Archaeology V61100
V61100
Introduction and Approaches to
Archaeology
Autumn Semester
2011-2012
1
Archaeology V61100
V61100
Introduction and Approaches to Archaeology
MODULE CONVENOR
Dr. Lloyd Weeks
Room B41
Humanities Building
Tel.: 846-7355
[email protected]
Office Hours:
Thursdays 10am – 12 noon
and other times by appointment
AIMS AND STRUCTURE
This module aims to provide a basic introduction to modern archaeology, the process by
which the material remains of the past, their interrelationships and their environment are
analysed and used to provide evidence for the interpretation of many aspects of our past.
Over the course of the module, the historical development of the subject is summarised,
followed by a presentation of current theory and practice in the areas of archaeological
prospection and survey, excavation, post-survey/excavation analysis, relative and
absolute dating, the study of archaeological artefacts, and frameworks of social
interpretation are all themes addressed within the module. By the end of the module, we
hope that you will have developed a reasonable understanding of the concepts used in
archaeology, the questions asked and methods applied in investigating the evidence. We
do not expect those with an Arts background to concentrate on archaeological science,
but you should develop some understanding of the potential and uses of these methods.
It is up to individuals to decide which areas are of most interest, and to develop their
knowledge accordingly, against a background of general comprehension.
The course typically consists of two one-hour lectures per week, interspersed with a
series of “small group sessions” incorporating discussions, seminars, practical exercises
and handling sessions:


Lectures will be held on Thursdays 2-3 pm in Clive Grainger Building Room A41,
and on Fridays 4-5 pm in Portland Building Room C11.
Small group sessions will run in weeks 4, 6, 8 and 10, timetabled in different
locations.
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Archaeology V61100
PROGRAMME OF LECTURES AND SMALL GROUP SESSIONS
The course typically consists of two one-hour lectures per week. Lectures will be held on
Thursdays 2-3 pm in Clive Grainger Building Room A41, and on Fridays 4-5 pm in Portland
Building Room C11. Small group sessions are held in the Engineering and Science Learning Centre
(ESLC) Room B02 (Weeks 4 and 6), in Pope Building A16 (Week 8) and in the Archaeology
laboratories in the Humanities building (Week 10)
Week 1
Week beginning September 26th
 Registration – no lectures
Week 2
Thursday October 6th, Friday October 7th
 Lectures 1 and 2 – Archaeology: its character and historical development
Week 3
Thursday October 13th
 Lecture 3 – Archaeological excavation
 No class on Friday 14th, due to Lincoln/Hadrian’s Wall Field Trip
Week 4
Tuesday October 18th
 Small group session A: who owns the past?
ESLC B02+ (2 x 2-hour sessions, 11-1 and 4-6)
Thursday October 20th
 Lecture 4 – Archaeological surface survey
Week 5
Thursday October 27th, Friday October 28th
 Lecture 5 – Aerial survey, geophysical and geochemical prospection
 Lecture 6 – Post-excavation analysis and publication
Week 6
Tuesday November 1st
 Small group session B: Using excavation monographs
ESLC B02+ (2 x 2-hour sessions, 11-1 and 4-6)
Week 7
Thursday November 10th, Friday November 11th
 Lectures 7 and 8 – Relative and absolute dating techniques
DUE: Draft of essay (12:00 noon, Monday November 7th)
Week 8
Tuesday November 10th
 Small group session C: calibrating radiocarbon dates
Pope A16 computer room (three sessions, 11-1, 2-4, 4-6)
Week 9
Thursday November 24th, Friday November 25th
 Lecture 9 – studying inorganic materials and pyrotechnologies
 Lecture 10 – studying organic remains from archaeological sites
RETURNED: Annotated draft
Week 10
Tuesday November 22nd
 Small group session D: studying archaeological materials
Archaeology laboratories (2 x 2-hour sessions, 11-1 and 4-6)
Week 11
Thursday December 8th, Friday December 9th
 Lectures 11 and 12 – Frameworks of social interpretation: an introduction
Week 12
Thursday December 15th
 Lecture 13 – Summary and Review
DUE: Final draft of essay (12:00 noon, Monday December 12th)
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Archaeology V61100
ATTENDANCE
Departmental attendance policy (cf. p.25 of the Student Handbook):
Lack of attendance can result in very serious penalties (see the Quality Manual for the
University Regulations on Attendance:
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/studyregulations/attenda
nceprocedures.aspx).
You should note that where students are absent without authorisation, to the point that it
is not possible to continue with the course, the Registry will write to the student stating
that they will be deemed to have withdrawn from the University and their student record
will be amended to show that they have withdrawn.
Where required the University will report non-attendance to appropriate authorities
including the UK Border Agency.
Attendance at Lectures and Seminars is compulsory and all students will be required to
sign an attendance register at each session. If you cannot attend, you must inform the
Departmental Office by e-mailing both [email protected] and the
Module Convenor stating your reason for absence. Any student who is deemed to have
unsatisfactory attendance for lectures and seminars will be issued a warning by the
department and may be called for interview. Attendance will be considered at exam
boards.
It is the responsibility of the student to ensure they attend lectures and seminars and
that they make the department aware of any extenuating circumstances they may have.
University Regulations on Attendance
Students must attend all teaching activities necessary for the pursuit of their studies,
undertake all associated assessments and attend meetings and other activities as
required by their School or the University. Where students face difficulty in attending
sessions or undertaking assessments and examinations, it is their responsibility to inform
their School of this fact and to provide a satisfactory explanation. Please see
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/studyregulations/attenda
nceprocedures.aspx for further details on attendance regulations at the University.
Individual Schools and Departments have systems in place to monitor attendance during
the academic year. Unauthorised absences are reported to the Registry and recorded as
appropriate. Where students are absent without authorisation, to the point that it is not
possible to continue with the course, the Registry will write to the student stating that
they will be deemed to have withdrawn from the University and their student record will
be amended to show that they have withdrawn.
Where required the University will report non-attendance to appropriate authorities
including the UK Border Agency.
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Archaeology V61100
ASSESSMENT
This module will be assessed by both essay and exam, each of which contributes 50% to
your overall mark. The written exam will take place in the January examinations period
at the end of Autumn Semester. The duration of the exam is 1.5 hours (90 minutes),
during which time you will have to answer two essay-type questions from a choice of
around six.
The essay for Core 1 is 2000 words total length. The choice of essay questions is listed
below: choose ONE topic only. Your essay will be written and assessed in two stages:
firstly, you must submit a draft of the essay by 12 noon on Monday November 7th
(the start of Week 7). This draft will be marked and returned to you during Week 9, with
feedback. For the second stage, you must submit a final version of the essay by 12 noon
on Monday December 12th (Week 12).
Essay Assessment Criteria
A.



Draft (30% of essay mark) assessed on the basis of:
Essay Structure (/10) – aims, logical progression of argument, conclusions
Accuracy of content (/10)
Accuracy of bibliographic citation/referencing (/10)
B.


