FIBERS AND YARNS
Compared with the study of fibers in carpet manufacture, the study of upholstery and drapery
fiber and fabric is much more difficult. There is a great variety of fabrics and fibers each
having a different manufacturing process, depending on the intended design and end use.
For the scope of this course, the following is a very general and simplified description of the
process.
A fiber is any material in strand form which can be fabricated. Fibers are generally classified
into two groups: natural and man-made. Both groups are further divided (see chart below), to
help trace their origin, and their built-in characteristics.
Fibers which come from natural sources (cellulosic/plant origin or protein/animal origin) and
are naturally in a ready-made fiber formation, are classified as natural. In contrast, manmade fibers are, by definition, those fibers in which man is involved with the actual formation.
This includes either regenerated fibers, in which natural source products are dissolved and
then regenerated, or synthetic fibers, produced through chemical synthesis from petrochemical products. Both are then extruded through a spinneret, to form a fiber.
These thin plastic threads are
hardened in warm or cool air,
or in acid, depending on the
material
After spinning, synthetic fibers go through further processing to develop the characteristics
desired. Fiber is first "drawn" to stretch and align the filaments. Continuous filament fibers (of
indefinite length) are then heat set and wound on cones. Staple fibers (of relatively short
length) emerge as undrawn "Tow" and are sent through a crimping process to bulk the yarn.
The fibers are heat set to provide "memory" and then put into further processing before the
product is finished and ready to be woven or knitted into fabric.
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UDT/FY 3
Spools of Cotton
Cotton plants grow in hot countries such
as India, China, Egypt and America.
A boll before it has opened
An open boll
When the flowers of the cotton
plant have died, parcels of
seeds called bolls are left.
When the bolls are ripe they
burst open.
Each boll has 30 seeds covered
with hairs called cotton fibers
A field of
cotton plants.
Teeth break
the bolls up.
Air blows the
cotton off the
teeth.
Bars let the
cotton
through, not
the seeds.
Cotton bolls go
in here.
1. The bolls are picked
and taken to a factory.
Here they are put into
a machine called a gin.
This removes most of
the seeds, dirt and
leaves.
The dirt and leaves
fall out here.
The seeds fall out here.
Bale
2. A baling press
squashes the fibers
together and shapes
them into blocks
called bales.
UDT/FY 4
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UDT/FY 5
3. The next machine pulls the fibers
apart and gets rid of lumps. The
cotton leaves this machine in wide
pieces (laps).
Lap
Slivers
4. The laps are untangled
(carded) and combed into long
ropes called slivers. Several of
these go into a machine that
joins then and pulls them out
into smaller laps.
Lap
6. A spinning machine
5. A machine
called a speed
frame pulls and
twists the laps
until each one is
thinner than a
pencil.
7. The thread is
put into a
chemical which
makes it shiny.
It is then
bleached (for
white thread), or
dyed. Finally it
is wound on to
plastic spools.
Spinning
machine
yarn. Several threads of
yarn are twisted together
to make strong sewing
thread.
Speed frame spins the cotton into fine
COTTON
Cotton is a fibrous material taken from the seed pod of the cotton plant. When processed, it
is 99% cellulose. Its quality is dependent on fiber length, fineness, color and luster. Long
cotton fibers can be spun into fine, smooth, lustrous and comparatively strong yarns from
which the better quality cotton fabrics are made. The short fibers produce coarser yarns for
use in durable fabrics.
Cotton is still the world's major textile fiber and is used alone or in blends in an infinite variety
of apparel, household and industrial products. It is the most widely used fiber in upholstery
fabrics. Cotton may be used in stuffer materials, muslin or batting materials, face fabrics and
dust covers. New finishes have extended cotton's usefulness in the "easy-care" field and in
many other applications. Some of the most common are resin finishes used in wash-andwear and chemical finishes which make cotton fabrics water repellant or fire retardant.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: absorbency; color fastness; dyeability; softness; strength (wet or dry);
resistance to: heat, moths and perspiration.
Fair to Poor (unless treated): dimensional stability; pressed-in crease retention; wash-andwear qualities; resistance to mildew, sunlight and wrinkling. Cotton is subject to cellulosic
browning because it is very absorbent.
Cotton ignites readily and is not self-extinguishing, but it can be treated and made flame
resistant to some extent, with some loss of durability and aesthetics. Effect of heat: yellows
slowly at 245°F. Resin finishes may improve such qualities as dimensional stability, crease
retention and wrinkle resistance.
CARE
Cotton can be sterilized, wet cleaned, dry cleaned, and bleached with
chlorine or peroxide bleaches, but excessive or prolonged use of bleach
may weaken the fabric. Some cotton finishes may cause the fabric to
yellow when exposed to chlorine. Cotton is subject to cellulosic browning in the presence of moisture, heat and alkalinity, because it is very
absorbent and requires a long drying time. Cellulose is bound together with lignin. Lignin is concentrated at the cell walls and comprises almost 1% of the weight of processed cotton. When dissolved, it can wick to the fabric surface causing cellulosic browning.
One of the reasons cotton is so absorbent is that the lumen holds moisture inside the fiber.
