely spaced in
energy as to be nearly continuous
band gap - the energy separation between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band
battery - a group of two or more cells connected together to provide electrical current. Sometimes
also used to describe a single cell which converts chemical energy to electrical current.
bias - voltage applied to the electrodes in an electrical device, considering polarity
biasing - applying a voltage, often done to alter the electrical and optical output of a device such as a
light emitting diode (LED)
branch circuit - the circuit conductors between the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit and
the outlet(s)
branch circuit, appliance - a branch circuit that supplies energy to one or more outlets to which
appliances are to be connected, and that has no permanently connected lightning fixtures that are not
a part of an appliance.
broadcast communication - radio communication between one powerful transmitter and numerous
receivers
C
capacitor - a device that stores electrical charge usually by means of conducting plates or foil separated
by a thin insulating layer of dielectric material. The effectiveness of the device, or its capacitance, is
measured in Farads.
cathode ray tube – an electron-beam tube in which the electrons emitted by a hot cathode are
formed by an electron gun into a narrow beam that can be focused to a small cross section of a
fluorescent screen. The beam can be varied in position and intensity by internal electrostatic deflection
plates or external electromagnetic deflection coils to produce a visible trace, pattern, or picture on the
screen.
cell - a single device which converts chemical energy into electrical current. Sometimes also referred
to as a battery.
channel - a division in a transmission medium resulting in the possibility of sending multiple streams
of information
charge coupled devices - a charge transfer device that stores charge in potential wells and transfers it
almost completely as a packet by translating the position of the potential well
choke coil - an inductance device used in a circuit to present a high impedance to high frequencies
without appreciably limiting the flow of direct current
circuit - arrangement of one or more complete paths for electron flow; a closed loop of conductors
through which charges can flow
208
circuit breaker - a device designed to open and close a circuit by non-automatic means and to open
the circuit automatically on a pre-determined overcurrent without damage to itself when properly
applied within its rating
cleaved-coupled-cavity (C[3]) - two or more aligned semiconductor lasers which through destructive
and constructive interference are able to output light of a particular wavelength
conduction band - the unfilled energy levels into which electrons can be excited to become conductive
electrons; a band that when occupied by mobile electrons, permits their net movement in a particular
direction, producing the flow of electricity through the solid
conductor – a material which permits the flow of free electrons; a material with a high electrical
conductivity such as copper or aluminium
continuous load - a load where the maximum current is expected to continue for 3 hours or more.
controller - a device or group of devices that serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the
electric power delivered to the apparatus to which it is connected
copper – a metallic element that has excellent conductivity of heat and electricity, good ductility and
malleability, it is easily alloyed
crystal - a solid composed of atoms, ions, or molecules arranged in an orderly pattern that is repeated
in three dimensions
current - the flow of electricity commonly measured in amperes; the rate of transfer of electricity from
one point to another; current is usually a movement of free electrons
D
delocalized (electrons) - electrons that are no longer bound to a given atomic nucleus and are highly
mobile
device - a unit of an electrical system that is intended to carry but not utilize electric energy.