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Finished essay (70% of essay mark) assessed on the basis of:
Accuracy in describing issues and facts
Range/comprehensiveness of material covered
Depth of understanding/originality
Relevance of material/use of examples
Critical approach to sources
Use of bibliography/illustrations
Essay Questions (choose ONE only)
1. Outline the methodologies of modern-day excavation and surface collection
survey. How do they work together to enable interpretation of the development
and character of past societies? Use case studies from the archaeological
literature to support your points.
Discuss approaches to excavation and surface collection survey, and how they
provide different scales and types of information. Make sure to use relevant case
studies from the archaeological literature.
OR
2. Discuss the difference between relative and absolute dating techniques in
archaeology. Review two relative and two absolute dating techniques that could
be used to date archaeological sites from the Palaeolithic period, using case
studies from the archaeological literature to support your points.
Discuss the underlying principles of the techniques, and any problems or
limitations that might be encountered in their application to archaeology. Make
sure to use relevant case studies from the archaeological literature.
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Bibliographies and Citation
In all coursework you are expected to indicate the sources of information that you have
used - failure to do this is plagiarism (see above). Marks will be deducted from your
work if you fail to cite references or if your references are incorrectly
presented, so it is worth getting things right from the start. See your Undergraduate
Handbook (pp. 31-33) for guidance.
Reference List
Full details for all the sources that you cite within the text should be provided in the
reference list at the end of your piece of work. This list should be in alphabetical order of
author(s) and then, if there are several works by one author, they are presented in order
of publication date:
Bahn, P. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Grant, J., Gorin, S. and Fleming, N. 2005. The Archaeology Coursebook: An Introduction
to Study Skills, Topics and Methods (second edition). London: Routledge.
Johnson, M. 1999. Archaeological Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. 2006. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (fourth
edition). London: Thames and Hudson.
Please note:
 That works cited as et al. carry the details of all the authors in the full reference;
 That the book/journal title is presented in italics;
 For books you should present the location and name of the publishing house –
these can usually be found on the inside cover;
 Your reference list should not be bullet pointed.
When you are providing references for chapters in books or articles in journals, the rules
are slightly different but the same overall principles apply. For chapters in books:
Allen, M. J. 1992. Products of erosion and the prehistoric land-use of the Wessex chalk,
in M. G. Bell and J. Boardman (eds), Past and present soil erosion: archaeological and
geographical perspectives: 37–52. Oxford, Oxbow Books.
Wagner, G. A, Gentner, N., Gropengiesser, M. and Gale, N. 1980. Early Bronze Age leadsilver mining and metallurgy in the Aegean: the ancient workings on Siphnos, in P.T.
Craddock (ed.) Scientific Studies in Early mining and Extractive Metallurgy: 63-86.
(British Museum Occasional Paper 20). London: British Museum.
For papers in journals
Carrott, J. and Kenward, H. K. 2001. Species associations among insect remains from
urban archaeological deposits and their significance in reconstructing the past human
environment, Journal of Archaeological Science 28(8), 887-905.
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Archaeology V61100
The Web
If you have consulted a web site you should, in addition to the author, date, title, place
publisher and date information (as outlined above), also give the full URL, and the date
on which you accessed it.
More help and guidance can be obtained from staff in the library.
Submission of Coursework
All essays submitted for the Department of Archaeology should be word-processed.
Unless otherwise advised, submit TWO copies of each piece of coursework with a
coversheet stapled to each copy. You should use the date-stamp machine to stamp both
coversheets. Coversheets and the date-stamp machines can be found outside the Taught
Courses Office. Post both copies into the Archaeology coursework box outside the Taught
Courses Office, do not put coursework into plastic wallets. The coursework box is
emptied daily by the Taught Courses Office Administrators.
In addition to the two hard copies an electronic version of the essay must be submitted
to Turnitin via the module workspace on WebCT. There is guidance on this process in
your Undergraduate Handbook (pp. 30-31).
The deadline for submission of coursework is 12:00 on the day stated in the
module handbook.
Marking and Feedback
Marked coursework and associated feedback should be returned to students within 28
days of the published submission deadline (unless work is submitted late); if the module
convenor is unable to meet this deadline you will be informed and given a new date to
expect the work returned. Marks and comments will be placed in your pigeonhole on the
ground floor of the Humanities building, so you should check for these regularly. If you
would like more detailed feedback, please arrange to meet with the staff member who
marked your work.
Guidelines on marking and feedback are given in you Undergraduate Handbook (pp. 3442). See in particular the Faculty-wide marking scheme and criteria for essays (pp. 3639).
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Archaeology V61100
IF YOU NEED ADVICE
If you have any problem about the module:
 General information may be requested from the School Taught Courses Office, who
will also act as a liaison with staff (e.g. in passing messages).
 If it's about a particular area taught, or essay set for this module, ask me.
 If it's a more general problem, come and see me or your Personal Tutor.
 Some serious problems need to be taken to the Head of Department (Dr. Lloyd
Weeks), who will also consider permission for any substantive departures from normal
procedures.
 If for any reason you are unable to attend the lectures, tutorials, and/or examination,
make sure to contact me. You must also FILL IN THE EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES
FORM (available from the Taught Courses Office) and make sure you have copies of all
letters, medical certificates and other documentation that will be required.
In all cases, it is essential that you ask for advice AS SOON AS POSSIBLE. Don't feel shy
or ashamed at asking, even for the most apparently trivial reason. We are here to help
you. If you feel lost/ confused/ unhappy about these modules or the course in general, I
am willing to help sort things out. Students are welcome, indeed encouraged, to come for
a chat and advice. I am located in the Humanities Building, Room B41. My office hours
are Thursdays 10 am – 12 noon, or any other time by appointment.
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Archaeology V61100
READING LIST BY LECTURE
General References
RENFREW, C. and BAHN, P., 2008 (5th ed). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice,
Chapter 1 (‘The searchers: the history of archaeology), London: Thames &
Hudson.
GREENE, K. and MOORE, T., 2010 (5th ed). Archaeology: An Introduction, London:
Routledge.
Lectures 1–2: The origins and character of archaeology
CHANEY, E., 1998. The Evolution of the Grand Tour, London: Cas.
CLARKE, D.L., 1968. Analytical Archaeology, (Chapter 1), London: Methuen.
DANIEL, G., 1978 (3rd ed). 150 Years of Archaeology, London: Duckworth.
GOSDEN, C., 1999. Anthropology & Archaeology – the changing relationship, (Chapter 2,
‘Colonial Origins’), London: Routledge.
GREENE, K. and MOORE, T., 2010 (5th ed). Archaeology: An Introduction, Chapter, ‘The
Idea of the Past’), London: Routledge.
RENFREW, C. and BAHN, P., 2008 (5th ed). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice,
Chapter 1 (‘The searchers: the history of archaeology), London: Thames &
Hudson.
TRIGGER, B., 2006. A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.), Cambridge: CUP.
Lectures 3–5: Archaeological field techniques and approaches
General
DREWETT, P 1999. Field Archaeology: An Introduction, London: Routledge.