UDT/FY 6
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HAITIAN COTTON
Haitian cotton has the reputation of being a problem causer. It has a natural, casual or rustic
appearance. It is seldom dyed so it is an off-white or cream colored fabric. A plain weave is
used with small high-twist warp yarns and bulky, minimally twisted cotton weft yarns. The
weft yarns are not thoroughly processed leaving bits of darker seeds, stems, leaf fragments
and who knows what else throughout the yarn. These impurities, along with a high lignin
content, brown and stain when wet cleaned. Because of the loose weave and weak bulky
weft yarns, a latex backing is applied to support the fabric. Use of solvents must be limited to
prevent weakening of the latex. Agitation with brushes, towels or tools must be with, not
across, the weft yarns.
POLISHED COTTON
Polished cotton (also known as glazed cotton or chintz), is a tightly woven, plain weave with a
shiny finish. The fabric is often printed with bold, multi-colored birds, oriental scenes, flowers,
etc., on white or light backgrounds.
These beautiful fabrics do not often stay beautiful with everyday use. Friction can cause the
polish or glaze to wear off from high-use areas like the tops and fronts of the arms, and on
seating areas. Oily soils can damage or discolor the shiny finish; rubbing, or other abrasive
action can wear off the shiny finish. Once lost, this shiny finish cannot be restored by cleaning. The fabric can also develop white streaks when bent, folded or flexed during cleaning.
The white streaks cannot be cleaned out.
The finish or glazing must be tested before cleaning as some types will wash out with wet
cleaning and still others will clean off with dry cleaning. Also test all colors, as some may
bleed or crock. Pre-inspect, record and discuss any and all pre-existing problems. Wet clean
or dry clean with care and caution.
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UDT/FY 7
LINEN
Linen is produced from the fibrous materials in the stem of the flax plant. These fibers, in a
great variety of thicknesses, tend to cling together, giving linen its characteristic "thick-thin"
quality. After processing, linen is composed of 70-85% cellulosic fiber - the rest impurities.
Relative to cotton, linen is expensive due to its limited production and the hand labor still
involved in processing it; therefore it is used exclusively in face fiber of upholstery.
The quality of linen is determined by the length and fineness of the fibers and the degree of
bleach, if white, or the fastness of dyes, if colored.
Terms like "silk-linen" can be misleading when they refer to the linen-like appearance rather
than the fiber content of the fabric. Labels and hang tags should reveal whether these fabrics
are made of pure linen, blends of linen with other fibers, or some other fiber which resembles
linen.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: absorbency; colorfastness; dimensional stability; durability; launderability;
resistance to: heat, moths, and perspiration.
Fair to Poor: pressed-in crease retention; resistance to: mildew, sunlight and wrinkling.
Linen ignites readily and is not self-extinguishing, but it can be treated to make it flame resistant to some extent with some loss of durability.
Linen does not lint. It has poor resistance to flex abrasion and may crack or show wear along
seams and edges where fibers are bent.
CARE
Linen can be: wet cleaned, although it is subject to cellulosic browning; dry cleaned; bleached,
if white (although bleaching tends to weaken linen fibers); ironed with best results when damp.
Spots and stains may be difficult to remove as linen can absorb the staining material easily.
RAMIE
Ramie comes from the stalk of the ramie plant. It is also known as china grass, grass cloth,
grass linen or china linen. It is grown in tropical or semi-tropical climates. It is very similar to
the flax plant. It is often blended with cotton in apparel and possibly in some home furnishings. For cleaning purposes, it should be treated like linen.
JUTE
Jute is a vegetable fiber primarily grown in India and Pakistan Once used for carpet backing,
it has largely been replaced in the country by polypropylene. It is the least expensive textile
UDT/FY 8
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fiber. Fine jute is sometimes used in household furnishings and is then called Burlap or
Hessian. It is the weakest of the weakest of the cellulosic fibers and is easily attacked by
chemicals.
SILK
Silk, the only natural continuous filament fiber, is obtained by unreeling the cocoon of the
silkworm. Used alone, "silk" refers to a cultivated silk from carefully tended silkworms. Raw
silk contains the gum which binds the fibers to the cocoon. Wild or Tussah silk comes from
uncultivated silkworms. Uneven in texture and tan in color, it cannot be bleached. Duppion
silk comes from two or more cocoons that were joined together. These "thick-thin" filaments
are used in making shantung. Spun silk is made from pierced cocoons or waster silk, the
tangled fibers on the outside of the cocoon.
"Silk", "pure silk", "all silk", or "pure dye silk", must contain no metallic weightings and no more
than 10% by weight of dyes or finishing materials (black silk, 15%). Weighted silk contains
metallic salts; labels must indicate the percentage of weighting. It may be less expensive and
more drapable but less serviceable. Silk is very expensive and therefore is used in face
fibers.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: absorbency; colorfastness; dimensional stability; drapability; dyeability;
hand and appearance; strength, dry and wrinkle resistance.
Fair to Poor: pressed-in crease retention and resistance to: ageing, abrasion, heat, perspiration and sunlight. Prolonged exposure to perspiration or sunlight will cause it to become
brittle and easily damaged by any abrasive action.
CARE
Silk can be: hand laundered with mild detergent, though certain dyes "bleed" color when
washed; dry cleaned; ironed with a warm iron, (a safe ironing temperature is 250-275°F); can
be damaged by strong alkaline agents, and may yellow with high pH.
White silk can be bleached with hydrogen peroxide or sodium perborate bleaches, but chlorine bleaches should not be used.
HISTORY
Silk was discovered in 2460 B.C. by the Chinese, who guarded their secret very carefully.
