INCIDENT - HISTORY - EXEMPLUM
- NOVELLA: THE TRANSFORMATION
OF HISTORY IN CHAUCER'S
PHYSICIAN'S TALE
J oerg
o.
Fichte
Fragment VI or group C of the Canterbury Tales, the so-called floating
fragment, begins without head link or introduction with an immediate reference to the source of the Physician's Tale:
Ab Urhe Condita.
Livy's monumental compilation,
The famous Verginia episode to be treated once again by
Chaucer, material which had already inspired such authors as Jean de Meung,
Boccaccio, and GoWer, is found in early form in the third book of Livy's
Roman history:
Its mediaeval analogues, as well as Livy's original treatment
and Bersuire's French translation of it, were at least partially reproduced
in Bryan and Dempster's Sources and Analogues of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales,
providing the textual basis for the study of this relatively neglected tale
from the mid-sixties on.
In order to account for Chaucer's differently
accentuated presentation of the historical episode, scholarship has tried to
identify and analyse deviations from and alterations to his probable sources,
l
The function of
Livy's history and Jean de Meung's Romance of the Rose.
Chaucer's additions to the inherited story has been investigated,2 the
differing characterization of the main participants,3 the narrative develop4
ment of the plot, and the relationship between the narrator (that is, the
Physician) and his story.5
Also, a number of interpretative readings of
the tale have been proposed with some of the varying interpretations finding encouragement in the gap that exists between the meaning suggested in
the moralisatio appended to this tale by its teller and that seen in the
moralisatio put forth by Harry Baily, the host and leader of the literary
189
190
pilgrimage to Canterbury.6
Moreover, both moralisations seem to fall short
of plumbing the full depth of the story -- a fact recognized by recent
7
scholarship.
In principle, there are, of course, no objections to such approaches
to the Physician's Tale, provided that the critic proceeds within the
framework of clearly established criteria according to which the conception
and execution of the Verginia story is to be investigated.
methodology to be used has to be determined first.
In short, the
And one aspect of such
methodological consideration must be T.he generic identification of the
various versions of the Verginia story.
However, IOOdern critics of the
Physician's Tale, with the exception of Beryl Rowland and Anne Middleton,
have paid little attention to this question.
Beryl Rowland, who is aware of
the problem, allots only one sentence to its theoretical discussion before
launching into a description of the rhetorical strategies employed in the
Physician's l'ale: "Historia, in the n<lrrow sense, is narratio rei gestae.
8
The Physician turns the account of Appius and Virginia into fabula ...
And
Anne Middleton, who recognizes clearly that in the Physician's Tale the
"literary limits of the exemplum are themselves held up for inspection by the
reader,,,9 finds it SUfficient in the final analysis to stress the "fundamental
literary problems of exemplary narration"IO which Chaucer found himself
facing not only here but also in the lEgend of GOod Women.
Here my intention
is not to suggest a new reading of the Physician's Tale; rather, this
investigation will concentrate solely on the analysis of the conditions
making possible varying treatments of a popular story.
Such a procedure, of course, necessitates the establishment and
definition of literary genres; that is, it entails a determination of how
one is to arrive at a corpus of texts to be analysed . II
two different approaches.
There are basically
One can proceed inductively, even though the
huge nUllber of texts will never permit us to devise a narrative model by a
process of absolute induction.
One can also proceed deductively; that is,
a hypothetical narrative model will have to be devised, the validity of which
will, of course, also defy absolute proof.
No matter which system (with
whatever modification) one finally chooses, one has to be aware of its
limitations .
Whether one abstracts constitutive generic elements from
literary works regarded as exemplary -- a procedure followed by the literary
critics of the rhetorical-poetical tradition with its prescriptive poetics
-- or whether one postulates a literary Urform produced by a certain innate
191
capacity of the human mind, as Jolles does,12 in both cases one leaves
oneself open to criticism.
Yet, an outright rejection of all literary
genres, as seen in Benedetto Croce's works on literary theory,13 does not
help us in our attempt to group together and consolidate literary texts.
In
order to do precisely this, I shall adopt the following hermeneutic procedure for the constitution of literary genres: after a survey of the mass
of single works, I will set up classes characterized by a certain group of
invariant elements and I will then trace the historical development of the
resulting ' text corpora.
In this way, the conditions will be met which are
necessary for the analysis of the single works in their relationship to
~he
total corpus, as well as for the control of the transformational ability of
the genre in regard to the specific forms of the single works.
Such a
dialectical procedure will facilitate modifications of the previously
established model.
Beyond this, authorial intention (if stated explicitly),
and the conditions of reception (if ascertainable) , will also have to be
taken into consideration, since a text may either be assigned to a certain
genre by its author or be understood as such by its audience.
When I refer
to literary genres, therefore, in reference to the various treatments of the
Verginia story, the methods by which I have constituted these genres should
be clear.
Let us first discuss the incident on which the Verginia story is based.
It may seem strange, but the incident never took place in the form of a
historically verifiable event.
We only know that in the middle of the fifth
century B.C. the Romans undertook a codification of the existing law.
Supposedly, this task was to be accomplished by decemvirs, a political body
of aristocrats elected and endowed with special rights.
These men were later
forced out of office, presumably because they abused the power vested in
them.
In subsequent Roman historiography a story was invented to illustrate
this political event.
We know neither the inventor of the story nor if the
first annalist reporting the legend believed it to be a historical fact.
In
any case, the story is believed to have appeared for the first time about the
14
middle of the third century B.C. in Quintus Fabius Pictor.
Appius Clodius,
one of the ten law-givers, fell in love with a girl of noble origin whom
he tried to seduce by means of money.
Since the virgin remained steadfast,
he sent out accusers to have her wrongfully vindicated as a slave girl.
After this had been done, the decemvir proclaimed himself the judge of the
case and awarded the girl to the accusers in utter disregard of her father's
192
vociferous protests.
As the girl is about to be led away, her desperate
father snatches a cleaver from the
~ock
of a butcher's shop -- the site of
the tribl.Ulal being adjacent to the shops on the north side of the Forum
and kills his own daughter to prevent her from becoming a victim of the
decemvir.
Then he rushes out of the town, returns to the Roman troops in
the field, and reports the pervers ion of justice.
Thereupon, a spontaneous
uprising occurs which leads to the drposition and punishment of the decemvirs.
This ficti tious account couched in the form of a brief factual report
has thus become a part of Roman historiography.
.It now belongs to the res
gestae as they had been collected originally in the records of the magistrate
and recorded later in the annals.
And as res gestae, the story is passed on
from generation to generation. to be modified and interpreted by historians
to fit their personal view of history.
These historians expanded the original
report in accordance with their political. legal. and even psychological
conceptions.
To illustrate this. let us take a look at the version reflect-
ing the Sullan view of historiography.IS
The anonymous persons are not only
given names, they are also assigned to different social classes -- Appius
Claudius is a member of the aristocratic oligarchy, while verginius and his
daughter are plebeians.
of classes.
The account is dominated by the idea of the conflict
A numerically very small upper class, represented by Appius
Claudius. possesses all political power and maltreats the disenfranchised
mass of the people.
The abuse practised by Appius Claudius and his flagrant
violation of the law occasion an llpri sing by the lower class against the
tyrannical upper class.