Aerial Photography
DEUEL, L 1969 Flights into yesterday: The story of aerial photography. [Pelican ed
1973.] (CC76.4 D4 & Class library)
MAXWELL, G S (ed) 1983 The impact of aerial reconnaissance on archaeology. (=
Council for British Archaeology, Research Report, 49.) London: CBA.
RILEY, D N 1982 Aerial Archaeology in Great Britain. Princes Risborough: Shire
Publications. (Short Loan CC76.4.R4)
RILEY, D N 1987 Air photography and archaeology. London: Duckworth.
ST JOSEPH, J K S (ed) 1960 The uses of air photography. London: A & C Black [2nd
ed 1977, London: John Baker.].
WHIMSTER, R 1989 The emerging past: Air photography and the buried landscape.
London: RCHME. (Oversize CC76.4.W4)
WILSON, D R 1982 Air photo interpretation for archaeologists. London: Batsford.
WILSON, D R (ed) 1975 Aerial reconnaissance for archaeology. (= Council for British
Archaeology, Research Report, 12.) London: CBA.
Field Survey
ASTON, M 1985 Interpreting the landscape: landscape archaeology in local studies.
London: Batsford.
ASTON, M & T ROWLEY 1974 Landscape archaeology: An introduction to fieldwork
techniques on post Roman landscapes. London: David & Charles.
BROWN, A 1987 Fieldwork for archaeologists and local historians. London: Batsford.
GILLINGS, M., D. MATTINGLEY & J VAN DALEN 1999 GIS and Landscape Archaeology.
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FOWLER, E (ed) 1972 Field survey in British archaeology. London: Council for British
Archaeol.
FOWLER, P J (ed) 1972 Archaeology and the landscape. London: John Baker. (CC75
F6)
STEANE, J M & B F DIX 1978 Peopling past landscapes: A handbook introducing
archaeological fieldwork techniques in rural areas. London: Council for Brit
Archaeol. TAYLOR, C C 1974 Fieldwork in Medieval archaeology. London:
Batsford. [One of the best.] (CC76 T2)
Geophysics
CLARK, Anthony J 1990 Seeing beneath the soil: Prospecting methods in archaeology.
London: Batsford.
CLARK, A J 1975 ‘Archaeological prospecting: a progress report’, J Archaeol Science
2(1975), 297 314.
CONYERS, L. B. & GOODMAN, D. 1997 Ground penetrating radar: an introduction for
archaeologists. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
PARKES, P A 1986 Current scientific techniques in archaeology. London: Croom Helm.
TITE, M S 1972 Methods of physical examination in archaeology. London: Seminar
Press. [Chap 2] (CC79 S3)
Excavation
ALEXANDER, J 1970 The directing of archaeological excavations. London: John Baker.
(CC76 A5)
BARKER, P A 1982 Techniques of archaeological excavation. 2nd ed. London: Batsford.
(CC76 B2)
BARKER, P A 1986 Understanding archaeological excavation. London: Batsford. (CC75
B2)
Lecture 6: Post-excavation analysis and publication
ALCOCK, L 1978 ‘Excavation and publication: some comments’, Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109(1977 78), 16.
BARRETT, J C et al 1983 ‘South Lodge after Pitt Rivers’, Antiquity 57(1983), 193 204.
BISHOP, S 1976 ‘The methodology of post excavation work’, Science & Archaeology
18(1976), 15 19.
CBA 1979 Signposts for archaeological publication: A guide to good practice in the
presentation and printing of archaeological periodicals and monographs. 2nd ed.
London: Council for British Archaeol.
COLES, J M 1980 ‘Presidential address: the donkey and the tail’, Proceedings of the
Prehistoric Society 46(1980), 1 8.
CUNLIFFE, B W (chair) 1983 The publication of archaeological excavations: The report
of a joint working party of the Council for British Archaeology and the Department
of the Environment. London: DoE.
CUNLIFFE, B W 1990 ‘Publishing in the city’, Antiquity 64(1990), 667 671.
DERRICOURT, R 1984 ‘Field-work publication and the CBA/DoE report’, Antiquity
58(1984), 54 56.
FRERE, S S (chair) 1975 Principles of publication in rescue archaeology: Report of a
working party of the Committee for Rescue Archaeology, Ancient Monuments
Board for England. London: DoE.
GRINSELL, L V, P A RAHTZ & D PRICE WILLIAMS 1974 The preparation of
archaeological reports. Revised ed. London.
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MILLETT, M 1989 ‘Styles and principles in archaeological publication: Chester
reviewed’, Antiquity 63(1989), 536 539.
SCHOFIELD, J 1988 ‘Archaeology in the City of London: archive and publication’,
Archaeological Journal 144(1988), 424 433.
YOUNG, C J 1980 Guidelines for the processing and publication of Roman pottery from
excavations. ( = Dir Anc Mons Hist Buildings, Occasional Paper, 4.) London: DoE.
Lectures 7-8: Archaeological dating
AITKEN, MJ. 1985. Thermoluminescence dating. London: Academic Press. (CC78.6 A7)
AITKEN, MJ. 1990. Science based dating in archaeology. London: Longman. (CC78.A4)
BOWMAN, S. 1990. Radiocarbon dating (Interpreting the past). London: British Museum
Publications.
BROTHWELL. D.R. and A.M. POLLARD. 2001. Handbook of Archaeological Sciences.
Chichester: Wiley, 2001.
CLARK, AJ. 1987. Scientific dating techniques. (=Institute of Field Archaeol-ogists,
Technical Paper, 5.) Birmingham: Inst Field Archaeol.
FLEMING, S. 1977. Dating in archaeology: A guide to scientific techniques. London:
Dent. (CC78.F5)
HEDGES, REM 1979. ‘Radioisotope clocks in archaeology’, Nature 281(1979), 19-24.
MICHELS, JW 1973. Dating methods in archaeology. London: Seminar Press.
PARKES, PA 1986. Current scientific techniques in archaeology. London: Croom Helm.
Lectures 9-10: Archaeological materials and scientific analysis
BROTHWELL. D.R. and A.M. POLLARD. 2001. Handbook of Archaeological Sciences.
Chichester: Wiley, 2001.
CILIBERTO, E., and G. SPOTO. 2000. Modern analytical methods in art and archaeology.
New York; Chichester: Wiley.
Craddock, P. T. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington D.C.
HENDERSON, J. 2000. The Science and Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of
Inorganic Materials. Routledge, London.
HODGES, H. 1989 Artifacts, an introduction to early materials and technology [3rd ed.].
London : Duckworth, chap 7: "Stone". See esp. pp.98-105.
ORTON, C., PAUL TYERS, and ALAN VINCE. 1993. Pottery in archaeology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
POLLARD, A. M. and C. HERON. 1996. Archaeological Chemistry. Royal Society for
Chemistry, Cambridge.
SKIBO, J.M. and GARY M. FEINMAN. Pottery and people: a dynamic interaction. Salt
Lake City: University of Utah Press, c1999.
TAIT, H. (ed.) 1991. Five Thousand Years of Glass. London: British Museum Press.