Legend has it that a Chinese princess accidentally dropped a cocoon she was playing with
into her hot tea; when she retrieved it, it began to unwind.
Silk was woven into a cloth that was so fine, smooth, and comfortable and easily made into
the most beautiful colors, that it was reserved for the emperors. The Chinese held a monopoly on silk for over a thousand years. During this time they developed many techniques
for weaving and embroidering silk fabrics.
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UDT/FY 9
Sericulture, the process of producing silk, finally spread to Korea and Japan. Slowly it spread
to the rest of Asia and Europe. By the late 19th century sericulture had been attempted in all
the European countries and America without great success. Silk was the fiber of the royal
courts. It was used in apparel and for home furnishings. Velvet, made of silk and other heavy
silk fabrics was used in draperies and upholstery.
Many of the ancient tapestries that are still around today are made of silk. Silk, however, was
not only used for its aesthetic qualities. Because it is very strong and durable for its weight
and size, it was used to make such things as parachutes, up until World War II.
PRODUCTION
Silk is a natural, continuous filament fiber made from the protein fibroin, which is produced by
the silkworm, or more specifically, the larvae of the Bombyx mori species of moth.
There are two glands in the silkworm's head that extrude two filaments through one hole. The
fibroin protein hardens when it comes in contact with air. There are two other glands located
on each side of the exit hole that extrude another protein called sericin, which bonds the two
silk strands together. It takes three days to spin a cocoon.
The cocoons are dropped into boiling water to loosen the sericin. The outside of the cocoon
is brushed to find the end of the silk filament and it is then unwound along with the ends of two
or three other cocoons. This is known as reeling. The yarn is usually twisted and may be
used as is, but it is usually thrown with two or three other yarns of approximately 8 denier to
form a heavier yarn used in the manufacture of cloth. The rest of the sericin coating is removed after the cloth is woven because the sericin acts as sizing during the weaving process.
Removing the sericin is called degumming and it is done by washing the cloth in hot, soapy
water. Degumming makes the silk softer and more lustrous.
There are four processes involved in producing silk.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Growing the mulberry leaves on which the silkworms feed.
Raising the silkworms - most are raised to produce silk, others are raised to full
maturity so that they can lay more eggs.
Harvesting the cocoons after they are spun.
Reeling the filaments to form silk strands and twisting the strands into yarn.
From 1 ounce of eggs, which yields over 36,000 silkworms, 145 pounds of cocoons are acquired. Only 1 pound of raw silk is obtained from the cocoons. It takes over a ton of mulberry
leaves to produce this much silk.
Because sericulture is very labor intensive and mulberry trees only grow in certain climates,
silk production is limited to countries like Japan and China where the weather is warm and the
labor is cheap. Korea and India also produce silk, but the highest quality comes from Japan
and China.
UDT/FY 10
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NOTE: Because India silk is raised mostly by the Hindus who do not believe in killing any
animal, they wait until the moth eats its way out of the cocoon before harvesting the cocoon.
(Others drop the cocoons into hot water to unwind the single strand of silk and thus kill the
worm in the process). The silk that comes from the broken cocoons is used as staple silk and
is spun into silk yarns, many of which are used in the heavier silk upholstery fabric.
FIBER COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
Because silk has never been a living substance, it does not have a complex internal structure.
Bave is the name given to the two strands of raw silk which is held together by the sericin
gum. Its cross section is elliptical. The outer looks rough and cracked under a microscope;
this, however, is only the sericin coating. Once the sericin is removed, the individual filaments, which have a rounded triangular cross section, are separated. The individual silk
filament has a very smooth outer layer.
Cultivated silks, because of the special diet of mulberry leaves that the silkworms eat, are
very fine, white strands with regular cross sections. Wild silks are darker in color (anywhere
from beige to brown) with a less regular cross section. They are also not as smooth as the
cultivated silks. Wild silks cannot be bleached white.
The surface of the silk which is smooth and translucent gives the fabric a nice luster. It is the
triangular cross section of the fiber that gives it the "sparkle".
Because of the smooth surface, the fineness of the fiber, and its ability to absorb moisture, silk
is considered to be the most pleasant feeling of all fibers.
Silk is easily maintained, if done carefully. Because of the smooth surface of the fibers, soil
and dirt will not readily attach to the fibers. Since silk is a protein fiber it can easily be destroyed by strong acids and alkalies. Weak alkalies can also destroy the fiber if they come in
contact with it for a long period of time. In other words, silk can be cleaned with detergents
containing peroxide or perborate bleaches, but avoid using chlorine bleaches. Silks can also
be dry cleaned very effectively.
Silk fabric will not shrink or stretch when laundered or dry cleaned. The silk fiber is resilient
and does not wrinkle easily. Silk is damaged by high temperatures and may be distorted if
pressed too hard or if steam is used.
Silk is a strong fiber, and once again because of its smooth surface, it has a fairly good
resistance to abrasion. It is also resistant to molds, fungi, and insects. It will, however,
decompose in strong sunlight and can be adversely affected by the acids, alkalies, and salt in
human perspiration, if they are allowed to remain in the fabric for a long period of time. What
would you advise a customer to do if she had a silk upholstered chair sitting in direct sunlight?
How about suggesting a regular maintenance program with special attention given to the
places where body oil and perspiration are most likely to gather, such as the armrests and
head rests.