The reasons for such an interpretation of the
Verginia story are evident: the author believed that he had discovered in it
the conflict of the same political forces shaping the destiny of his OWn
time.
Consequently. he interpreted Lhe Verginia episode as typifying this
conflict.
Let us now turn to Livy's treatment of the episode.
basic facts are not altered.
radically.
16
in which the
Still. the tenor of the story has been Changed
At first. Livy reports the general moral decline of the deeemvirs
a moral decline endange ring both the external and the internal security
of the city. since on the one hand
UIC
Roman soldiers campaigning against
the Aequi lack all motivation W1dcr the leadership of the hated decernvirs
and on the other hand the city itself is in a state of agitation and turmoil.
He then illustrates this degeneration by citing two examples: the murder of
Siccius by the henchmen of the decemvir generals committed outside Rome. and
the V e r g i n i a e p is o d e w h ic h took p l a c e w i t h i n
L iv y
lin k s
t h is e p is o d e w it h
the L u c m t i a
th e c i t y i t s e l f .
M oreover,
i n c i d e n t i n o r d e r to l o c a l i z e
s p e c t a c u l a r e v e n ts w i t h i n the l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f the Roman h i s t o r y .
is
a model o f c h a s t i t y ,
groom I c i l i u s .
lo v e d and esteem ed by h e r b r i d e ­
An i n c a r n a t io n o f p udor a nd p u d i c i t i a ,
le c h e r o u s A p p iu s .
d u r in g the
fo r w h ic h she i s
T h e r e f o r e , when I c i l i u s
f i r s t c o u r t s c e n e , he does so s o l e l y as a d e f e n d e r o f m o r a l it y and
saltern in
A nd th en he c a l l s
t u ta s i t
sources.
H ere,
abo ut to le a d the g i r l
—
lea st
He adm o n ish ed A p p i u s :
le t our c h a st it y be s a f e . " ^
The seco nd c o u r t s c e n e is
th e t r u t h f u l n e s s
V e r g i n i a i s a w ard ed to th e c l a i m a n t , who is
away when V e r g i n i u s
a r a ise d
fist:
ru sh e s in from the b a t t l e f i e l d
"I
ha ve b e t r o t h e d my d a u g h t e r to
and n o t t o y o u ;' I have r e a r e d h e r f o r m a r r ia g e , n o t f o r h a r l o t r y "
w h ic h I
follow s i s ,
in t h is
context.
as was I c i l i u s '
does n o t want h i s
V e r g in iu s '
d eed o f d e s p e r a t io n w h ic h now
a p p e a l , m o tiv a te d b y h i s s e n s e o f e t h i c s :
d a u g h t e r t o become A p p i u s '
f i n a l l y made h i s way b ac k to h i s
m istress.
a g a i n s t the r u l i n g
tyrants;
company, he does n o t i n c i t e h i s
r a t h e r , he adm onishes h i s
p r o t e c t t h e i r w iv e s and d a u g h t e r s
lo ng a dd ress c o uc hed i n
from A p p i u s '
a g a in s t
T h is
and thus p r e s e r v i n g the e t h i c a l
Roman s t a t e .
t y p i c a l o f L i v y 's
He reg ard s h im s e l f as a c h r o n i c l e r o f Rom e's
c o n c e n t r a t in g h is
part,
u n b rid le d le c h e ry .
I n t h i s way the r e b e l l i o n becomes
The a c c e n t u a t io n o f m oral v a lu e s h ere i s
h is t o r y .
to r i s e
arms to
a way o f s e c u r i n g the moral v a lu e s o f t h e Roman
the im m o ra lity o f the r u l e r s
fo u n d a t io n o f the
com rades i n
so ldiers
i n d i r e c t s p eec h co ncern s i t s e l f o n ly w i t h e t h i c a l
p r i n c i p l e s now a b u s ed by the d e c e m v ir s .
an a c t o f s e l f - d e f e n s e ,
a t t e n t io n on v i t a ,
and on d i s c i p l i n a
m o re s,
v iri,
sense o f
r is e and f a l l ,
a nd a r t e s i n th e
first
a nd n o r e s in p a r t i c u l a r in the s e c o n d p a r t .
19
tribu te
to h is p r e d e c e s s o r s
a nd h i s
aw areness o f S a l l u s t ’ s c o n c ep t o f h i s t o r y dem o nstrate t h a t he
abo ut the
L i v y 's
in the in t r o d u c t io n to h is Ab Vrbe Condi ta
th ou gh t o f h i m s e l f as the l a s t l i n k
the same id e a s
he
And when V e r g i n i u s
t o an u p r i s i n g o f t h e i r c l a s s , he does n ot a s k the s u p p r e s s e d p l e b s
fa m ily
18
t h in k w o u ld b e the p r o p e r t r a n s l a t i o n o f s tu p r u m , a c t u a l l y
" d i s h o n o u r ,"
has
"a t
e n t i r e t y b e c a u s e L iv y q u e s t io n s
too,
and th re a t e n s A p p iu s w it h
Ic iliu s
—
upon the f i d e s o f gods a nd men.
no l o n g e r r e p o r te d in i t s
o f h is
shè i s p e r s e c u t e d b y the
sp e a k s to the a s s e m b le d crowd
n o t as an adv ocate o f the d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d p e o p l e .
p u d ic itia
the
V e r g in ia
in a lo n g l i n e
fu n c t i o n o f h i s t o r y .
a n a l y t i c a l - s c i e n t i f i c method o f a T h u c y d i d e s ,
o f h i s t o r i a n s who s h a r e d
I n s t e a d o f a d o p t in g the
they
f e l t i t w as t h e i r t a s k to
preserve
the v i r t u e s o f th e p a s t
fo r the g e n e r a t io n to come and to d e t e r
t h e i r countrym en from co m m ittin g v i c e s .
p r im a l e x h i s t o r i a e , t h a t i s ,
20
L iv y ,
too,
a c c e p t s C ic e r o s
v e r i t a s , when he d e c l a r e s
c ir c u m s t a n c e s w i l l e v e r d e f l e c t h im from the t r u t h .
t h a t no e x t e r n a l
But t h is
a s s e r t i o n does
n o t im p ly t h a t the p r im a r y d uty o f the h i s t o r i a n i s t o d is c o v e r th e e x a c t
h isto ric al
facts;
r a th er, h is
fu ln e s s o f h is t o r io g r a p h y ,
f i r s t q u e s t io n s h o u l d a lw ay s c o n c er n the use-
t o w hich t h e a n sw er can o n ly b e ,
T h e v a lu e o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y
fo r L iv y i s
its
c a p a c it y
a m oral u s e .
to p r o v id e exam p les o f
p r o p e r a nd i n p r o p e r c o n d u c t w h ic h man s h o u ld e i t h e r im i t a t e o r s h u n .