TYLECOTE, R. F. 1987. The Early History of Metallurgy in Europe. Longman, London.
Lectures 11-12: Frameworks of social interpretation
BINFORD, L. 1983. In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record, London:
Thames & Hudson.
CHILDE, V.G. 1956. Man Makes Himself, (1981 ed) London: Moonraker.
CLARKE, D.L. 1968. Analytical Archaeology, London: Methuen.
HODDER, I. 1986. Reading the Past, Cambridge: CUP.
HODDER, I. 1999. The Archaeological Process: An Introduction (Chapter 1), Oxford:
Blackwells.
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JOHNSON, M. 1999. Archaeological Theory: An Introduction, Oxford: Blackwells.
RENFREW, C. 1984. Approaches to Social Archaeology, Edinburgh: EUP.
RENFREW, C. and BAHN, P. 2008 (5th ed). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice,
London: Thames & Hudson.
TRIGGER, B. 2006 (2nd ed.), A History of Archaeological Thought, Cambridge: CUP.
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GENERAL READING GUIDE
This is a reading GUIDE, not a reading list. You are NOT expected to read everything
given here. There are some basic texts which you should all read, but there are often
alternative texts for particular aspects, and those reading for an essay on a particular
topic may wish to go more deeply into a subject. Often, too, we have given a range of
references to applications of a particular technique, to allow you to see it in action: you
are expected to follow up only a few of these. Part of the point is to allow you the room
to construct your knowledge as your individual interests vary. For those of you who
already have some knowledge, the list should provide the opportunity to expand and
deepen your understanding. Also, given the size of the class, it provides a wide range of
reading to allow pressure on books to be spread! Advice on what to read, which may
include items not given here, will be given for individual lecture and tutorial topics by the
lecturer concerned. Finally, for those who wish to pursue archaeology seriously, most of
this material is not again covered explicitly, so this guide should provide a source of
information for the future.
The selection has been made from some 20,000 possible items, using criteria of
availability and importance. We have deliberately avoided works in languages other than
English, but have tried to give as wide a chronological and geographical span of
examples as possible, while obviously centring on Britain.
As is to be expected, there are advances and changes in all aspects of archaeology
covered by this list, as our knowledge increases. When you are working up a topic or
writing an essay, beware of reading a book published eg in 1969 and thinking that you
have got all the relevant information. Always check for more recent work, and LISTEN TO
AND DIGEST WHAT YOU ARE TOLD IN LECTURES, since we will indicate what the current
state of knowledge is, and how things may have changed since the textbooks were
written! Lectures should, usually, provide the framework for further reading. If in doubt,
ask a member of staff for advice - we won't bite.
Key: *** = highly recommended, ** = recommended, * = well worth attention.
This is included as a basic indication of importance that you read the work (or one of the
obvious alternatives); the absence of a star does not mean you should ignore it. Even
just reading the titles of the works should give you an idea of the kinds of thing possible
in a given area.
Note: The most important books are the textbooks noted at the beginning. Look for
textbooks in the Short Loan collection in the Library. A few of the sources recommended
are not yet available in the Main Library: we are doing our best to get them. Ask staff
members if you can't find something. Regrettably, many of the most useful books are out
of print. Suggestions for inclusions and corrections and all comments will be gratefully
received.
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1. GENERAL READING
GREENE, Kevin T 2002 Archaeology: An introduction, 4th edition, Taylor and Francis
Books Ltd. [A good basic introduction.] (Library CC75.G7)
***
FAGAN, Brian M 1993 In the beginning: and introduction to archaeology, 9th edition.
New York, Harlow, Longman. [Good, up-to-date] (Library CC75.F2) ***
RENFREW, Colin & Paul BAHN 2001 Archaeology: Theories, Methods and practice.
London: Thames & Hudson. (up-to-date, good bibliography) Library CC75.G7***
CHAMPION, Sara 1980 A dictionary of terms and techniques in archaeology. Oxford:
Phaidon. [Useful for quick reference.]
COLES, John M 1977 Field archaeology in Britain. London: Methuen. [Good and clear.
Out of print.] (CC76 C6) **
DEETZ, J 1967 Invitation to archaeology. New York: Natural History Press. [An
interesting little book.]
FAGAN, B M 1970 Introductory readings in archaeology. Boston: Little, Brown. [A
series of articles by various authors covering all basic areas.] (CC65 F2)
**
FAGAN, B M 1978 In the beginning. 3rd edition. Boston: Little, Brown. [Highly
worthwhile, all aspects.] (CC75 F2)
***
FAGAN, B M 1987 Archaeology: A brief introduction. 3rd ed. Glenview (IL): Scott,
Foresman & Co. (CC75 F2)
*
FOWLER, P J 1977 Approaches to archaeology. London: A & C Black. [Very useful.]
(CC75 F6) **
HOLE, F & R F HEIZER 1973 An introduction to prehistoric archaeology. 3rd edition.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
JOUKOWSKY, M 1980 A complete manual of field archaeology. Englewood Cliffs (NJ):
Prentice Hall. [Thorough, but sometimes odd.]
*
MCINTOSH, J 1986 The archaeologist's handbook: How we know what we know about
the past. London: Bell & Hyman. [A book for browsing.]
*
TRIGGER, B G 1968 Beyond history: The methods of prehistory. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston. (CC75 T7) [Thoughts on the basics of prehistory.]
WEBSTER, G 1974 Practical archaeology. 2nd Ed. London: A & C Black. (CC76 W4)
[Old fashioned but useful.]
*
2. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND REMOTE SENSING
The discovery of now-levelled archaeological features by the way they change the
characteristics of the soil and by the effects of these changes, is an important part
of investigating the past. The use of aerial photography to record the patterns
formed over levelled sites, in vegetation, on bare soil, or by shadow, has led to a
host of major extensions in our understanding. The use of satellite imagery will
become more important, as will the various specialised techniques for infra red
photography and thermal imaging.
2.1. Basics
BEWLEY, R ET AL. Archiving aerial photography and remote sensing data: a guide to
good practice. Oxford : Oxbow , 1999.
DEUEL, L 1969 Flights into yesterday: The story of aerial photography. [Pelican ed
1973.] (CC76.4 D4 & Class library)
*
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Archaeology V61100
MAXWELL, G S (ed) 1983 The impact of aerial reconnaissance on archaeology. (=
Council for British Archaeology, Research Report, 49.) London: CBA. **
RILEY, D N 1982 Aerial Archaeology in Great Britain. Princes Risborough: Shire
Publications. (Short Loan CC76.4.R4)
RILEY, D N 1987 Air photography and archaeology. London: Duckworth.
***
ST JOSEPH, J K S (ed) 1960 The uses of air photography. London: A & C Black [2nd
ed 1977, London: John Baker.].
WHIMSTER, R 1989 The emerging past: Air photography and the buried landscape.
London: RCHME. (Oversize CC76.4.W4) [Useful case-studies.] **
WILSON, D R 1982 Air photo interpretation for archaeologists. London: Batsford.