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UDT/FY 11
Because of the way silk feels and all its other qualities, it is used in home furnishings. However, since the fabrics for this use are usually heavy and because silk is expensive, it is not as
popular as other fibers.
To make silk heavier, it can be weighted with tin salts of no more than 15% of the weight of the
fabric. The Federal Trade Commission ruled in 1923, that silk with more than 10% weighting
(black dyed silk may have as much as 15%) must be labeled as "weighted silk" and "pure dye
silk", if the weighting is less than 10%. Silk has hardly been weighted since 1930.
Here is a list of several silk terms that you should become familiar with when dealing with
customers who have silk fabrics.
DEGUMMING - the process of removing the sericin gum from the silk. It is done by
washing the silk in hot, soapy water.
DUPPION - silk made from two silkworms who spin their cocoons together. The yarn
is irregular and is used in linen-like fabrics such as shantung.
FIBROIN - the protein that makes up the silk fiber.
PURE DYE SILK - silk that has less than 10% by weight of weighting, sizing, finishing,
etc.
RAW SILK - silk that has not been processed. In other words, the sericin is still on it,
which makes it less lustrous and very rough.
SCROOP - the sound silk makes when rubbed or crushed. It is achieved by treating
the silk with dilute organic acids. Although this sound is considered one of the characteristics it does not mean that silk that "scroops", is any better than silk that does not.
SERICIN - the protein that bonds the two silk filaments together and acts as sizing
during weaving.
SERICULTURE - the name given to the process of raising and cultivating silk from the
time the moth lays the eggs until the filament is unwound from the cocoon.
SPUN SILK - silk yarn made from staple fibers which come from broken cocoons, etc.,
instead of the continuous filament silk.
TUSSAH SILK - silk made from a silk worm (Antherea mylitta or Antherea pernyi)
which spins a cocoon with an opening for it to escape, so the silk is still one, continuous filament. The silkworm, however, feeds on wild oak leaves so the silk is a light
brown color that cannot be bleached white.
WILD SILK - silk that is not cultivated. It is dark in color because the larvae feed on oak
leaves, and it too, cannot be bleached white. The cocoons are gathered after the
moth has escaped. Instead of one continuous filament, it is used as staple in spun silk.
UDT/FY 12
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WOOL
Wool fibers are obtained from the fleece of the sheep or lamb, or from the hair of the Angora
rabbit or Cashmere goat, the camel, vicuna, alpaca or llama. Silky Angora hair is called
"mohair".
"Wool", "new wool", or "virgin wool", is made of fibers that have never been used or reclaimed.
It is usually stronger and more resilient. "Reprocessed wool" fibers have been reclaimed from
unused wool products (mill end pieces, for example). "Reused wool" fibers have been reclaimed from used textile products.
"Woolen" fabrics are made from wool yarns containing both long an short fibers. Woolen
fabrics are soft, resist wrinkling, but do not hold a sharp crease. "Worsted" yarns have been
carded and combed to create longer fibers which are firm and smooth. Worsted fabrics are
more durable. They tailor well, take a sharp crease but may become shiny with use. Wool is
expensive, but is used in face fiber of upholstery, usually in blends.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: absorbency; colorfastness; dyeability; pressed-in crease retention (worsted); resiliency; shape retention; sunlight resistance; warmth; wrinkle recovery and wrinkle
resistance.
Fair to Poor: pilling; wash-and-wear qualities; water repellency and resistance to: bleaches,
friction, moths, perspiration and strong alkaline agents; absorbs staining material easily.
Wool, in some constructions, is not readily ignited and is self-extinguishing. Effect of heat:
damaged at 212°F., scorches at 400°F., and chars at about 572°F. Wool may be allergenic.
CARE
Wool can be: dry cleaned; pressed with a cool iron and steam; laundered, but only with
extreme care using cool water and mild detergent. Wool producers and industry experts
recommend cleaning solutions with a pH range from 4.5 to 8.5 pH. and
gentle action. Never rub. Felting occurs when wool is subjected to heat,
moisture and mechanical action. Strong alkaline solutions can damage
the outer surface of the fiber, known as the epidermis or cuticle.
The cuticle surrounds an inner structure called the cortex, which is made
up of millions of small spindles called cortical cells. The inner core which
holds moisture is called the medulla.
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UDT/FY 13
UDT/FY 14
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3. Carding
The clean wool is
untangled by a
machine. This is
called carding. The wool
comes out in long strands
called slivers.
2. Cleaning the wool
All sheep's wool is
dirty. It has to be
washed in the factory.
Dye pan
5. Dyeing
The bobbins are put into
dye to change the color
of the yarn. When it is dry,
the yarn can be made
into a sweater.
Slivers
4. Spinning
The spinning machine
stretches the wool and
twists the pieces together.
This makes thread (yarn),
which is wound on to
bobbins.
1. Shearing
The shearer cuts off the
sheep's woolen coat with
shears. He does this every
year. It doesn't hurt the
sheep.
WOOL PROCESSING
Dyed yarn
Dye
Bobbin
of yarn
RAYON
Rayon was the first of the man-made fibers. Although made from cellulose, the raw materials
are converted chemically with an alkali, and then regenerated into cellulose fibers. Rayon is
one of the least expensive man-made fibers, and since it combines well with practically all
other fibers, it is used extensively in blends. It has advantages of comfort, efficiency, and
luster. It has the disadvantage of being the weakest type of fiber, especially when wet.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: absorbency; colorfastness to: dry cleaning, perspiration, sunlight and
washing; drapability; dyeability; hand and appearance. Rayon is similar to cotton in absorbency.