digital signal - the information is encoded as a set of discrete values (ones and zeros); the information
remains intact unless the noise exceeds a certain threshold
diode - an electronic semiconductor device that predominantly allows current to flow in only one
direction; a two electrode semiconductor device that utilizes the rectifying properties of a p-n junction
or a point contact
direct current (DC) - electric current which flows in one direction only; circuit in which the flow of
electrons is in one direction only, from anode to cathode
distribution equipment - a device designed to provide electricity to multiple connections divided
among the components according to their resistances and impedances
dopant or doping agent - an impurity element deliberately added to a semiconductor material under
precisely controlled conditions to create PN junctions required for transistors and semiconductor diodes
drift velocity - the average velocity of a carrier that is moving under the influence of an electric field in
a conductor, semiconductor, or electron tube
209
E
electric generator - a device which takes mechanical energy as an input and produces electricity
(AC/DC) as an output
electric motor - a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy by utilizing forces
exerted by magnetic fields produced by current flow through conductors
electrical conductivity - the ability of a material to conduct an electric current, as measured by the
current per unit of applied voltage; it is the reciprocal of resistivity
electrical resistance - the measure of the difficulty of the electric current to pass through a given
material; its unit is the ohm (Ω)
electricity - current passing through a conductor from a region of high potential to low potential
electrolysis – the production of chemical changes by passing current from an electrode to an electrolyte,
or vice versa
electromagnetic induction – the production of a voltage in a coil by a change in the number of magnetic
lines of force passing through the coil
electromagnetic radiation (waves) - a series of energy waves that travel in a vacuum at the speed of 3
x 10[8] m/s; includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet light, x-rays, and
gamma rays
electromotive force – the force that tends to produce an electric current in a circuit, usually called
voltage
electron - a negatively charged sub-atomic particle whose mass is 9.1 x 10[-31] kg
electron energy level - In quantum mechanics, an energy which is allowed for an electron
electron flow – a current produced by the movement of free electrons toward a positive terminal; the
direction of electron flow is opposite to that current
electron gun – an electron structure that produces and may control, focus, deflect, and converge one
or more electron beams in an electron tube
electronics - the branch of science or technology that deals with electron devices, including electron
tubes, magnetic amplifiers, transistors, and other devices that do the work of electron tubes in
controlling the flow of electricity in a vacuum, gas, liquid, semiconductor, conductor or superconductor
enclosure - the case or housing of an apparatus, fence, or walls that prevent persons from accidentally
contacting energizing parts, or to protect the equipment from physical damage
energizing - electrically connected to a source of potential difference
energy - the capacity for, or the ability to do, mechanical work. Electrical energy is measured in
kilowatt-hours for billing purposes.
energy saving devices - devices utilized within a dwelling designed to more efficiently make use of
energy sources while providing heating, cooling, and light
equipment - a general term including materials, fittings, devices, appliances, fixtures, apparatus, and
the like used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation
210
extrinsic semiconductor - a semiconductor material that has been doped with an n-type or p-type
element
F
fault - a short circuit in an electrical system.
fluorescent lamps - fluorescent lamps produce light by passing electricity through a gas, causing it to
glow. The gas produces ultraviolet light; a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp absorbs the
ultraviolet light and produces visible light. Fluorescent lamps produce much less heat than
incandescent lamps and are more energy efficient. Linear fluorescent lamps are used in long narrow
fixtures designed for such lamps. Compact fluorescent light bulbs have been designed to replace
incandescent light bulbs in table lamps, floodlights, and other fixtures.
fly-back – also called retrace – the return of the electron beam to its starting point in a cathode-ray
tube after a sweep
forward bias - bias applied to a p-n junction in the conducting direction, majority carrier electrons and
holes flow toward the junction so that a large current flows
free electron – an electron that is not constrained to remain in a particular atom, it is therefore able to
move freely in matter or a vacuum, when acted on by external electric or magnetic field
frequency - in alternating current, the rate at which the current changes direction. One complete cycle
is a unit of 1 Hertz, named after the physicist who researched AC
G
galvanometer - an instrument for measuring a small electric current
generator - an electric machine for generating electromotive force (voltage); a rotating machine which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
germanium - element 22, used mostly in early semiconductor devices
grid – an electrode located between the cathode and anode of an electron tube and having one or
more openings through which electrons or ions can pass under certain conditions. A grid controls the
flow of electrons from cathode to anode.
grid - in an electrical system, a term used to refer to the electrical utility distribution network
ground (wire) - a conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical
circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth
grounded - connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth
H
heater - a heat source (gas or electric) used to adjust the temperature inside a dwelling from a cold to
a warm condition
211
hertz (Hz) - the unit of frequency (not just electricity, but also, for example, sound waves
high-tech troubleshooting - a procedure performed by a trained technician for the purpose of locating
and identifying electrical problems within an electrical system.
hole - a fictitious mobile particle that behaves as though it is a positively charged particle; holes are
produced in the valence band when electrons from the valence band are promoted to the conduction
band or an acceptor level of a p-type dopant
horsepower - a unit of power equal to 746 watts
I
impedance - the total effects of a circuit that oppose the flow of an AC current consisting of inductance,
capacitance, and resistance. It can be quantified in the units of ohms.
impulse - a current surge
incandescence – emission of visible radiation by a heated object, such as a lamp filament heated by
electric current
incandescent light - a gas filled (argon) bulb containing a metallic filament (tungsten) that produces
light when a sufficient voltage is applied; an ordinary light bulb
incandescent light bulb - incandescent light bulb produces light by passing electricity through a thin
filament, which becomes hot and glows brightly. Incandescent light bulbs are less energy-efficient than
fluorescent lamps, because much of the electrical energy is converted to heat instead of light. The heat
produced by these bulbs not only wastes energy, but can also make a building's air conditioning system
work harder and consume more energy.