***
WILSON, D R (ed) 1975 Aerial reconnaissance for archaeology. ( = Council for British
Archaeology, Research Report, 12.) London: CBA. **
2.2. Some useful sources
DOWNEY, R R 1980 ‘A history of archaeological air photography in Great Britain’, Orbit
1(1980), 1 20. (Class Lib, Box 1/1A)
EDIS, J, D MACLEOD & R H BEWLEY 1989 ‘An archaeologist's guide to classification of
cropmarks and soilmarks’, Antiquity 63 (1989), 112 126. [The official RCHME
version.]
**
HAMPTON, J N, R PALMER et al 1977 ‘Implications of aerial photography for
archaeology’, Archaeological Journal
134(1977), 157 193.
HAMPTON, J N (ed) 1985 ‘The mapping of archaeological evidence from air photographs’, Aerial Archaeology 11(1985).
KENNEDY, D (ed) 1989 Into the sun.
O'BRIEN, M J et al 1982 ‘Digital enhancement and grey level slicing of aerial
photographs: techniques for archaeological analysis of intrasite variability’, World
Archaeology 14(1982), 173 190.
PALMER, R J 1976 ‘A method of transcribing archaeological sites from oblique aerial
photographs’, Journal of Archaeological Science 3(1976), 391 394.
PALMER, R J 1977 ‘A computer method for transcribing information graphically from
oblique aerial photographs to maps’, Journal of Archaeological Science 4(1977),
283 290.
RILEY, D N 1979 ‘Factors in the development of crop marks’, Aerial Archaeology
4(1979), 28 32. [Other papers in the volume are of interest.]
SCOLLAR, I 1978 ‘Computer image processing for archaeological air photo-graphs’,
World Archaeology 10(1)(1978), 71 85.
ST JOSEPH, J K S 1951 ‘A survey of pioneering in air photography’, in Grimes, W F (ed)
Aspects of archaeology in Britain and beyond, 303 315. London: H W Edwards.
(Offprint in Class Lib, Box 1/1A.)
WILSON, D R 1985 ‘Aerial photography at Cambridge’, Antiquity 59(1985), 125 127.
[Retrospect.]
2.3. Other forms of remote sensing
ADAMS, R E W et al 1981 ‘Radar mapping, archaeology, and ancient Maya land use’,
Science 213(1981), 1457 1463.
DONOGHUE, D N M & I SHENNAN 1988 ‘The application of multispectral remote
sensing techniques to wetland archaeology’, in Murphy, P & C A I French (eds) The
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exploitation of wetlands, 47 59. ( = British Archaeological Reports, British Series,
186.) Oxford: BAR.
MCCAULEY, J F et al 1982 ‘Subsurface valleys and geoarchaeology of the Eastern
Sahara revisited by shuttle radar’, Science 218(1982), 1004 1020.
PÉRISSET, M C & A TABBAGH 1981 ‘Interpretation of thermal prospection on bare soils’,
Archaeometry 23(1981), 169 187.
VAN GELDEREN, J 1976 ‘Remote sensing in archaeology’, Archaeological Journal
133(1976), 1 8.
2.4. Some examples of the use of aerial photography
BENSON, D G & D MILES 1974 The Upper Thames valley: An archaeological survey of
the river gravels. Oxford: Oxford Archaeological Unit.
BERESFORD, M W & J K S ST JOSEPH 1979 Medieval England: An aerial survey.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
BRADFORD, J S P 1957 Ancient landscapes: Studies in field archaeology. London: G
Bell & Sons.
CRAWFORD, O G S & A KEILLER 1928 Wessex from the air. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
[Pioneer classic.]
FRERE, S S & J K S ST JOSEPH (1983) Roman Britain from the air. Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ Press.
MCCORD, N 1984 ‘Aerial photography: experiences of a historian’, in Miket, R & C
Burgess (eds) Between and beyond the Walls: Essays in honour of George Jobey,
369 384. Edinburgh: John Donald.
MYERS, J M & E E 1985 ‘An aerial atlas of ancient Crete’, Archaeology 38(5) (1985), 18
25. [Tethered balloon used.]
PALMER, R J 1984 Danebury: An Iron Age hillfort in Hampshire. An aerial photographic interpretation of its environs. ( = Royal Commission on Historical
Monuments (England), Supplementary Ser, 6.) London: RCHM(E).
PALMER, R J 1988 ‘Applications of air photo-archaeology to field-survey results from
Thorney, Cambridgeshire’, Antiquity 62(1988), 331 335.
PHILLIPS, C W (ed) 1970 The Fenland in Roman times. London: Royal Geographical
Soc.
RILEY, D N 1980 Early landscapes from the air. Sheffield: Dept Archaeology &
Prehistory, Univ of Sheffield.
Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England) 1960 A matter of time. London:
HMSO.
WEBSTER, G & B HOBLEY 1965 ‘Aerial reconnaissance over the Warwickshire Avon’,
Archaeological Journal 121(1965), 1 22.
3. FIELDWORK AND INTENSIVE FIELD SURVEY
In order to record and identify the remains of past human activities and landscapes, we
use a series of approaches which are labelled ‘[non excavational] field-work': these
range from methodical field walking to recover artefacts (humanly modified
objects) to large scale landscape analysis and survey. These involve a range of
skills which need to be developed by the practical archaeologist, and the
interpretation of the results is becoming more and more sophisticated. As well as
being a necessary prerequisite for excavation, fieldwork in itself has a much wider
value, being non destructive, cheaper, and wider in scope.
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Archaeology V61100
3.1. Basic sources (see also books under section 1, especially Coles & Fowler)
ASTON, M 1985 Interpreting the landscape: landscape archaeology in local studies.
London: Batsford. *
ASTON, M & T ROWLEY 1974 Landscape archaeology: An introduction to fieldwork
techniques on post Roman landscapes. London: David & Charles.
*
BROWN, A 1987 Fieldwork for archaeologists and local historians. London: Batsford.**
GILLINGS, M., D. MATTINGLEY & J VAN DALEN 1999 GIS and Landscape
Archaeology, A good general overview ***
FOWLER, E (ed) 1972 Field survey in British archaeology. London: Council for British
Archaeol.
FOWLER, P J (ed) 1972 Archaeology and the landscape. London: John Baker. (CC75
F6)
STEANE, J M & B F DIX 1978 Peopling past landscapes: A handbook introducing
archaeological fieldwork techniques in rural areas. London: Council for Brit
Archaeol. [Useful basic guide; non technological!] *
TAYLOR, C C 1974 Fieldwork in Medieval archaeology. London: Batsford. [One of the
best.] (CC76 T2) ***
3.2. Further reading
BINTLIFF, J L & A M SNODGRASS 1988 ‘Mediterranean survey and the city’, Antiquity
62(1988), 57 71.
BINTLIFF, J L & A M SNODGRASS 1988 ‘Off site pottery distributions: a regional and
interregional perspective’, Current Anthropology 29(1988), 506 513.
CAVANAGH, W. G., J. CROUWEL, R. CATLING AND G. SHIPLEY, 1996. Continuity and
Change in a Greek Rural Landscape: The Laconia Survey II. London.