Fair to Poor: dimensional stability; resiliency; wash-and-wear qualities; wet strength and
resistance to: abrasion, mildew and wrinkling.
Rayon ignites readily and is not self-extinguishing, but it can be made flame resistant. Effect
of heat: decomposes after prolonged exposure at 300-400°F., depending on fiber type.
CARE
Rayon can be: wet cleaned, do not wring or twist; bleached with chlorine bleach, unless resin
finished - some resin finishes used on rayon discolor in the presence of chlorine bleach; dry
cleaned. Although man-made, it is still made from cellulosic material. Therefore, always
clean like any other natural cellulosic fiber, or you may find yourself in trouble.
TRADEMARKS
Viscose and cuprammonium rayons: "Avisco", "Cupioni", "Bemberg", "Fibro", "Celanese",
"Jetspun", "Coloray", and "Strawn".
Newer rayons: "Avril", "Rayflex", "Avron", "Suprenka", "Fortison", "Vincel 64", "Nupron" and
"Zantrel".
CLASSIFICATIONS
Rayon is classified as a man-made cellulosic fiber The definition of rayon, which comes from
the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act, is as follows:
A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, as well as manufactured
fibers composed of regenerated cellulose in which substituents have replaced not more
than fifteen percent of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups.
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UDT/FY 15
HISTORY
The various processes for regenerating cellulose were developed in the late 1800's. Commercial production of viscose rayon started in the United States in 1910. Until 1924 the fiber
was called "artificial silk". The National Retail Dry Goods Association recommended that it be
renamed "rayon" because the public felt that anything labeled "artificial" was not good. The
term "rayon" was adopted in 1937 by the Federal Trade Commission, and in 1952 the above
definition became law.
Rayon is a popular fiber because it is inexpensive to manufacture and therefore, people at all
economic levels can afford fabrics that have the feel, color, and beauty of silk, wool, and linen.
It also combines well with most other fibers and therefore, is used extensively in blends.
Since cotton and rayon are both cellulosic fibers with approximately the same end uses, they
are often compared to each other. Although cotton is much more durable, rayon is more
versatile because it can be made into filament or staple. It also has the advantage of controlled manufacturing, so it is more uniform. Cotton fibers are not uniform and are dependent
on climatic conditions.
When rayon was first commercially produced, it wrinkled easily and lacked durability. In the
late 40's and 50's, the Japanese invented a manufacturing process for rayon that reduced its
bad qualities and made it more comparable to cotton. This rayon is known as polynosic, High
Performance (HP), or High Wet Modulus (HWM) rayon. Since the cost of producing the
better rayon has dropped significantly, it has replaced regular rayon in most end uses.
PRODUCTION
The major source of the cellulose used in rayon is wood pulp. The wood pulp is treated with
caustic soda (a strong alkali) causing the pulp fibers to swell, forming a substance called
alkali cellulose. After further treatment this substance becomes a thick, liquid, spinning solution. This is a physical change rather than a chemical one. The change is primarily shortening the molecular chain and increasing the amorphous regions. Dye sites are located in the
amorphous regions and therefore, rayon accepts dye readily. However, an increase in amorphous areas means a decrease in crystalline areas which gives rayon reduced strength and
lower abrasion resistance. Cotton, on the other hand, is very crystalline and is stronger.
Usually, rayon is produced by one of two ways, viscose or cuprammonium process, with the
viscose being the most popular.
Viscose rayon has a very irregular cross section, and the individual fibers are not as fine as
cuprammonium rayon. It is more durable, though. When rayon was first commercially produced, viscose rayon was used as filling yarn and a stronger fiber was used in the warp yarns
because even viscose rayon could not withstand the tension of the loom.
Cuprammonium rayon is made by dissolving the cellulose in copper sulfate and aqueous
ammonium hydroxide. The resulting rayon has an almost round cross section. The cuprammonium rayon is much finer than viscose rayon, and is used mainly in very soft, sheer fabric.
Almost all cuprammonium rayon is made by the J. P. Bemberg Company and is sometimes
referred to as Bemberg rayon.
UDT/FY 16
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FIBER PROPERTIES
Rayon is a bright fiber compared to other cellulosic fibers, but it is not as bright as other manmade fibers. This is because rayon's surface is smooth and reflects the light, but the irregular
cross section scatters the reflected light. Delustrants may be added to rayon, if brightness is
not desired.
Also because of the smooth fiber surface, rayon fabrics have a smooth feel. Since it is a
cellulosic fiber, rayon fabrics have good moisture absorption and wicking qualities. This adds
to the pleasing hand of rayon fabrics.
Because it is a cellulosic fiber, like cotton, it absorbs water-borne stains and will wrinkle.
(Wrinkle resistant finishes may be applied to rayon fabric in the manufacturing process.)
The drop in the cost of production for HP and HWM rayon makes them the most popular type
of rayon for use in home furnishings. Rayon combines luster, color, and feel with satisfactory
durability in drapery and upholstery fabric. (NOTE: Because of its relatively low abrasion
resistance, upholstery fabric should be a heavyweight, tightly constructed cloth).