L iv y
is
fu lly
21
22
c o n sc io u s o f the n orm ative p o w er o f the p a s t , when m ores and
a r t e s h a d c o m bined to form a s y n t h e s is b etw e en the s p h er es o f m oral c o nd uc t
and p o l i t i c a l
p rin cip le s
d isc ip lin a ,
etc.
a ct iv it y .
d e m e n t ia , p ru d en tia ,
In L iv y ,
v illain s
The a r t e s , i f
o f re ligio u s, p o litic al
th ey w ere b o n a e , w o u ld com prise the
and p r i v a t e l i f e : p i e t a s ,
v irtu s, p u d ic itia ,
fid e s,
c o nco rdia,
d ig n it a s , fr u g a lita s,
the e m in en t Romans alw ays embody t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s , w h i l e the
23
The two gro u ps fu n c t i o n b o t h as in c e n t i v e
ty p ify t h e ir o p p o site s.
and d e t e r r e n t ;
M oreover,
it
that i s ,
is
h ist o ry is
c o n c e iv e d o f as an o n g o in g p r o c e s s .
n o t w o r l d h i s t o r y b u t t y p i c a l l y Roman h i s t o r y , p r o d u c e d by
th e u n iq u e Roman s p i r i t .
fa tu m o f the c i t y i s
To w hat e x t e n t t h is h i s t o r y i s a p r o d u c t o f the
24
— a t l e a s t t h i s p o w er seems to p l a y a
h a r d to say
l e s s p r o m in e n t ro le in the d e t e rm in a t io n o f Roman h i s t o r y th an i n V e r g i l 's
A e n e id .
Em bedded in t h i s c o n c e p t u a l c o n t e x t i s
a fo r e - m e n t io n e d L u c r e t i a s t o r y ,
h isto ry .
the V e r g i n i a s t o r y .
i t o c c u p ie s a s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n i n
B o th e p is o d e s b r i n g about a change in the
Tarq uinius'
lechery,
i .e .
h is
the
the Roman
form o f g overnm ent.
la c k o f p e r s o n a l v i r t u s n e c e s s a r y f o r the
e x e c u t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b l e government, c au ses
a n d A p p iu s C l a u d iu s *
L ik e
the d o w n f a l l o f Roman k i n g s h i p ,
same moral f a i l u r e o c c a s io n s the d e p o s i t i o n o f the
d ecem virs.
In
the la r g e h i s t o r i c a l
t e m p o r a r ie s
and fo r p o s t e r i t y some s c e n e s have c r u c i a l
t a p e s t r y c r e a t e d by L i v y
fo r h i s
in p o r t a n c e .
con­
They
are much more s i g n i f i c a n t th an the in t e r m in a b le w ars and the i n t e r n a l
w r a n g l i n g r e p o r t e d b y the c h r o n i c l e r .
These
fa c t s
m ent o f a c i t y s t a t e to a m ighty em p ire c o n s t i t u t e
in n e r h is t o r y
and,
th e Roman p e o p le
fin a lly ,
framework e n c l o s i n g an
r e f l e c t the d e c l i n e o f th ose nx>res w h ic h g ra c e d
as an e t h n i c e n t i t y .
th e tim e o f the e m p ir e ,
a ccom panying the d e v e l o p ­
the
For L iv y ,
coirçposing h i s h i s t o r y in
the e a r l y Roman r e p u b l i c s e r v e s
o f s o c i a l community b e c a u s e
as the i d e a l
form
in s p i t e o f the c o n s t a n t c o n f l i c t s betw een
195
consuls and tribunes and between patres and plebs, both parties were willing,
25
if need be, to uphold the ideal of res publica against that of res privata.
This closing of ranks, of course, was only possible because the ethical norms
produced by the Roman spirit as a who]e were still largely intact.
At the
decisive moment these virtues became operative, as the Verginia story
illustrates.
Here, too, patres and plebs unite in the common endeavour to
restore the traditional form of government and the laws inscribed on the
TWelve Tables.
In spite of its personal tragedy, the Verginia episode has
to be viewed positively within the total context of Livy's Roman history,
since it is a testimony to the still undiminished potency of the positive
qualities inherent in the Roman national character.
The episode, therefore,
illustrates in an exemplary fashion future possibilities generated by the
past and thus exemplifies the historiographic concept especially prevalent
during the empire: historia magistra vitae.
26
The Verginia story was meant
to serve as a model for Livy's contemporaries conscious of the meaning of
history because, like all events from the past, it still retained its
exemplary signi ficance, notwi thstanding the fact that the political potency
of such a concept of history had been lost.
Livy's history no longer pro-
vided an impetus towards the restoratjon of the ancient res publica through
civil regeneration; rather, the work had become a monument to former Roman
grandeur.
As to be expected, the Verginia story is also included in Valerius
Maximus' collection of exemplary tales, Factorum et Dictorum
After an encomiastic invocation
Hemorabi~ia.
to Chastity ending with the plea "ades
igi tur et recognosce quae fieri ipsa vol uisti" ("appear then and see what
you yourself wanted to be done") Valerius cites thirteen Roman and three
foreign examples of this virtue with the verginia story27 following the
Lucretia episode: verginius, full of aristocratic spirit, though of plebeian
origin, did not spare the child of his own blood in order to save his house
from being contaminated by dishonour.
The decemvir, Appius Claudius,
relying on his power, persecuted the virgin daughter with lecherous designs,
whereupon Verginius led her to the Forum and killed her because he preferred
being the slayer of chastity to being the father of a dishonoured daughter.
As
the employment of this and of other stories proves, Valerius uses Livy's
great history as a huge quarry from which he detaches like blocks a number
of episodes in order to illustrate certain themes.
Moreover, Valerius'
handling of the Verginia episode in the Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilia
illu strates
clea rly
the g e n e r i c d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een h i s t o r io g r a p h y
exem p lum , d i f f e r e n c e s
m e d ia e v a l
o f e s s e n t i a l in p o r t a n c e
v e r s io n s o f t h e V e r g i n i a st o r y
and
fo r the make-up o f the
late
conposed by J e a n de M eun g, B o c c a c c io ,
and G o w er.
In
t h is
occur.
causal
In
tra n sitio n
from h i s t o r y to exemplum changes in c o n t e n t a nd form
r e g a r d to c o n t e n t , we en c o u n te r the d i s s o l u t i o n o f the n e t o f
r e la tio n s h ip s .
The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y as p r o c e s s i s
a bando ned in
f a v o u r o f d i s c o n n e c t e d , s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e p is o d e s tak en at random from the
h isto ric al process.
W i t h the
asce nd an c y o f the C h r i s t i a n
these h is t o r ic a l
fragm en ts
changes.
the i n d i v i d u a l h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t iv e
c o nc ep t o f h i s t o r y ,
assume the p o s i t i o n o f f i g u r a e in a d i v i n e l y
28
d e t e rm in e d h i s t o r y o f s a l v a t i o n .
I n r e g a r d to fo rm , th er e a r e th ree m ajo r
F irst,
o f a p ersp e c tiv e s t r iv in g
i n g the s h a p e
o f h is t o r y
the
in
Thus,
Second,
the c o n c ep t o f h i s t o r y
t e x t w h ic h d e t e r m in e s the s e l e c t i o n
In s h o rt,
i n a n o n - h is t o r io g r a p h ic a l con­
o f e v e n ts t o b e i n c l u d e d .
t a k e n from h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , h o w e v e r , o c c a s io n s
ch an g es
t h e i r m e a n in g .
d iffers
essen tially
Su ch a r e s e t ­
a p urely
T h is s o r t o f i n t e r p r e t a b i l i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l e v en ts
is
in t e r p r e t e d as the c o n f l i c t o f c l a s s e s or
as a r e s t o r a t i o n o f v i o l a t e d e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s ,
a new form o f g ov ern m ent.