insulation - a material having a high resistance to the flow of electric current; insulation over
underground conductor is made of either EPR or XLPE material
insulator - a material with a low electrical conductivity; a type of material having a lower energy
valence band that is nearly completely filled with electrons and a higher conduction band that is nearly
completely empty of electrons as a result of a large energy gap between the two bands
integrated circuit (IC) - a single semiconductor chip or wafer which contains thousands or millions of
circuit elements per square centimetre
integrated circuit (IC) - a single semiconductor chip or wafer which now contains thousands or millions
of circuit elements per square centimeter
interrupter - an element designed to interrupt specific currents under specified conditions.
intrinsic semiconductors - a semiconductor material that is essentially pure
inverter - an electrical device which is designed to convert direct current into alternating current. This
was originally done with rotating machines which produced true sine wave ac output. More recently
this conversion has been performed more economically and efficiently using solid state electronics.
However, except for the most expensive models, these devices usually do not produce perfect sine
wave output. This sometimes can result in electromagnetic interference with other sensitive electronic
devices.
212
ion - an ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or molecule
ionization – a process by which a neutral atom or molecule loses or gains electrons, thereby acquiring a
net charge and becoming an ion; it can be produced by collision of particles, i.e. by collisions between
electrons and residual gas molecules in an electron tube (=ionization current or gas current), by
radiation, and by other means
J
Joule- a unit of work or energy equal to one watt for one second. One kilowatt hour equals 3,600,000
Joules. Named after James P. Joule, an English physicist 1889.
Joule’s Law- defines the relationship between current in a wire and the thermal energy produced. In
1841an English physicist James P. Joule experimentally showed that W = I2 x R x t where I is the current
in the wire in amperes, R is the resistance of the wire in Ohms, t is the length of time that the current
flows in seconds, and W is the energy produced in Joules.
K
kilovolt - a unit of electrical potential equal to 1,000 volts; abbreviated kV or KV.
kilowatt (kW) - real power delivered to a load (W x 1,000 VA)
kilowatt-hour - a unit of energy or work equal to one kilowatt for one hour; abbreviated as kwh or
KWH. This is the normal quantity used for metering and billing electricity customers.
L
lagging load - inductive type load
laser diode - a solid-state semiconductor device that is capable of emitting coherent light
leading load - capacitive load
leads - wire segments used to connect devices in electric circuits
light emitting diode (LED) - a semiconductor p-n junction device that is optimized to release light of
approximately the band gap energy when electrons fall from the conduction band to the valence band
like charges (+ & + and - & - ) – repel each other
limit switch - a switch that is operated by some part or motion of a power-driven machine or
equipment to alter the electric circuit associated with the machine or equipment
liquid-filled transformer - a transformer in which the core and coil are immersed in a liquid which acts
as both a cooling and insulating medium.
live part - electric conductors, buses, terminals, or components that are uninsulated or exposed and
an electric shock hazard exists
213
load - the load of a transformer is the power, in kVA or volt-amperes, supplied by the transformer
load centre - source for all power to the home. All circuits originate from the "Load Centre" or "Service
Panel." Circuit breakers are located within this panel.
load curve - a curve showing instantaneous demand (kVA or MVA) versus time. Curves are usually
plotted for one day or one week. Integrating the load curve will provide the amount of energy
consumed.
load break - the ability of a switching device to disconnect a load current without damage
load factor - represents how efficiently the electrical system capacity is being used. The higher the load
factor the higher the efficiency.