When it comes to cleaning, treat rayon as a cellulosic fiber. Rayon can withstand oxidizing
and reducing bleaches, but it can be damaged by strong oxidizing bleaches. Rayon is also
easily damaged by strong acids; it can disintegrate in hot, dilute mineral acids. Concentrated
alkalies will cause the fibers to swell and lose strength. Rayon does have a good resistance
to organic solvents.
Sunlight will not affect rayon, if the fabric is not exposed to strong sunlight for a long period of
time. It should be kept clean and dry to avoid mildew. Insects do not usually attack rayon;
however, they may attack the stains in or on the fabric.
FABRIC IDENTIFICATION
When identifying rayon fiber with the flammability test, rayon will scorch and ignite easily
when approaching the flame. It will burn rapidly with a blue flame and give off an odor of
burning paper. It will still burn when the flame is removed, and a red afterglow will appear
once it is extinguished. The ash is light and feathery with a gray to charcoal color.
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UDT/FY 17
ACETATE
Although acetate is made from cellulose, it is considered a man-made fiber, because during
production the cellulose is esterified by treating with glacial acetic, acetone and acetic anhydride. It is closely related to rayon, in fact, it was called acetate-rayon until a 1952 Federal
Trade Commission ruling separated the two fiber groups into "acetate" and "rayon".
Acetate is produced in both filament and spun yarns and combines well with a large number
of other fibers. Its luster, silkiness, body, good draping qualities and crisp "hand" have made
fashion fabrics such as bengaline, taffeta, satin, faille, crepe, brocade, double knit and tricot,
the major uses of acetate.
Solution dyed or spun dyed acetate has excellent colorfastness to light, perspiration, atmospheric contaminants and washing.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: appearance (silk like); dimensional stability (if dry cleaned); drapability;
hand (crisp or soft); and resistance to mildew and moths.
Fair to Poor: absorbency; colorfastness; pressed-in crease retention; strength, dry and wet;
washability; wash-and-wear qualities; and resistance to abrasion and wrinkling.
Acetate ignites readily and is not self-extinguishing, but it can be made flame resistant with
some loss of other properties. Effect of heat: sticks at 357-400°F., softens at 460-490°F., and
melts at 500°F.
CARE
Acetate can be: wet cleaned in some constructions, using warm water and gentle agitation;
dry cleaned; fibers melt at high temperatures.
Fabric made of acetate should be protected from nail polish and nail polish remover, paint
remover and some perfumes since these substances dissolve the fibers.
TRADEMARKS
"Acele", "Avisco", "Chromspun", "Celanese", "Celaperm", "Celara" and "Estron".
UDT/FY 18
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TRIACETATE
Chemically, triacetate is quite similar to, and has many properties in common with acetate:
lower strength when wet and low resistance to abrasion, but excellent appearance, drapability and resistance to moths and mildew.
Triacetate's chief difference and most valuable characteristic is its resistance to damage by
heat. This property permits the heatsetting treatments which are responsible for triacetate
fabrics' outstanding features of durable crease and pleat retention, dimensional stability and
resistance to glazing during ironing.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: appearance, dimensional stability, drapability; hand; wash-and-wear qualities; and resistance to heat and wrinkling.
Fair to Poor: absorbency; resistance to abrasion; and strength.
Triacetate ignites readily and is not self-extinguishing but can be made flame resistant with
some loss of other properties. Effect of heat: melts at 572°F., but will not stick at 560°F.
CARE
Triacetate can be wet cleaned or dry cleaned.
TRADEMARK
"Arnel"
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UDT/FY 19
ACRYLIC
Wool-like qualities and easy care are acrylic's major contributions to textiles. Although acrylic
fibers can be made into crisp fabrics, they are associated mainly with the soft, high bulk,
textured yarns used in sweaters and fur-like fabrics.
In comparison to wool, acrylic fabrics are stronger, easier to care for, softer, do not felt and
provide more warmth for less weight. The versatility of the fiber is illustrated by the fact that
while it is more durable than rayon or acetate, it can be made to perform more like wool than
nylon or polyester.
Acrylic is not harmed by the common solvents and is resistant to weathering, bleaches and
dilute acids and alkalies. Because of these qualities, its use, alone or in blends, ranges from
fine fabrics to work clothing and chemical-resistant fabrics.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: colorfastness; dimensional stability; hand (like wool); moth and mildew
resistance; pressed-in crease retention; resiliency; sunlight resistance; warmth; wash-andwear qualities; and wrinkle resistance.
Fair to Poor: abrasion resistance; pilling resistance; and strength.
CARE
Acrylics can be: wet cleaned; dry cleaned; and bleached with either chlorine or peroxide
bleaches.
TRADEMARKS
"Acrilan", "Creslan", "Orlon", and "Zefran".
UDT/FY 20
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MODACRYLIC
Modacrylic, as its name indicates, is modified acrylic fiber. It possesses many properties in
common with acrylic. The heat sensitivity of modacrylic fibers permits them to be stretched,
embossed and molded into special shapes and to be used in fabrics or fabric blends which
require no ironing.
Dense, fur-like fabrics are also possible because of its heat-sensitivity. The fibers may be
produced with different heat shrinkage capacities. When such fibers are combined in the
surface of a pile fabric and heat is applied, the fibers shrink to different lengths forming a
surface pile which resembles the hair and undercoat fibers of natural fur.