In
t h is
c o n flic t in g o p in io n s.
its
context i t
is
i s p a r t o f the f i g h t
from the h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n .
t ak en o u t o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y ,
context.
29
In the Romance o f the R o s e ,
Reason t r i e s
that
the d ia l o g u e
theme to w h ic h
are
H o w ev er,
as we s h a l l s e e ,
it
is
are d ete rm in e d
the now n o n - h is t o r ic a l
t a g o n ist ,
In
for
as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f
H ie c o n t e x t alo n e g e n e r a t e s an e p is o d e w h ic h
e s s e n t i a l m ea n in g s o l e l y
as so o n as the s t o r y
it
se r v e s
s u b j e c t t o a number o f v a s t l y d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h ic h
by
context
context
from w h a t we have e n c o u n t e r e d b e f o r e i n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y .
W h e t h e r the V e r g i n i a e p is o d e
d eriv e s
the
T h i r d and l a s t , we
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c a u s e ev ery d i f f e r e n t
d iffe r e n t
th e c o ncep t
fa v o u r o f the i d e a o f h i s t o r y as m icro- exenplum p r e s e n t e d
e n c o u n t e r the i n s e r t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l e v en ts
t i n g of events
fa v o u r
as macro-exemp-
form o f s t a t i c e p is o d e s w i t h u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y .
i n d i v i d u a l s t o r i e s do n o t t e a c h h i s t o r y as a p r o c e s s .
tual
g iv e n up i n
i n d i v i d u a l v ie w s d e te rm in ­
are l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d .
as m a g is t r a v i t a e , t h a t i s ,
lu m , d i s a p p e a r s
in
fo r u n iv e r s a l it y .
and form o f h i s t o r y
is
rarely
lo v e s p r i n g i n g
from c h a r i t y i s
o f the two d i s p u t a n t s ,
the
If
the p r o ­
th an j u s t i c e .
t h i s c o n t e n t io n com prises th e m ajo r
f o l l c w i n g m inor theme is
jo in e d together.
to c o n v in c e A m ant,
a greater virtu e
s u b o r d i n a t e d : p o w er a nd v ir t u e
a l l men l i v e d u n it e d w it h each o t h e r in
b ro therly
lo ve,
in s titu tio n s ,
illu stra te
t h is p o in t .
Jean de M eung,
t h e sis.
t h e r e w o u ld b e no need
fo r i n s t i t u t i o n s
u p h o l d in g j u s t i c e ,
m o reo v e r, w h ic h o ft e n abuse t h e i r a u t h o r i t y .
terms
Reason c i t e s
Mc a s , " ^ °
the V e r g i n i a e p is o d e w h ic h
t h at i s ,
A t the end o f the s t o r y ,
I n o r d e r to
th e a u t h o r ,
an exem plary e x p l i c a t i o n o f h is
the le s s o n i s b r i e f l y
rec a p itu lated
to
Am ant, who now a c c e p t s R e a s o n ’ s t e a c h i n g s .
B o c c a c c io ,
the se c o n d author to make use o f the V e r g i n i a e p i s o d e ,
em ploys the s t o r y
in a t o t a l l y
C l a r i s M u l ie r i bus
d iffe r e n t context.
In
the p r e f a c e
t o De
the a u th o r p o in t s out t h at a lth o u g h th e l i v e s
famous men have b een p en n ed by h i s g re a t
no one has h i t h e r t o w r i t t e n
d es er v e o ur p r a i s e
the
of
co nten po rary and p r e c e p t o r ,
l i v e s o f famous women.
Petrarch,
T h e s e , however,
a l l the more b e c a u se o f the a d m ir a b le d eed s
i n s p i t e o f t h e i r g e n e r ic i n f e r i o r i t y o f mind and b o d y .
a c c o m p lis h e d
E sp e c ially
notable
are the m erits o f p ag an women who co uld n ot hope to ea rn the k in gd o m o f
h eaven throu gh p r i v a t i o n s
h e r o in e s .
B o c c ac c io ,
and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e
th erefo re,
l i v e s o f pag an women, b o t h the v ir tu o u s
the
r e a d e r to
im i t a t e
l i k e the B i b l i c a l
re s t r ic ts h im s e lf
and the w i c k e d ,
v i r t u e and shun v i c e .
c o llec tio n of p o rtr a its
is
And i t
takes i t s g e n e r a l m e a n in g ,
and p a r t i c u l a r i z e d a t the en d o f the n a r r a t i o n .
the harm u n j u s t ju d g e s
can d o .
I t is
in order to stim ula te
The m oral p u r p o s e o f the
thus c l e a r l y s t r e s s e d .
t e x t t h a t the V e r g i n i a st o r y
a nd C h r i s t i a n
to the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the
is
from t h i s
con­
a m ea ning s p e c i f i e d
H ie s t o r y h e r e e x e m p l i f i e s
a d d r e s se d to th e m ig h t y , who s h o u l d
g u a r d th em selve s a g a i n s t f o l l o w i n g the contem porary custom o f s e l l i n g
ju stic e
f o r m oney.
B o c c a c c i o 's
Thus,
the s t o r y 's
very p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n e x e m p l i f i e s
d id a c tic
in t e n t i o n v o ic e d in the p r e f a c e to De C l a r i s M u l i e r i b u s .
32
In the C o n f e s s io A m a n t i s ,
f i n a l l y , the V e r g i n i a s t o r y i s t o l d by
Gcw er as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the
fifth
r u le o f conduct
for r u l e r s :
p r e s e r v a t io n o f c h a s t i t y a nd the a v o id a n c e o f l e c h e r y .
is
the e d u c a t io n
of A lexander,
e d u c a t i o n o f the i d e a l p r i n c e .
o f co nd uct to h i s p u p i l
used by G en iu s
as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the
A r i s t o t l e h a d su p p o s e d ly g iv e n
and l o r d ,
A le x a n d e r ,
O ne o f t h e s e
ju stic e
a nd L iv y p r o v i d e s
and le c h e r y are m utua lly e x c l u s i v e ,
s t o r y , b e f o r e G e n iu s
The adage i s
fin is h e s
h is
fiv e
rule s
ea c h o f w h ic h G e n iu s now
i l l u s t r a t e s by means o f exem p lary s t o r i e s .
e n s a m p le "^ o f t h is .
the
The l a r g e r c o n t e x t
rules s ta t e s
that
an "o l d e
r e p e a te d once more at the e n d o f the
e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s r u l e w i t h o ne
fin a l
ex em p lary t a l e .
L e t me r e c a p i t u l a t e b r i e f l y :
s t o r y take
t h e ir m ea ning
a l l exem p lary v e r s io n s
from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
contexts.
o f the V e r g i n i a
J e a n de Meung
198
uses the story as an illustration of the idea that power and virtue are
rarely joined together.
judges can cause.
Boccaccio employs it to show the damage unjust
And Gower,
fin~lly,
and lechery are mutually exclusive.
utilizes it to demonstrate that justice
Taken out of its original historical
context, the story has lost its former meaning in all three versions.