CHERRY, J F 1983 ‘Frogs around the pond: perspectives on current archaeological
survey projects around the Mediterranean region’, in Keller, D R & D W Rupp (eds)
Archaeological survey in the Mediterranean area, 394 397. ( = British
Archaeological Reports, International Series, S155.) Oxford: BAR.
FOARD, G 1978 ‘Systematic fieldwalking and the investigation of Saxon settlement in
Northamptonshire’, World Archaeology 9(1978), 357 374.
FOLEY, R A 1981 ‘Off site archaeology: an alternative approach for the short-sited’, in
Hodder, I, G Ll Isaac & N Hammond (eds) Pattern of the Past: Essays in honour of
David Clarke, 157 182. (CC75 H6)
*
HASELGROVE, C, M MILLETT & I SMITH (eds) 1985 Archaeology from the ploughsoil:
studies in the collection and interpretation of field survey data. Sheffield:
Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, Univ Sheffield. [Very useful]
**
JAMESON, M. H., C. N. RUNNELS AND T. H. VAN ANDEL, 1994. A Greek Countryside: the
Southern Argolid from Prehistory to the Present Day. Stanford.
LANE, P (ed) 1985 ‘Surface archaeology’, Archaeological Review from Cambridge 4(1)
(1985). [Useful collection of papers. Ask James K for this.]
LIDDLE, P 1985 Community archaeology: A fieldworker's handbook of organisation and
techniques. ( = Leicester Museum Publications, 61.) Leicester: Leicestershire
Museums Service.
MACREADY, S & F H THOMPSON (eds) 1985 Archaeological field survey in Britain and
abroad. ( = Soc Antiquaries London, Occasional Paper, new series 6.) London:
Soc Antiquaries. (CC76.3 A7)
MEE, C. B. AND H. FORBES (eds), 1997. A Rough and Rocky Place: the landscape and
settlement history of the Methana Peninsula, Greece. Liverpool.
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Archaeology V61100
MUELLER, J W (ed) 1975 Sampling in archaeology. Tucson (AZ): Univ Arizona Press.
(CC80.6 M8)
O'SULLIVAN, A. 1998 The archaeology of lake settlement in Ireland. Dublin :Royal Irish
Academy.
PLOG, S, F T PLOG & W WAIT 1978 ‘Decision making in modern surveys’, Advances in
archaeological method and theory 1(1978), 383 421. (CC75 A3)
REID, R W K 1972 ‘Facts and figures from fieldwork’, Proceedings of the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland 107(1971 2), 268 282.
THOMAS, D H 1975 ‘Non site sampling in archaeology: up the creek without a site’, in
Mueller, J W (ed) Sampling in archaeology, 61 81. Tucson (AZ): Univ Arizona
Press.
WAGSTAFF, J M (ed) 1987 Landscape and culture. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
3.3. Some examples of fieldwork and ‘landscape archaeology' in action
(some with methodological discussion, and relationship with other evidence).
AUSTIN, D & M J C WALKER 1985 ‘A new landscape context for Houndtor,
Devon’, Medieval Archaeology 29(1985), 147 152. [Integration of pollen analysis in
settlement interpretation.]
BARKER, G Landscape and Society: prehistoric Central Italy. London: Leicester UP.
BENSON, D G & D MILES 1974 The Upper Thames valley: An archaeological survey of
the river gravels. Oxford: Oxford Archaeol Unit.
*
FORD, S ‘Flint scatters and prehistoric settlement patterns in South Oxfordshire and East
Berkshire’, in Brown, A G & M R Edmonds (eds) Lithic analysis and later British
prehistory: Some problems and approaches, 101 135. ( = Brit Archaeol Reports,
British Series, 162.) Oxford: BAR.
HALL, D 1988 ‘Survey results in the Cambridgeshire Fenland’, Antiquity 62(1988), 311
314.GAFFNEY, V G & M TINGLE 1989 The Maddle Farm Project: An integrated
survey of prehistoric and Roman landscapes on the Berkshire Downs. ( = Brit
Archaeol Reports, Brit Ser, 200.) Oxford: BAR. [Worth attention.]
*
HAYES, P P 1988 ‘Roman to Saxon in the south Lincolnshire Fens’, Antiquity 62(1988),
321 326.
HODDER, I R & C MALONE 1984 ‘Intensive survey of prehistoric sites in the Stilo region,
Calabria’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 50(1984), 121 150.
JAMESON, M H et al 1994 A Greek Countryside Stanford: Stanford UP.
KELLER, D R & D W RUPP (eds) 1983 Archaeological survey in the Mediterranean area.
( = Brit Archaeol Reports, International Series, S155.) Oxford: BAR.
LANE, T 1988 ‘Pre Roman origins for settlement on the Fens of south Lincolnshire’,
Antiquity 62(1988), 314 321.
PRYOR, F M M & C A I FRENCH 1985 Archaeology and environment in the Lower
Welland Valley. ( = East Anglian Archaeol, 27.)
REEVES SMYTH, T & F HAMOND (eds) 1983 Landscape archaeology in Ireland. ( = Brit
Archaeol Reports, British Series, 116.) Oxford: BAR.
SHENNAN, S J 1985 Experiments in the collection and analysis of archaeological survey
data: The East Hampshire Survey. Sheffield: Dept Archaeol & Prehist, Univ of
Sheffield.
WILLIAMSON, T M 1984 ‘The Roman countryside: settlement and agriculture in NW
Essex’, Britannia 15(1984), 225 230. *
3.4. Documentary research and archaeology
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Archaeology V61100
Historical documentation can provide useful help in the preparation, execution and
interpretation of archaeological research in all periods. The archaeologist, too, can
help the historian. Some examples and discussions are given below.
ASTON, M & T ROWLEY 1974 Landscape archaeology: An introduction to fieldwork
techniques on post Roman landscapes. London: David & Charles.
BROWN, A 1987 Fieldwork for archaeologists and local historians. London: Batsford.
**
CRAWFORD, B E 1987 Scandinavian Scotland. Leicester: Leicester Univ Press. [‘Source
material’, pages 2 10, is useful.] *
DYMOND, D P 1974 Archaeology and history: A plea for reconciliation. London:
Thames & Hudson.
KEENE, D J et al 1978 ‘The use of documentary sources by the archaeologist’, Archives
13(1978), 196 215. (In Manuscripts Dept of Hallward Library.)
MURRAY, H K 1979 ‘Documentary evidence for domestic buildings in Ireland c 400 1200
in the light of archaeology’, Medieval Archaeology 23(1979), 81 97.
PANTIN, W A 1958 ‘Monuments or muniments? The interrelation of material remains
and documentary sources’, Medieval Archaeology 2(1958), 158 168. **
ROGERS, A & T ROWLEY (eds) 1974 Landscapes and documents. London: Bedford
Square Press. [Especially pp 5 26: papers by Dymond & Taylor.]
SHARMAN, F A 1981 ‘Total archaeology plus’, Local Historian 14(1981), 352 357.