Since modacrylic fibers are self-extinguishing, they are often blended with carpet fibers and in
other textile items to reduce flammability.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: colorfastness; resiliency; softness; warmth; wash-and-wear qualities; and
resistance to chemicals, moths and mildew, sunlight and wrinkling.
Fair to Poor: dimensional stability; strength; and resistance to abrasion and pilling.
Modacrylics are flame resistant and generally self-extinguishing. Effect of heat: softens at
comparatively low temperatures, shrinks at 260°F., stiffens and discolors when exposed to
pressure and temperatures above 300°F.
CARE
Modacrylics can be: wet cleaned and dry cleaned. The fur cleaning process is recommended
for deep file fabrics.
TRADEMARKS
"Dynel" and "Verel"
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UDT/FY 21
OLEFIN
The olefin fibers, polyethylene and polypropylene, are petroleum products which are derived
from ethylene and propylene gases. They have the lightest weight of all fibers, are nonabsorbent and difficult to dye.
These fibers, are sensitive to light and heat and are difficult to dye.
In general, the properties of polyethylene (first of the olefins) and polypropylene are similar. It
is doubtful that you will find polyethylene in apparel fabrics. Polypropylene, however, is used
in a variety of textile products, including apparel.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: resistant to abrasion, aging, chemicals, mildew, perspiration, pilling,
weather, and wrinkling. Being non-absorbent (hydrophobic), it is practically stain proof to
water based materials.
Fair to Poor: heat resistance, absorbency and dyeing. Direct sunlight exposure can cause
brittleness and subsequent damage, It is also oleophilic, and therefore will stain and/or yellow with time.
Olefin is very light and provides better thermal insulation than wool. Olefins which have been
given a wash-resistant, anti-oxidant treatment do not ignite readily, but once ignited, they
burn, melt and drip. Effect of heat: polypropylene softens at 285-300°F., melts at 320-350°F.,
and shrinks at temperatures above 212°F.; polyethylene is more heat sensitive. It shrinks at
temperatures above 225°F., and melts at 230-250°F., depending upon fiber type Upholstery
fabric normally has a latex backing which is easily dissolved in solvent.
CARE
Olefins can be wet cleaned, bleached at low water temperatures (below 150°F.),using a .5%
to 1% solution of sodium hypochlorite, and dry cleaned.
TRADEMARKS
"DLP", "Herculon", and "Vectra". Olefin is often referred to as Herculon in upholstery fabric
instead of its generic name.
UDT/FY 22
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POLYESTER
With the advent of the polyester fiber, the centuries old dream of "wash-and-wear" ("easy
care") clothing became a reality. Polyester does not shrink or stretch appreciably during
normal use. Heat-set pleats and creases stand up extremely well under everyday wear, even
when the wearer is very young and very active. Water-borne stains may be quickly and
simply removed. Cleaning is easy and drying is quick as very little moisture is absorbed by
polyester.
Because of polyester's outstanding wrinkle resistance and dimensional stability, it is used
extensively in blends with other fabrics, notably with cotton, rayon, and wool. The combination produces a fabric which retains the major characteristics of the base fiber, with the added
benefits of increased strength and improved crease retention. Currently, a major use of polyester is in cotton blends used in durable-press textiles.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: colorfastness; dimensional stability; pressed-in crease retention; resiliency; strength; wash-and-wear qualities; and resistance to abrasion, mildew, moths, perspiration, sunlight, and wrinkling.
Fair to Poor: absorbency and resistance to oily stains and pilling (spun yarns). It is also
oleophilic and may stain or yellow with usage.
Polyester can be heat set (pleats and creases). It does not ignite readily, but when ignited, it
burns, melts, and drips. In blends, particularly with cellulosic fibers, it burns readily. Effect of
heat: sticks at temperatures above 445°F., and melts above 480°F., the exact temperature
depending on the type of polyester.
CARE
Polyester can be wet cleaned. Articles containing fiberfill may also be washed and dried,
depending of the cover fabric; bleached with chlorine bleaches; and dry cleaned.
TRADEMARKS
"Avlin", "Kodel", "Dacron", "Trevira", "Fortrel", and "Vycron".
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UDT/FY 23
NYLON
Nylon, the strongest of all man-made fibers in common use, was the first truly synthetic fiber
to be developed. Since 1939, when nylon was first introduced in women's hosiery, many
different forms have come on the market.
Nylon's outstanding characteristic is its versatility. It can be made strong enough to stand up
under the punishment tire cords must endure, fine enough for sheer, high fashion hosiery, and
light enough for parachute cloth and backpacker's tents. Nylon is used alone and in blends
with other fibers where its chief contributions are strength and abrasion resistance.
Nylon washes easily, dries quickly, needs little pressing and holds it shape well since it neither
shrinks nor stretches.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: colorfastness; dimensional stability; elasticity; resiliency; strength; and
resistance to abrasion, mildew, moths and perspiration.
Fair to Poor: Resistance to pilling, sunlight and wrinkling.
Nylon can be heat set (pleats and creases). It is not readily ignited but when ignited, particularly in combination with other fibers, it burns and drips. Effect of heat: yellows and creases
slightly at 300°F. after five hours exposure, and melts or sticks at 420-500°F. depending on
the type of nylon.
CARE
Nylon can be: wet cleaned easily because of low soil absorbency, bleached with chlorine
bleach and dry cleaned.