It
has now the characteristic features of an exemplum, the functional meaning
of which I would like to define in reference to the following five aspects:
34
world picture, figures, modus dicendi, authorial intent, and reception.
As is to be expected, the world of the exemplum is well ordered,
typical, and unproblematic; that is,
here.
~
pre-given order becomes manifest
In such a world, the figures cannot be but one-dimensional, unindividu-
alized types, because subtle characterization and heterogeneity would break
the one-dimensional framework of the exemplum.
Since the figures support
the exemplary plot, they have to illustrate its action, that is, they have a
demonstrative function.
The exclusive concentration on the moral message
to be conveyed by the story necessitates the deletion of everything not
relevant to this message.
Thus, the story is told without digression accord-
ing to the ordo naturalis.
There is one main plot narrated in the style of
the sermo levis.
Rhetorical ornamentation has no place in the exemplum;
rather, its authors use a plain, unadorned style to convey their message:
the story's usefulness for the individual, an estate, or mankind in general.
The transmission of doctrine is the cQntral concern of the exemplum and
determines its authorial intent, an intent to be understood fully and
acknowledged by the audience to whom the authorial message is conveyed.
The
story has a definitive meaning, which should be accepted and not reflected
upon.
This mode of reception, incidentally, differs essentially from the
reception of texts belonging to other literary genres whiCh stimulate the
audience to reflection.
dete~ined
Since a story's reception by the audience is also
by its rhetorical situation and the personality of the narrator
or author, the exemplum, to be effective, demands positive narrative conditions.
The rhetorical situation in which the Verginia story appears in
Jean de Meung, Boccaccio, and Gower, conforms to the audience's expectations,
and so do the various narrators of the story: Reason in the Romance of the
Rose, Genius in the Confessio Amantis, and Boccaccio, the author of the
collection, Ve Claris Mulieribus.
is, thus, fully realized.
The effectiveness of the three exempla
L e t us now lo o k at the n a r r a t i v e c o n d it io n s
o f the P h y s i c i a n * s
fram e:
T ale.
The r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s
an i n n e r and an o u t e r o n e .
C a n te r b u r y T a l e s in
T a l e tak es
toto;
w it h in t h is
T h is
n arrator,
and a f f e c t s
the a u d ie n c e
c o n s e q u e n t ly
s i n c e an a u d i e n c e 's
and g en r e w i l l p la y
Thus,
the co nc ep t o f s t r u c t u r e ,
tales.
in
turn,
The i n n e r fr a m e ,
the c o n c ep ts d e t e rm in in g the r e c e p t io n o f the o u t e r fr a m e ,
ters
fu n c t io n
the p i l g r i m s ,
e s p e c ia lly Harry B a i l y ,
tales.
T h e i r comments,
by th e r e a d e r , b e c a u s e H a rry B a i l y
in h is
h is
s o m ethin g u s e f u l
therefore,
c o m m en ta ries,
fun ctio ns
t o l d by h i s
f e llo w
a keen l i t e r a r y
in sp ite o f t h e ir lim it a t io n s ,
n ot d e f i n e d p r e c i s e l y
as a n a r r a t o r w i t h i n
the i n n e r fr a m e.
he has p r o fo u n d s c i e n t i f i c k n ow le dg e and is e x c e l l e n t i n
He has o b v io u s ly
o m n is c ie n t
o f the p i l g r i m s
tells
is
litera ry
in the G e n e r a l
We o n ly know t h a t
h is p ro fe s s io n .
fo r g o l d .
M o r e o v er ,
fo r th e p o r t r a i t s
i n the C an terb u r y T a l c s , whose r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
fo llo w s
in the
Thus,
te ll ed ify in g
the assign m en t o f th e V e r g i n i a s to r y t o
the normal p r i n c i p l e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
a fa c t w h ic h
any im m ediate s c e p t i c i s m a bo u t the n a t u r e o f t h e t a l e . ^
in the The W i fe o f B a t h 's
form o f the l a i
T ale,
and the rom ance,
t a l e as we
fin d i t ,
There
for
or in the M e r c h a n t 's T a l e , w h e r e the
resp ectively ,
are n e c e s s a r ily
d i s t o r t e d by the p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e i r t e l l e r s who are u n f i t
litera ry task s.
a
th e
The P h y s i c i a n b e lo n g s to th e s o l i d m id d le c l a s s
no d is c r e p a n c y b etw een the n a r r a t o r and h i s
instance,
co ntain
us t h at t h i s p r a c t i c a l l y m inded man d oes n o t s p e n d
a m oral k e r n e l .
the P h y s i c i a n
p reclud es
fo n d n ess
f i r s t p erso n n a r r a t o r r e s p o n s i b l e
much tim e r e a d i n g the B i b l e .
t a le s w it h
still
accum ulated a fo r tu n e d u r in g the time o f the p l a g u e ,
in c r e a s i n g b e c a u s e o f h i s
G e n e r a l P ro lo g u e
as a s o r t
trav ellers.
and c o m m o nsen sic a l.
fu n c t i o n s
fo r tu n e s t i l l
T h ese c h a r a c ­
a l s o h a v e to be c o n s i d e r e d
in p a r t i c u l a r o f t e n
r e a c t io n to the s t o r i e s
The P h y s i c i a n , whose c h a r a c t e r i s
P ro lo gu e,
c o n s t it u t e s
the h o s t .
Even though H a r ry B a i l y does n o t d i s t i n g u i s h h i m s e l f by
s e n sitiv ity ,
in flue nc e
u n a f f e c t e d by
as im m ediate a u d ie n c e and as such th ey comment o c c a s i o n a l l y on
the in d iv id u a l
o f vox p o p u li
th em e,
an im p o rta n t r o le c o n t r i b u t i n g to the r e a d e r 's
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l
i t s e l f th ro u gh
recep­
t a l e w i l l s u r e l y b e g u id e d by the im p r e s s io n i t has
c o l l e c t i o n as a w h o l e .
fo rm atio n o f a t o t a l a e s t h e t i c im p r e s s io n w h ic h w i l l ,
h is
the P h y s i c i a n 's
larger context w i l l
d ete rm in e the m eaning o f the i n d i v i d u a l s t o r i e s ,
formed o f the
c o n s t it u t e d by the
larger co ntex t,
the o th e r t a l e s
an a e s t h e t i c w h o l e .
t io n o f each s i n g l e
s e t w i t h i n a d ou ble
The o u t e r frame i s
that i s ,
i t s p l a c e n e x t to a l l
as one p a r t o f
d e t e r m in in g th e r e c e p t io n
fo r t h e i r
The t a l e p r o p e r b e g i n s
T itu s L i v i u s .
p risin g
T h e re
im m e diately w it h a r e f e r e n c e
a lm o st one t h i r d o f the e n t i r e
w ith Liv y .
subsequent
lin k ,
in t e r p r e t a t i o n
H arry B a i l y
"s o m m yrthe o r j a p e s , h e
us now r e t u r n
o f h i s s t o r y t o the a u d i e n c e .
assesses
e ffects
i t s e l f is b ip a r t it e .
to the P a r d o n e r * s
to the o p e n i n g o f the t a l e .