load switching - transferring the load from one source to another
low voltage - a wiring system that provides power to some electronic devices operating on a voltage
level much lower than the standard one
M
metal - a material with a partially filled energy band; metals are generally malleable, ductile, good
reflectors of electromagnetic radiation, and good conductors of heat and electricity; metals are usually
identified by having electrical conductivities that decrease with increasing temperature
metal enclosed - surrounded by a metal case of housing, usually grounded
metal clad - devices in which the conducting parts are entirely enclosed in a metal casing
modulation - the shaping of a signal to convey information
monolithic IC technology - a technique of circuit fabrication where all of the devices in a circuit are
placed on the same chip
motor - an electronic device used to move, switch, or adjust one or more of the systems within a
dwelling
multimeter - a volt-ohm-milliammeter combined into one device
N
network - transmitters, receivers or transceivers communicating with each other
neutral grounding resistor - a grounding device, the principal element of which is resistance, which is
used to connect the neutral point of the transformer to earth
non-renewable energy sources - fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal and nuclear fuel
n-type semiconductor - a semiconductor that has been doped with an electron donor
214
O
Ohm - the unit of measure for resistance
ohmmeter - an instrument for measuring electric resistance
opto-electronic - materials that can either produce an electric current from light or produce light from
a current
orbital or planetary electron – an electron that moves in orbit around the nucleus of an atom
oscilloscope – a test instrument that uses a cathode-ray tube to make visible on a fluorescent screen
the instantaneous values and waveforms of electrical quantities which are rapidly varying as a function
of time or another quantity
outlet - a point on the wiring system at which current is taken to supply utilization equipment
overload - operation of equipment in excess of normal, full-load rating, or of a conductor in excess of
rated ampacity that, when it persists for a sufficient length of time, would cause damage or dangerous
overheating. A fault, such as a short circuit or ground fault, is not an overload.
overvoltage - a voltage above the normal rated voltage or the maximum operating voltage of a device
or circuit. A direct test overvoltage is a voltage above the peak of the line alternating voltage.
P
parallel circuit – a circuit in which the same voltage is applied to all components, and the current is
divided among the components according to their resistances and impedances
photo-cathode – a photosensitive surface that emits electrons when exposed to light or other suitable
radiation; used in photo-tubes, television camera tubes, and other light-sensitive devices
photocell - a solid state photosensitive device whose current-voltage characteristic is a function of
incident radiation; "electric eye" or "photoelectric cell"
photoconductivity - light shining on the surface of a material increasing the conductivity
photon - a massless particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic field carrying energy, also known as
the light quantum
photoresistor - a device for measuring or detecting electromagnetic radiation. The conductivity of the
resistor changes with exposure to light.
p-n junction - a boundary between p-type and n-type regions within a single crystal of a semiconductor
material, a diode
point-to-point communication - communication between one transmitter and one receiver
power electronics - the technology associated with the efficient conversion, control and conditioning
of electric power by static means from its available input form into the desired electrical output form
electrons, but may also be a movement of positive and negative ions, or holes
215
power outlet - an enclosed assembly that may include receptacles, circuit breakers, fuse holders, fused
switches, buses, and watt-hour meter mounting means; intended to supply and control power to
mobile homes, recreational vehicles, park trailers, or boats; or to serve as a means for distributing
power required to operate mobile or temporarily installed equipment.
primary voltage rating - designates the input circuit voltage for which the primary winding is designed.
primary winding – symbol P, the transformer winding that receives signal energy or AC power from a
source; also called primary
Principle of the conversion of energy - energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it may be converted
from one form into the other
p-type semiconductor - a semiconductor that has been doped with an electron acceptor
puncture - the term used when a disruptive discharge occurs through a solid dielectric. A disruptive
discharge in a solid dielectric produces a permanent loss of dielectric strength; in a liquid of gaseous
dielectric, the loss may be only temporary.
Q
quantum mechanics - physical laws governing the behavior of matter and energy on a very small scale
quantum numbers - a set of four numbers necessary to fully characterize the state of each electron in
an atom
R
radar receiver – a high-sensitivity radio receiver that amplifies and demodulates radar echo signals
and feeds them to a radarscope or other indicator
rainproof - constructed, protected, or treated so as to prevent rain from interfering with the successful
operation of the apparatus under specified test conditions
reactive power - the mathematical product of voltage and current consumed by reactive loads.