TAYLOR, C C 1974 Fieldwork in Medieval archaeology. London: Batsford. (CC76 T2)
WAINWRIGHT, F T 1962 Archaeology and place names and history. London: RKP.
4. PHOSPHATE ANALYSIS
Concentrated human and animal activity in an area leads to the enrichment of the levels
of insoluble phosphates in the soil. This can be detected by suitable soil sampling
and analysis, and can help in the identification of settlement areas, and in the
identification of activity areas within sites. Phosphate analysis can also help, for
example, to show the former presence of a body in a grave.
4.1. General
BAKKEVIG, S 1980 ‘Phosphate analysis in archaeology: problems and recent progress’,
Norwegian Archaeological Review 13(1980), 73 100.
EIDT, R C 1977 ‘Detection and examination of anthrosols by phosphate analysis’,
Science 197(1977), 1327 1333.
*
GURNEY, D A 1985 Phosphate analysis of soils: a guide for the field archaeologist. ( =
Institute of Field Archaeologists Technical Paper, 3.) Birmingham: Inst Fld
Archaeol.
HAMOND, F W 1983 ‘Phosphate analysis of archaeological sediments’, in Reeves Smith,
T & F W Hamond (eds) Landscape archaeology in Ireland, 47 80. ( = British
Archaeological Reports, British Series, 116.) Oxford: Brit Archaeol Rep.
MCCAWLEY, J C & H MCKERRELL 1973 ‘Soil phosphorus levels at archaeological sites’,
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 104 (1971 72), 301 306.
OTTAWAY, J H 1984 ‘Persistence of organic phosphate in buried soils’, Nature
307(1984), 257 259.
PROUDFOOT, V B 1976 ‘The analysis and interpretation of soil phosphorus in
archaeological contexts’, in Davidson, D A & M L Shackley (eds) Geoarchaeology:
Earth science and the past, 93 113. London: Duckworth. **
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4.2. Case studies
EDWARDS, K J 1983 ‘Phosphate analysis of soils associated with the Old Kinord field
and settlement system, Muir of Dinnet, Aberdeenshire’, Proceedings of the Society
of Antiquaries of Scotland 113(1983), 620 627.
PROVAN, D M J 1973 ‘The soils of an Iron Age farm site Bjellandso/ynae, SW Norway’,
Norwegian Archaeological Review 6(1973), 30 41.
SIEVEKING, G de G et al 1973 ‘A new survey of Grime's Graves: first report’,
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 39(1973), 182 218.
5. GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTION
Changes in the physical, electrical and magnetic properties of the soil can be mapped
using a series of geophysical techniques, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages. These can in some cases provide a useful picture of what lies
beneath the ground without/before excavation. New radar based techniques offer
exciting possibilities. The basic and most up to date text is:
CLARK, Anthony J 1990 Seeing beneath the soil: Prospecting methods in archaeology.
London: Batsford. ***
5.1. General
AITKEN, M J 1974 Physics and archaeology. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
(CC79 P5)
BROTHWELL, D & E S HIGGS (eds) 1969 Science and archaeology. London: Thames &
Hudson. [Chapters 60 & 61. Useful.]
*
CLARK, A J 1975 ‘Archaeological prospecting: a progress report’, J Archaeol Science
2(1975), 297 314. [Quick introduction.]
*
CONYERS, L. B. & GOODMAN, D. 1997 Ground penetrating radar: an introduction for
archaeologists. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
GOODMAN, D & Y NISHIMURA ‘A ground-radar view of Japanese burial mounds' Antiquity
67 (1993) 349-54.
PARKES, P A 1986 Current scientific techniques in archaeology. London: Croom Helm.
[Chapter 9.] **
TITE, M S 1972 Methods of physical examination in archaeology. London: Seminar
Press. [Chap 2] (CC79 S3)
**
5.2. Useful sources and case studies
ASPINALL, A & J A POCOCK 1988 ‘Geophysical surveys in eastern Yorkshire’, in Manby,
T G (ed) Archaeology in eastern Yorkshire, 12 24. Sheffield: Univ Dept Archaeol
Prehist.
CASEY, P J, M NOEL & J WRIGHT 1992 ‘The Roman fort at Lanchester, Co. Durham; A
geophysical survey and discussion’, Archaeological Journal 149(1992), 69-81.
KELLY, M A, P DALE & J G B HAIGH 1984 ‘A microcomputer system for data logging in
geophysical surveying’, Archaeometry 26(1984), 183 191.
SCOLLAR, I 1969 ‘Some techniques for the evaluation of archaeological magnetometer
surveys’, World Archaeology 1(1969), 77 89. *
STOVE, G C & P V ADDYMAN 1989 ‘Ground probing impulse radar: an experiment in
archaeological remote sensing at York’, Antiquity 63(1989), 337 342. *
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TABBAGH, A 1984 ‘On the comparison between magnetic and electromagnetic
prospection methods for archaeological features detection’, Archaeometry
26(1984), 171 182.
6. EXCAVATION AND RECORDING
6.1. Basic introductions
(See also works under section 1, especially Greene & Joukowsky, not repeated here.
Most of the sources below also consider stratification and post excavation study.)
The questions asked by the excavator, and the methods available for excavation, have
developed tremendously in the last 20 30 years. Since a proper understanding of
much archaeology depends on a good knowledge of excavation, its techniques and
problems, it is essential that you make an effort to gain such a knowledge. The
basic, recommended and ESSENTIAL text is:
BARKER, P A 1986 Understanding archaeological excavation. London: Batsford. (CC75
B2) [Should be read by ALL.] ***
ALEXANDER, J 1970 The directing of archaeological excavations. London: John Baker.
(CC76 A5)
BARKER, P A 1982 Techniques of archaeological excavation. 2nd ed. London: Batsford.
(CC76 B2) **
6.2. Some further sources
ASTILL, G & S LOBB 1982 ‘Sampling a Saxon settlement site: Wraysbury, Berks,
1980’, Medieval Archaeology 26(1982), 138 142.
ATKINSON, R J C 1957 ‘Worms and weathering’, Antiquity 21(1957), 219 233.
BARBER, JOHN (ed) 1993 Interpreting stratigraphy. Edinburgh: AOC.
BARKER, P A 1969 ‘Some aspects of the excavation of timber buildings’, World
Archaeology 1(1969), 220 235.
BIDDLE, M 1969 ‘Metres, areas and robbing’, World Archaeology 1(1969), 208 219.
CARVER, M O H 1985 ‘Diggers and digging in the 21st century’, The Field Archaeologist
3(1985), 26 28.
**
CHERRY, J F, C GAMBLE & S J SHENNAN 1979 ‘Sampling’, Current Archaeology
67(1979), 223.
DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT 1978 The scientific treatment of material from
rescue excavations: A report of a working party of the Committee for Rescue
Archaeology of the Ancient Monuments Board for England. London: DoE.(Class
Lib, Box 1A)
GIFFORD GONZALEZ, D P et al 1985 ‘The third dimension in site structure: an
experiment in trampling and vertical dispersal’, American Antiquity 4 50(1985),
803 818.