TRADEMARKS
"Antron", "Endalon", "Cantrece", "Nyloft", "Caprolan", "Quiana", and "Cumuloft".
UDT/FY 24
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GLASS
Glass fibers have many properties which make them particularly suitable for industrial and
home furnishing products; however, because of their heavy weight, low abrasion resistance
and poor bending strength, they are not suitable for apparel textiles.
In batting form, glass fibers provide excellent insulation. Fabrics made from glass fibers are
used as reinforcement for molded plastics in boats and planes and for curtains and draperies
where fire resistance and easy care are important.
The most important recent advance in the glass fiber industry has been the development of
ultra-fine continuous filament "beta" yarns. These yarns are stronger than regular glass yarns
and can be bent in a sharper angle without breaking. They are soft and pleasant to the touch,
yet durable. They are used for curtains and drapery.
PROPERTIES
Good to Excellent: colorfastness; dimensional stability; strength; and resistance to chemicals, heat, mildew, moths, sunlight, weather, and wrinkling.
Fair to Poor: resistance to abrasion (except for the new continuous filament yarns).
CARE
Glass fiber cloth can be: wet cleaned if agitated gently, but hand washing is safer. It should
not be spin dried, twisted or wrung out. No ironing is necessary. If machine washed, rinse out
the washer thoroughly before loading with apparel; drip dry until most of the moisture is removed then hang on rods to complete drying. Dry cleaning is not recommended. Draperies
should be hung so that they do not touch the floor or window sill. Wiping with a damp cloth
may be all that is needed to keep the fresh.
TRADEMARKS
"Beta Glass", "Fiberglas", "PPG", and "Vitron".
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UDT/FY 25
METALLIC
Metallic, as defined by the Federal Trade Commission, is any manufactured fiber composed
of metal, plastic-coated metal, metal-coated plastic or a core completely covered by metal.
The history of pure metal yarns goes back for thousands of years, but their uses were restricted because they were heavy, brittle, expensive and easily tarnished. New processes,
developed to overcome these characteristics, generally consist of covering metallic threads
with plastic or the use of heat or adhesives to bond thin layers of metal foil between two
sheets of plastic film.
These lustrous yarns are finding increasing uses in many types of apparel and household
furnishings and in some industrial fabrics.
PROPERTIES
Excellent (varies somewhat with films and adhesives used): appearance and feel of metal,
and resistance to chlorine, salt water and weathering.
Metallic yarns and fabrics are non-absorbent and non-tarnishing. They are extremely sensitive to heat because their plastic components cause them to soften and shrink.
CARE
Metallic fabrics can be: washed, when the amount of metallic yarns is small, and when the
other fibers present in the fabric and the construction of the garment permit; cleaned, generally when used as a decoration for another material, by the same methods used for the base
material; and ironed at a temperature low enough to keep the plastic coating from melting (a
"cool" iron unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer).
Read hang tags and labels for specific care instructions.
USES
Apparel; braid; decorations; home furnishings and hosiery.
TRADEMARKS
"Chromeflex", "Durastran", "Lame", and "Nylmet".
UDT/FY 26
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FIBER BLENDS AND COMBINATIONS
Since no single type of fiber is likely to meet all of your needs, textile technology, by blending
or combining two or more fibers, has been able to produce new fabrics which maximize the
best features of the combined fibers and minimize less desirable ones. Thus upholstery
fabrics are often blends.
Although the terms "blends" or "combinations" are often used interchangeably, there is a
difference between the fabrics to which they apply. In a blended fabric, two or more fibers are
blended before spinning them into yarns. In a combination (or union) fabric, individual yarns
composed of one fiber are combined during weaving with yarns composed entirely of another
fiber; for example, a fabric composed of rayon warp and cotton filling yarns. Most upholstery
fabrics are blends.
The choice of fibers with their end-use in mind, although essential in the production of all
textile products, is of particular importance in the production of blends. Here, the objective is
a product with more desirable characteristics than could be achieved by the use of any single
type fiber.
Cotton and rayon, for example, are combined with other fibers to increase absorbency and
comfort, decrease static build-up, improve dyeability and reduce production costs. Acrylics
improve softness and warmth without adding weight. Nylon adds strength. Polyester contributes several properties to blends, including wash-and-wear qualities of abrasion resistance,
wrinkle resistance and dimensional stability. Acetate improves drapablity and texture.
The proportions of fibers in a blend vary with fiber properties and the intended end use of the
fabric. A general rule is that for satisfactory performance a fabric should contain at least 50%
of that fiber having the major characteristic desired.
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule. Only 15% of nylon improves the utility of
wool fabrics; small quantities (10% or less) of elastic fibers such as rubber or spandex give
stretch properties to apparel products; and the addition of 30% of modacrylic fibers reduces
the flammability of acrylic carpets.
The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act of 1960 requires that the content of each fiber in
a textile product, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of all fibers present, be clearly
listed on the label or hang tag.
Such labeling information is without meaning, however, unless you know something of the
properties of the individual fibers present, what they contribute to the product and the suitability of the product to your particular needs.
Care of fabric blends and combinations can be a problem. No hard and fast general rules are
possible because of the wide variety of types and amounts of fibers used. Save hang tags
and labels which provide care instructions and follow the instructions conscientiously. If care
instructions are not given, handle the product according to the care procedures recommended
for the most sensitive fiber in the mixture or blend.
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UDT/FY 27