(lin e s
The f i r s t p a r t ,
Here,
(lin e
20)
T ale.
som e­
assertion
The d i g r e s s i o
a lo o s e a d a p t a t io n o f the Romance o f
e x c e l l e n c e w h ic h is
The se c o n d s e c t i o n c o n t a in s
p e r f o r m t h e i r p e d a g o g ic a l d u t i e s
the
th e r e a d e r i s
f o l l o w i n g th e P h y s i c i a n 's
1 6 0 0 6 - 4 8 ) , d e p i c t s N a t u r a 's
any human c r e a t i o n .
In
the P h y s i c i a n 1s T a l e a n d , e a g e r to h e a r
a tra n s itio n
t h a t V i r g i n i a h a s b een most e x c e l l e n t l y endow ed by N a t u r e .
gene ral"
com­
t a l e , w h ic h has n o t h in g a t a l l to do
w h a t d i s c o n c e r t e d by the lo n g d i g r e s s i o n
the Rose
source,
d ig re ssio n
The s t o r y ends w i t h a ten l i n e m o r a l i s a t i o , i n w h ic h the
n a r r a t o r im p a rts h i s
Let
to i t s
f o l l o w s , h o w e v e r , a n in e ty - n in e l i n e
d ilig e n tly .
s u p e r i o r to
a w a r n i n g to e d u c a to r s to
Natura i s
who e x e c u t e s Ilis p r o c r e a t i o n a l
G o d 's
"v ic a ir e
i n t e n t on e a r t h .
The d i v i n e
e x e c u t r i x has c r e a t e d V i r g i n i a as a p e r f e c t sp ecim en o f wom anhood, b o t h i n
m ind a nd b o d y .
way,
creates
resu ltin g in
She i s
a sp ec ia l
a model o f human p e r f e c t i o n .
the m utual in t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f c o n t e x t and s t o r y .
p e rso n ific a t io n
o f human p e r f e c t i o n ,
a rb itra rin e ss.
She s u f f e r s
Nature.
The d i g r e s s i o n ,
c o n t e x t fo r the s u b s e q u e n t V e r g i n i a s t o r y ,
Her fa te
falls
up the t e n s io n s
G o d 's
vice- regent,
a nd b e n e v o l e n t
p r o v id e n tia l
the
fa vo ure d by
c o n t a in e d i n the w o r l d p i c t u r e
c o m p r i s in g the p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g ro u n d o f the s t o r y .
Natura,
V ir g in ia ,
v i c t i m to male le c h e r y and p a t e r n a l
in n o c e n t ly b e c a u s e sh e h as b e e n
thus p o i n t s
in t h is
a p r o c e ss
to a r ra n g e the a f f a i r s
A l t h o u g h one e x p e c ts
o f the w o r l d i n an o r d e r l y
fa s h io n ,
the d evelo p m en t o f the s t o r y p r o p e r shows t h a t t h i s
37
o r d e r can ta k e r a t h e r c u r io u s fo r m s .
I n any c a s e , the o r d e r
p o s t u l a t e d at the b e g i n n i n g o f the t a l e
i s no lo n g e r a p p a r e n t .
38
Thus,
the
c o n c e p t o f t h e w o r l d has become c o m p ]ic a t e d a nd p r o b l e m a t i c .
It
change.
sh o uld not be s u r p r is in g
t e r s w h o se a c t io n s
the
her;
that i n such a w o r l d the f i g u r e s
I n s t e a d o f u s i n g mere t y p e s ,
judge w ho,
rather,
are m o tiv a te d to some e x t e n t .
i n c i t e d to do so by the d e v i l h i m s e l f .
a c t i n g upon s u d d e n im p u lse i n
the t h ree exemplum v e r s io n s
h e r e g iv e n am ple tim e to d e l i b e r a t e h i s
s e l f and h is
h o n o u r a b le
A p p iu s i s no lo n g e r m erely
c a p t iv a t e d by the b e a u t y o f the g i r l , w o u ld l i k e
he i s
d a u g h t e r by the
so lu tio n
a ctio n .
He t r i e s
to p o s s e s s
V irg in iu s,
o f the t a l e ,
V irg in ia ,
fin a lly ,
is
to c o n v in c e h im ­
fo rc e o f a rg u m en tatio n t h a t d eath i s
to the dilem m a.
a ls o
the n a r r a t o r attem pts to c r e a te c h a r a c ­
the only
becomes the c h a r a c t e r
201
of central concern for the narrator, who tries to emotionalize his heroine.
In the other versions, the girl is shown to be a passive victim.
no speaking role.
She has
In the Physician's Tale, however, she enters into a
discussion with her father about her fate.
Instead of accepting the paternal
decision undisputedly, she tries to dissuade him from pursuing such a
rigorous course of action.
Only after the discussion with her father has
proved to be ineffective does she resign herse1f to her fate.
In short,
characters in the Physician's Tale have replaced the one-dimensional figures
supporting the exemplary plot in the other three versions.
Instead of
serving a purely delllonstrati ve function, they themselves become the subject
of investi giltion; th a t is, the condit ions under which they nct and their
motivati ons a rc analysed.
The action in which they are involved becomes
necessarily multifaceted.
This multifariousnes9 is also supported by the modus dicendi.
gression at the beginning of the tale has already been mentioned.
The diBesides
this, the narrative texture of th e Physician's Tale is enriched by ample
dialogue passages and a multitude of rhetorical figures.
39
In comparison
with the plain style of the exemplum, the diction of Chaucer's tale is
varied and elevated.
The Physician uses this rhetorical modulation especially
for the arousing of pathos -- a strategy employed by many narrators belonging
to the solid middle class of the Canterbury pilgrims, such as the Man of Law,
the Clerk, the Second Nun, and the Prioress.
Their tales feature passively
suffering protagonists, three of whom are women, while the fourth one is a
young boy who is foully murdered by the Jews because of his devotion to the
Virgin Mary.
The verginia story helongs to this group of tales and shares
in their rhetorical
strategie~
designed to arouse compassion and pathos.
While defining the structure of the Physician's Tale, I indicated that
the story is concluded by a ten line moralisatio appended to the tale by its
teller:
lIeere may men seen how synne hath his merite .
Be th war, for no man woot whom God wol smyte
In no degree, ne in whi ch manere wyse
The worm of consience mily agryse
Of wikked lyf, though it so pryvee be
That no man woot therof but God and he.
For be he lewed man, or ellis lered,
He noot how soone that he shal been afered.
202
Therefore I rede yow this conseil take:
Forsaketh synne, er synne yow forsake.
(VI.ce.] 277-86)
The narrator thus attributes to his story an exemplary fW'lction.
His audience
is everyman and everyman should follow the advice given by the Physician
in the form of the moralisatio.
Still, the question arises whether or not
the teller's conclusions correspond to the concept of his tale.
Literary
critics have rightfully voiced their doubts, pointing to the discrepancy
40
The Physician's moral applies only
between the tale and the moralisatio.
to Appius, but Appius is a subordinate character.
It certainly does not
apply to .Virginia, the heroine and protagonist of Chaucer's version of the
traditional story.
She dies innocently.
see how innocence has its meri ts. ..
is also included in the moral.
One can only say: "Here may men
Koreover, it is not clear if virgini us
It is at least conceivable that he too may
be troubled by remorse.
In short, the Physician's exemplary conclusion is
4l
at best imprecise and at worst partially inappropriate.