Examples of reactive loads include capacitors and inductors. These types of loads when connected to
an ac voltage source will draw current, but since the current is 90o out of phase with the applied voltage
they actually consume no real power in the ideal sense.
reactor - a device for introducing inductive reactance into a circuit for motor starting, operating
transformers in parallel, and controlling current.
real power - the rate at which work is performed or that energy is transferred. Electric power is
commonly measured in watts or kilowatts. The term real power is often used in place of the term
power alone to differentiate from reactive power. Also called active power.
receptacles - power sources located throughout a building to provide electricity where needed.
rectifier - a circuit component, usually a diode, that allows current to flow in one direction unimpeded
but allows no current flow in the other direction
216
renewable energy sources - sources that are in constant supply over time such as sun, wind, water,
biomass and earth, i.e. heat from deep within the earth, called “geothermal energy”
resistance – the opposition that a device or material offers to the flow of direct current
resistor - a device used in electric circuits to limit the current flow or to provide a voltage drop
resistor - any device of material that limits the flow of current when voltage is applied.
reverse bias - bias applied to a p-n junction in a direction for which the flow of current is inhibited;
majority carrier electrons and holes flow away from the junction
S
scan – to examine an area or a region in space point by point in an ordered sequence, as when
converting a scene or image to an electric signal or when using radar or monitor an airspace for
detection, navigation, or traffic control purposes
secondary winding – symbol S, a transformer winding that receives energy by electromagnetic induction
from the primary winding. A transformer may have several secondary windings, and they may provide
AC voltages that are higher, lower, or the same as that applied to the primary winding; also called
secondary.
semiconductor - a material whose electrical conductivity is midway between that of an good conductor
and a good insulator; a type of material having a lower energy valence band that is nearly completely
filled with electrons and a higher energy conduction band that is nearly completely empty of electrons,
with a modest energy gap between the two bands; pure materials usually exhibit electrical conductivity
that increases with temperature because of an increase in the number of charge carriers being
promoted to the conduction band
series circuit – a circuit in which all parts are connected end to end to provide a single path for the
current
series gap - internal gap(s) between spaced electrodes in series with the valve elements across which
all or part of the impressed arrester terminal voltage appears
series/multiple - a winding of two similar coils that can be connected for series operation or multiple
(parallel) operation
service - the conductors and equipment for delivering electric energy from the serving utility to the
wiring system of the premises served
service cable - service conductors made up in the form of a cable
silicon - element 14, the most commonly used semiconductor
smoke And carbon dioxide detector - wall and ceiling mounted sensors located throughout the home
used to alert occupants of deadly gasses and smoke inside the home
subatomic – pertaining to particles smaller than atoms, such as electrons, protons and neutrons
sweep – the steady movement of the electron beam across the screen of a cathode-ray tube,
producing a steady bright line when no signal is present
217
switch - circuit interruption device used to control the flow of electricity to lights, appliances, and
outlets
switch limit - a switch that is operated by some part or motion of a power-driven machine or
equipment to alter the electric circuit associated with the machine or equipment.
switchboard - a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or
back, or both, switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to
be installed on cabinets.
symmetric - a term used to explain the normal, rhythmic ac flow of current; the steady state
component of any current or fault current calculation.
systems capacity - represents the ability of a system to meet its customers' needs, or meet the
electrical demand of its customers. System capacity is provided by generators, transmission lines,
distribution networks and load management.
T
tap - a connection brought out of the winding at some point between its extremities, usually to permit
changing the voltage or current ratio
television set – a receiver that converts incoming television signals into the original scenes along with
the associated sounds; also called television receiver
thermistor - a resistive circuit component having a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance
so that its resistance decreases as temperature increases
thermostat - a low voltage electronic switching device that monitors temperatures inside the home
and turns on and off the heating or cooling system in the home
track and accent lighting - condition specific lighting that meets special lighting requirements,
providing variable lighting degrees of light and may distribute light in multiple directions
transfer switch - an electronic device that under certain conditions will disconnect from one power
source and connect to another power source
transformer - a component that consists of two or more coils which are coupled together by magnetic
induction; it is used to transfer electric energy from one or more circuits to one or more other circuits
without change in frequency but usually with changed values of voltage and current
transformer - a magnetic coupling device in an AC circuit; they are capable of changing voltages as
needed
transformer - a static electrical device which by electromagnetic induction transfers electrical energy
from one circuit to another circuit usually with changed values of voltage and current in the process
transient - a high amplitude, short duration pulse superimposed on the normal voltage.
transistor (TRANSfer resISTOR))- a solid state semiconductor device able to amplify a signal in forward
bias; an active semiconductor device that has three or more electrodes, i.e. emitter, base and collector;
it can perform practically all the functions of tubes, including amplification and rectification
218
turn ratio - the ratio of the number of turns in the high voltage winding to that in the low voltage
winding
U
uninterruptible power supply - a device that provides a constant regulated voltage output in spite of
interruptions of the normal power supply. It includes filtering circuits and is usually used to feed
computers or related equipment which would otherwise shutdown on brief power interruptions.
Abbreviated UPS.
unlike charges (+ & -) – attract each other
V
valence band - the energy band containing the valence (outer) electrons; in a conductor the valence
band is also the conduction band; the valence band in a metal is not full, so electrons can be energized
to other levels and become conductive
vapour barrier - also called a vapour retarder, this is a material that retards the movement of water
vapour through a building element (such as walls, floors, and ceilings) and prevents metals from
corroding and insulation and structural wood from becoming damp
ventilated - provided with a means to permit circulation of air sufficient to remove an excess of heat,
fumes, or vapours
Volt - the electrical potential difference or pressure across a one ohm resistance carrying a current of
one ampere. Named after Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta 1745-1827.
Volt Ampere - a unit of apparent power equal to the mathematical product of a circuit voltage and
amperes. Here, apparent power is in contrast to real power. On ac systems the voltage and current
will not be in phase if reactive power is being transmitted. Usually abbreviated VA.
voltmeter - an instrument used for measuring the potential difference between two points in volts
W
waterproof - constructed or protected so that exposure to the weather will not interfere with
successful operation
watertight - constructed so that moisture will not enter the enclosure under specified test conditions
Watt - a unit of power equal to the rate of work represented by a current of one ampere under a
pressure of one volt. Named after the Scottish engineer James Watt, 1819.
waveform – the shape of a wave, as obtained by plotting a characteristic of the wave with respect to
time
wiring - a distribution network of wire that conducts electricity to receptacles, switches and appliances
throughout a building/home to provide electricity where needed
219
X
X plate – one of the two deflection electrodes used to deflect the electron beam horizontally in an
electrostatic cathode-ray tube
Y
Y plate – one of the two deflection electrodes used to deflect the electron beam vertically in a CRT
220
PART 6
IRREGULAR VERBS
INFINITIVE
SIMPLE PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
A
arise
awake
arose
awoke/ awakened
arisen
awoken
B
be
bear
beat
become
befall
begin
behold
bend
bet
bid
bind
bite
bleed
blow
break
breed
bring
broadcast
browbeat
build
burn
burst
bust
buy
was / were
bore
beat
became
befell
began
beheld
bent
bet / betted
bid
bound
bit
bled
blew
broke
bred
brought
broadcast
browbeat
built
burnt/ burned
burst
busted/ bust
bought
been
born / borne
beaten / beat
become
befallen
begun
beheld
bent
bet / betted
bid
bound
bitten
bled
blown
broken
bred
brought
broadcast
browbeat
built
burnt/burned
burst
busted/ bust
bought
C
cast
catch
choose
cling
come
cost
creep
cut
cast
caught
chose
clung
came
cost
crept
cut
cast
caught
chosen
clung
come
cost
crept
cut
D
deal
dig
dive (scuba diving)
dive (jump head-first)
do
dealt
dug
dived
dove
did
dealt
dug
dived
dived
done
221
draw
dream
drink
drive
dwell
drew
dreamt/ dreamed
drank
drove
dwelt/ dwelled
drawn
dreamt/ dreamed
drunk
driven
dwelt/ dwelled
E
eat
ate
eaten
F
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
fit (to be right size)
fit (to tailor, change size)
flee
fling
fly
forbid
forecast
forego (also forgo)
foresee
foretell
forget
forgive
forsake
freeze
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fit
fit/ fitted
fled
flung
flew
forbade
forecast
forewent
foresaw
foretold
forgot
forgave
forsook
froze
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fit
fit/ fitted
fled
flung
flown
forbidden
forecast
foregone
foreseen
foretold
forgotten
forgiven
forsaken
frozen
G
get
give
go
grind
grow
got
gave
went
ground
grew
gotten/ got
given
gone
ground
grown
H
hang
have
hear
hide
hit
hold
hurt
hung
had
heard
hid
hit
held
hurt
hung
had
heard