This imprecision,
however, has another more
seriou~
effect: it obscures the clear demonstrative
character of the story, making it polysemous, as its reception by Harry
Baily in the inner frame proves.
The host reacts at first angrily towards
Appius' abuse of his office before he concludes his lament with his own
moral:
AlIas, to deere boughte she beautee!
Wherfore I seye al day that men may see
That yiftes of Fortune and of Nature
Been cause
0
f deeth to many a creature.
Hire beautee was hire deth, I dar weI sayn.
(VI. [C.) 293-97)
Although not very profound, since the girl's death is not caused by the
gifts of Fortune and Nature alone but also by the moral rigour of an uncompromising father who sacrifices his daughter for an abstract principle,
Harry Baily's moralisatio applies at least to the heroine.
In any case, the
discrepancy between two different assessments of the story's meaning charges
the recipients of the outer frame,
~Iat
Tales, to reflect also on its meaning.
is, the audience of the Canterbury
The version of the Verginia story
presented in the Physician's Tale lacks a definitive significance and thus
42
it becomes subject to individual interpretation.
203
The analysis of the tale in reference to the five criteria of world
picture, figures, modus riicendi, autllorial intent, and reception has revealed
major differences in all points between Chaucer's treatment of the Verginia
story and the three exemplum versions discussed above.
Consequently, the
Physician's Tale cannot be called an exernplum, although the teller stresses
its exemplary significance.
The essential innovations characterizing
Chaucer's rendition of the traditional story remove it from the genre of the
exemplum and place it in the contnxt of a new literary form, the novella.
In
this form, thn image of the world becomes highly complex because the changing
conditions in which the events take place are of such relevance that typical
situations cannot occur.
The figures in the novella act as true characters
in situations of social and moral conflicts.
The stylistic level is variable
and corresponds to the needs of the plot, the structure of which can be
simple or complex.
The authorial intnnt inherent in the novella is the
presentation of the problematic story itself .
Each reader is given an oppor-
tunity to assess the story for himself since the author refrains from assigning
a definitive meaning to it.
Conse quently, the reception of the novella is
necessarily characterized by a reflection upon the conflictiQo social and
ethical norms presented in the story.43
Boccaccio, of course, has traditionally been credited with the invention
of this new literary form, derived from the transformation of such older
genres as the exemplum, the saint's life, and the fabliau, in his collection
of classical and mediaeval tales, the Decamerone.
Although Chaucer knew
Boccaccio's Teseida, Filocolo, and Filostrato -- these works constitute the
sources of the Knight's Tale, the Franklin's Tale, and the Troilus respectively -- no' evidence has so far been uncovered which proves that he'had direct
44
At least none of the tales from the Decamerone
knowledge of the Decamerone.
served as an immediate source or model for the stories of the Canterbury
Tales. 45
From this proof ex negativo I deduce that Chaucer had no first-
hand knowledge of the Decamerone, for otherwise he surely would have made use
of it in the composition of the Canterbury Tales.
His treatment of the
Verginia story, however, shows all the characteristic features of the novella,
and so we may conclude that Chaucer's experimentation with traditional
genres in the Canterbury Tales res ulted in the independent creation of a new
narrative form in Middle English literature.
Chaucer's artistic act has,
of course, an immediate bearing on our understanding of his narrative,
because an analysis of the Physician's Tale cannot proceed wi thout the identification of its literary genre.
Before suggesting any interpretations of
204
the tale's meaning
let alone interpretations based on an erroneous generic
46
identification of the tale
--, one should first have investigated its
prevailing narrative conditions and analysed the possibilities provided by
a new literary form.
This essay was meant to serve as an attempt to
clarify these conditions by the establishment of what I hope is a plausible
and acceptable catalogue of criteria for them.
Universitat T~ingen
NarES
1 Thomas B. Hanson, "Chaucer's Physician as Storyteller and Moralizer,"
chau~? 7 (1972-73) 134; 136-37; Lee C. Ramsey, "'The Sentence of it Sooth is':
Chaucer's Physician's Tale," ChauR 7 (1972-73) 190-93; Beryl Rowland, "The
Physician's 'Historical Thyng Notable' and the Man of Law," EUl 40 (1973)
166-69; Anne Middleton, "The Physician's Tale and Love's Martyrs:
'Ensanples
Mo Than Ten' as a Method in the Canterbury Tales," ChauR 8 (1973-74) 11-13;
E.R. Amoils, "Fruitfulness and Sterility in the 'Physician's' and 'Pardoner's
Tales' ," ESA 17 (1974) 19-22; Sheila Delany, "Politics and the Paralysis of
Poetic Imagination in the Physician's Tale," SAC 3 (1981) 47-54.
2 Ramsey (at n. 1) 194.
3 Ramsey, art. cit. 194-95; Anne Middleton (at n. 1) 16-22.
4 Middleton, art. cit. 24-25; Rowland (at n. 1) 167-68.
5 Richard L. Hoffman, "Jephthah' s Daughter and Chaucer's Virginia,"
ChauR 2 (1967-68)
31; Robert Longsworth, "The Doctor's Dilemma: A Comic View
of the 'Physician'S Tale'," Criticism 13 (1971) 231-32.
6 Barbara Bartholomew, Fortuna and Natura: A Reading of Three Chaucer
Narratives (The Hague 1966) 46-57; Jeanne T. Mathewson, "For Love and Not
for Hate: The Value of Virginity in Chaucer's Physician's Tale," AnM 14
(1973) 42; Thomas L. Kinney, "The popular Meaning of Chaucer's ~Physician's
Tale'," Literature and Psychology 28 (1978) 76-84; Delany (at n. 1) 56-60.
7 Ramsey (at n. 1) 195; Ameils (at n. 1) 26-27; John P. McCall, Chaucer
AmOng the Gods: The Poetics of Classical Myth
107.
(University Park & London 1979)
205
8 Rowland (at n. 1) 166.
9
Middleton (at n. 1) 26.
10
Ibid. 27.
11
12
Cf. Klaus W. Hempfer, Gattung:;theorie, UTB 133 (MlDlich 1973) 124-91.
Andre Jo11es, Einf~che Formen (3rd ed., T~bingen 1965) 16-22.
13 Benedetto Croce, La poesia (3rd ed., Bari 1971) 159 ff.
14 Erich Burck, "Livius als /lugu;teischer Historiker," Die Welt als
Geschichte I (1935) 449.
The following account, however, is a paraphrase of
Diodorus Sicu1us, The Library of History 12, 24, ed. C.H. Oldfather, in
The Loeb Classical Library (London/Cambridge 1956) 420-23, which according
to Burck corresponds to the original version of the Verginia story.
15 The following brie f summary is based on the account by Dionysi us of
Ha1icarnassus, The Roman Antiqui ti es 2, 28-44, ed. Earnest Cary, in The Loeb
Classical Library (London/Cambridge 1950) 92-149, which according to Burck
(452) represents the Sullan version of the story.
16 Titus I.ivius, Ab Urbe Condita 3,44-49, ed. B.O. Foster, in The Loeb
Classical Library (London/Cambridge ]953)
142-63.
17 Ibid. 148.
18 Ibid. 156 "Appi, non tibi Hliarn despondi et ad nuptias, non ad
stuprum educavi."
19 Ibid. 2, "Praefatio" 3.
Included in the "tanta scriptorum turba"
are probably Q. Fabius Pictor, L. Cincius A1imentus, A. Postumius A1binus,
M. Porcius Cato, L. Ca1purnius Piso, L. Coe1ius Antipater, L. Cassius Hemina,
Valerius Antias, and Q. Ae1ius Tubero.
20 P.G. Walsh, "Livy's Preface and the Distortion of History," American
Journal of Philology 76 (1955) 369.
21 11.0. Leeman, "Are we Fair to Livy?
Some Thoughts on Livy's prologue,"
Helikon 1 (1961) 30.
22 Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita 6, "Praefatio" 9.
23 Walsh (at n. 20) 370.
24 Cf. Iiro Kajanto, God and Fate in Livy (Turku 1957).
25 Burck (at n. 14) 454.
26 Cicero, De Ora tore 2, 9, 36, ed. E.W. Sutton and H. Rackham, in
The Loeb Classical Library (London/Cambridge
1948) 224.
See Reinhart
Kose11eck, "Historia Magistra vitae," in Natur und Geschichte, ed. Hermann
Braun and Manfred Riedel (Stuttgart 1967) 196-219 and Manfred Fuhrmann,
"Das Exemp1um in der antiken Rhetorik," in Geschichte-Ereignis und Erzahlung,
206
ed. Reinhart Koselleck and Wolf-Dieter Stellpel (Munich 1973) 449-52.
27 Valerius Maximus, Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libei Novem, 6,
1, 2, ed. Karl Kempf (2nd ed., Stuttgart 1966) 271.
28 Cf. EOdch Auerbach, Mimesis, Dargestell te Wi rklichkei t in der abendlandischen Literatur (4th ed., Bern and Munich 1967) 18-19; 75-76.
29 Guillaume de Lorris & Jean de Meun, Le Roman de la Rose, ed. Felix
Lecoy (Paris 1965) I, 170-74, lines 5528-5669.
30 Ibid. p. 171, line 5565.
31 Giovanni Boccaccio, Dc Mulieribus Claris, in Tutte Ie opere di Giovanni Boccaccio, ed. Vittore Branca (Verona 1967) X, 22-29, 236-43.
32 John Gower, Confessio Amantis, in The Complete Works of John Gower,
ed. G.C. Macaulay (Oxford 1901) III, 377-82, lines 5124-5306.
33 Ibid. p. 377, line 5130.
34 For discussions on the excmp1um see Hugo Friedrich, Die Rechtsmetaphysik in der c3ttlichen KornOdie Francesca da Rimini (Limburg 1942) 21-311
Frederic C. Tubach, "Exemp1a in the Decline," Traditio 18 (1962) 407-17;
Rudolf Schenda, "Stand und Aufgaben der Exemplaforschung," Fabula 10 (1969)
69-85; Hans-JOrg Neuschll.fer, Boccaccoio und dec Beginn der Novelle (Munich
1969) 49-54; Kar1heinz Stier1e, Text als Handlung, UTB 423 (Munich 1975) 22371 Paul Strohm, "Middle English Narrative Genres," Genre 13 (1980) 379.
35 Cf. lIuling E.. ussery, Chaucer's Physician.
Medicine and Literature
in Fourteenth-Century England (New Orleans 1971) 119-42 and Rowland (at n.I) 178
against critics like Hoffman (at n. 5) 31 and Longsworth (at n. 5) 232 who
would question the moral integrity of the Physician.
36 CT, VI. (C.), 319.
All references are to TI.e Works of Geoffrey Chaucer,
ed. F.N. Robinson (2nd ed., Boston 1957).
37 This point must be emphasized in view of the odd concept of Natura
espoused by Barbara Bartholomew (at n. 6) 49-56.
38 See also Ramsey (at n. 1) 197.
39 Cf. Rowland (at n. 1) 166-67, who lists the rhetorical figures and
tropes of prosopopoeia, ratiocinatio, similitudo, traductio, hyperbole,
repetitio, contentio, expolitio, sententia, digressio, apostrophe,
exemplum.
and
Of these prosopopoeia, similitudo, contentio, expolitio, and
exemplum belong to the ornatus difficilis.
See Leonid Arbusow, Colores
Rhetorici (Gottingen 1948) 17, 63, 82.
40 Hanson (at n. 1) 136-37; Middleton (at n. 1) 14.
41 See my discussion in Chaucer's 'Art Poetical': A Study in Chaucerian
Poetics, Studies and Texts in English I (TUbingen 1980) 105-06.
207
42
43
See also Middleton (at n. 1) 3l.
For dis cussions on the mediaeval form of the novella, especially as
fOWld in the Decamerone, see Neu<;chafer
(at n. 34) ; Stierle (at n. 34) 35-
37; Joachim lIeinzle, "'Marenbegri ff und Novellentheorie: {lberleg\IDgen zur
Gattungsbestimmung der mittelhochdeutschen Kleinepik,"' ZDA 89 (1978) 421-38.
44
For the most recent asses!'ment of Olaucer's knowledge of Boccaccio's
Decamerone see N.R . Havely, Chaucer's Boccaccio, Chaucer Studies v (Cambridge 1980) 12. H. M. Cummings, The Indebtedness of Chaucer's Works to the
Italian Works of Boccaccio, Uni versi ty of Cincinnati Studies X, 2 (Menasha,
Wis. 1916) 176-80; W. Farnham, "'England's Discovery of the Decameron,"' PMLA
39 (1924) 123-39; H.G. Wright, Boccac cio in England from Chaucer to Tennyson
(London 1957) 114 and n. 3; Edmund Re iss, "'Boccaccio in English CuI ture of
the Fourteenth and Fi fteenth Centuries," in Boccaccio nella cuI tura inglese
e anglo-americana, ed. G. Galigani (Plorence 1974) 15-17, all have rejected
the idea of Chaucer's indebtedness to the Decamerone.
45 Four of the Canterbury Tales have plot outlines analogous to tales
from the Decamerone: The Reeve's Tale (Decamerone IX, 6); The Clerk's Tale
(Decamerone X, 10); The Franklin's Tale (Decamerone X, 5) and The Shipman's
Tale (Decamerone VIII, I and 2).
The stories in the Decamerone, however, are
not the sources of these tales.
46 Cf. R.M. Lumiansky, Of Sundry Folk: The Dramatic principle in the
Canterbury Tales (Austin 1955) 195, who calls the tale "an allegory against
lust" and Judson B. Allen and Theresa A. Moritz, A Distinction of Stories:
The Medieval Unity of Chaucer's Fair Chain of Narratives for Canterbury
(Columbus 1981) 158, who maintain "the tale is an exemplum of the \IDjust
judge."
Thal Chaucer, however, knew the literary form of the exemplurn very
well is proven by The Pardoner's Tale which exhibits all the features
associated with that ge nre.
Thus, Tile Pardoner's Tale, in addition to
illustrating the rhetorical skills of the Pardoner by which he succeeds in
SOliciting contributions from the parishioners he preaches to, also has a
contrasti ve function.
Here, the old!'r Ii terary form of the exemplum is
juxtapos ed to the newe r Ii terary form of the novella used in the preceding
Physician's Tale.