hidden
hit
held
hurt
I
input
inset
interbreed
interweave
input
inset
interbred
interwove
input
inset
interbred
interwoven
K
222
keep
kneel
knit
know
kept
knelt/ kneeled
knit/ knitted
knew
kept
knelt/ kneeled
knit/ knitted
known
L
lay
lead
lean
leap
learn
leave
lend
let
lie
light
lose
laid
led
leaned/ leant
leapt/ leaped
learned/ learnt
left
lent
let
lay
lit / lighted
lost
laid
led
leaned/ leant
leapt/ leaped
learned/ learnt
left
lent
let
lain
lit / lighted
lost
M
make
mean
meet
mishear
mislay
mislead
misread
misspell
mistake
misunderstand
mow
made
meant
met
misheard
mislaid
misled
misread
misspelled/ misspelt
mistook
misunderstood
mowed
made
meant
met
misheard
mislaid
misled
misread
misspelled/ misspelt
mistaken
misunderstood
mowed/ mow
O
outbid
outdo
outgrow
outrun
outsell
overcast
overcome
overdo
overdraw
overeat
overhang
overhear
overlay
overlie
overpay
override
overrun
oversee
oversell
overshoot
oversleep
outbid
outdid
outgrew
outran
outsold
overcast
overcame
overdid
overdrew
overate
overhung
overheard
overlaid
overlay
overpaid
overrode
overran
oversaw
oversold
overshot
overslept
outbid
outdone
outgrown
outrun
outsold
overcast
overcome
overdone
overdrawn
overeaten
overhung
overheard
overlaid
overlain
overpaid
overridden
overrun
overseen
oversold
overshot
overslept
223
overtake
overthrow
overtook
overthrew
overtaken
overthrown
P
partake
pay
plead
pre-set
proofread
prove
put
partook
paid
pled/ pleaded
pre-set
proofread
proved
put
partaken
paid
pled/ pleaded
pre-set
proofread
proven/ proved
put
Q
quit
quit / quitted
quit / quitted
R
read
rebind
rebuild
recast
redo
re-lay (for example tiles)
remake
repay
rerun
resell
reset
rethink
rewind
rewrite
rid
ride
ring
rise
run
read (sounds like "red")
rebound
rebuilt
recast
redid
re-laid
remade
repaid
reran
resold
reset
rethought
rewound
rewrote
rid
rode
rang
rose
ran
read (sounds like "red")
rebound
rebuilt
recast
redone
re-laid
remade
repaid
rerun
resold
reset
rethought
rewound
rewritten
rid
ridden
rung
risen
run
S
say
see
seek
sell
send
set
sew
shake
shear
shed
shine
shit
shoot
show
shrink
shut
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
sewed
shook
sheared
shed
shined / shone
shit/ shat
shot
showed
shrank / shrunk
shut
said
seen
sought
sold
sent
set
sewn/ sewed
shaken
shorn/ sheared
shed
shined / shone
shit/ shat
shot
shown / showed
shrunk
shut
224
sing
sit
slay
sleep
slide
sling
slit
smell
speak
speed
spell
spend
spin
spit
split
spoil
spoon-feed
spread
spring
stand
steal
stick
sting
stink
strew
stride
strive
strike (delete)
strike (hit)
string
strive
swear
sweep
swell
swim
swing
sang
sat
slew
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelled/ smelt
spoke
sped / speeded
spelled/ spelt
spent
spun
spit / spat
split
spoiled/ spoilt
spoon-fed
spread
sprang / sprung
stood
stole
stuck
stung
stank / stunk
strewed
strode
strove
struck
struck
strung
strove/ strived
swore
swept
swelled
swam
swung
sung
sat
slain
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelled/ smelt
spoken
sped / speeded
spelled/ spelt
spent
spun
spit / spat
split
spoiled/ spoilt
spoon-fed
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
stuck
stung
stunk
strewn/ strewed
stridden
striven
stricken
struck/ stricken
strung
striven/ strived
sworn
swept
swollen, swelled
swum
swung
T
take
teach
tear
tell
think
throw
thrust
tread
took
taught
tore
told
thought
threw
thrust
trod
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrown
thrust
trodden, trod
U
unbind
underlie
understand
undertake
underwrite
unbound
underlay
understood
undertook
underwrote
unbound
underlain
understood
undertaken
underwritten
225
undo
unwind
uphold
upset
undid
unwound
upheld
upset
undone
unwound
upheld
upset
W
wake
wear
weave
wed
weep
wet
win
wind
withdraw
wring
write
woke / waked
wore
wove
wed/ wedded
wept
wet/ wetted
won
wound
withdrew
wrung
wrote
woken / waked
worn
woven
wed/ wedded
wept
wet/ wetted
won
wound
withdrawn
wrung
written
226