HARRIS, E C 1975 ‘The stratigraphic sequence: a question of time’, World Archaeology
7(1975), 109 121.
HARRIS, E C 1979 The principles of archaeological stratigraphy. New York: Academic
Press. (CC77.5 H2)
HOGG, A H A 1978 ‘Sample excavation’, Current Archaeology 63(1978), 125 127.
HOPE TAYLOR, B 1984 ‘Analytical excavation: another view’, Antiquity 58(1984), 214
215. [see Reynolds & Barber 1984.]
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JEFFERIES, J S 1977 Excavation records: Techniques in use by the Central Excavation
Unit. ( = Dir Anc Mons Hist Buildings, Occasional Paper, 1.) London: DoE. (Class
Lib, Box 1)
PAYNE, S 1972 ‘Partial recovery and sample bias: the results of some sieving
experiments’, in Higgs, E S (ed) Papers in economic prehistory, 49 64.
Cambridge: CUP.**
POULTER, A G 1989 Instructions to supervisors. (Class Library)
**
REYNOLDS, N & J BARBER 1984 ‘Analytical excavation’, Antiquity 58(1984), 95 102.
[see Hope Taylor 1984.]
RODWELL, W 1989 ‘Archaeology and the standing fabric: recent studies at Lichfield
Cathedral’, Antiquity 63 (1989), 281 294.
VAN DER VEEN, M 1985 ‘Carbonised seeds, sample size and on site sampling’, in Fieller,
N R J, D D Gilbertson & N G A Ralph (eds) Palaeoenvironmental investigations:
Research design, methods and data analysis, 165 174. ( = British Archaeol
Reports, International Series, S258.) Oxford: BAR.
WHEELER, R E M 1954 Archaeology from the earth. Oxford: OUP. (Pelican 1956, 1961.)
[Old, not up to date, worth reading.](CC75 W4)
**
WOODMAN, P C 1982 ‘Sampling strategies and problems of archaeological visibility’,
Ulster Journal of Archaeology 44 5(1981 2), 179 184.
6.3. Health and safety
Excavation often presents dangers; fieldwork has its hazards, too. It is as well to be
aware of these and the ways to avoid them, even if you are just working on an
excavation, and not running it!
ALLEN, J L & A ST JOHN HOLT 1986 Health and safety in field archaeology.
....:Standing Conf Archaeol Unit Managers.
FOWLER, P J 1972 Responsibility and safeguards in archaeological excavation. London:
Council for British Archaeology.
HAYWARD, J A 1968 ‘Unshored excavations are killers’, British Journal of Occupational
Safety 7 [no 85, Autumn] (1968), ..........
Class Library
OLIVER, A 1989 Safety in archaeological fieldwork. ( = Council for British Archaeology,
Practical Handbook, 6.) London: CBA.
WALDRON, H A 1985 ‘Occupational health and the archaeologist’, Brit J Industrial
Medicine 42(1985), 793 794.
6.4. A selection of excavation reports worth looking at
These are merely suggestions, covering as wide a range as possible. Look at a few of
them to see why the sites were excavated, what the problems of the sites were,
and how the excavators tackled them. How adequately does the published report
give a picture of the site and the work carried out? Look at the specialist reports
(if any). Are the various elements of the work, especially the environmental and
artefactual reports, properly integrated into the text? Compare older with more
recent reports how have methods changed, and have the problems investigated
changed too?
ALCOCK, L 1972 By South Cadbury is that Camelot... London: Thames & Hudson.**
AVERY, M, J G E SUTTON & J W BANKS 1967 ‘Rainsborough, Northants, England:
excavations 1961 5’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 33 (1967), 207 306.
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BARBER, J 1981 ‘Excavations on Iona, 1979’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland 111(1981), 282 380.
BARKER, P A & R HIGHAM 1982 Hen Domen, Montgomery. A timber castle on the
English Welsh border. Volume I. London: Royal Archaeological Institute.
BERESFORD, G 1987 Goltho: The development of an early Medieval manor c 850
1150. London: HBMC.
BERSU, G 1940 ‘Excavations at Little Woodbury, Wiltshire’, Proceedings of the
Prehistoric Society 6(1940), 30 111. [Influential in its day.]
BROWN, N 1988 ‘A Late Bronze Age enclosure at Lofts Farm, Essex’, Proceedings of the
Prehistoric Society 54(1988), 249 302.
CARVER, M O H 1979 ‘Three Saxo Norman tenements in Durham City’, Medieval
Archaeology 23(1979), 1 80.
CLARK, J G D 1954 Excavations at Star Carr. Cambridge: CUP. [Ahead of its time.]
CLARKE, H & A CARTER 1977 Excavations in King's Lynn, 1963 1970. ( = Soc
Medieval Archaeol, Monograph Series, 7.) London: Soc Medieval Archaeol.
CUNLIFFE, B W 1983 Danebury: Anatomy of an Iron Age hillfort. London: Thames &
Hudson. [The pop version.]
CUNLIFFE, B W 1984 Danebury: An Iron Age hillfort in Hampshire. 2 vols. ( =
Council for British Archaeology, Research Report, 52.) London: Counc Brit
Archaeol. [The heavy stuff.]
FRERE, S S 1972 Verulamium excavations I. ( = Soc Antiquaries of London, Research
Report, 28.) London: Soc Antiq London.
HESLOP, D H 1987 The excavation of an Iron Age settlement at Thorpe Thewles,
Cleveland, 1980 1982. ( = Council for British Archaeology, Research Report, 65.)
London: Counc Brit Archaeol.
HOPE TAYLOR, B 1977 Yeavering, an Anglo British centre of early Northumbria.
London: HMSO.
LEECH, R 1986 ‘The excavation of a Romano Celtic temple and a later cemetery on
Lamyatt Beacon, Somerset’, Britannia 17(1986), 259 328.
MILES, D (ed) 1986 Archaeology at Barton Court Farm, Abingdon, Oxon. ( = Council
for British Archaeology, Research Report, 50.) London: CBA.
SHARPLES, N M 1984 ‘Excavations at Pierowall Quarry, Westray, Orkney’, Proceedings
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 114(1984), 75 125.
VAN ES, W A 1967 ‘Wijster: a native village beyond the Imperial frontier 150 425 AD’,
Palaeohistoria 11(1967). (Whole volume.)
WARREN, P 1972 Myrtos: An Early Bronze Age settlement in Crete. London: British
School of Archaeology at Athens.
WHEELER, R E M 1943 Maiden Castle, Dorset. ( = Soc Antiquaries of London, Research
Report, 12.) London: Soc Antiq London. [For a long time the classic!]
WHEELER, R E M & T V 1932 Report on the excavations of the prehistoric, Roman and
post Roman site in Lydney Park, Glos. Oxford. [How has this oldie stood up?]
WILLIAMS, J H et al 1985 Middle Saxon palaces at Northampton. ( = Northampton
Devel Corporation, Archaeological Monograph, 4.) Northampton: Northampton
Devel Corp.
6.5. Publication
There is a series of important problems here: how to organise the recovered material
and site records to prepare a publication, what to select for publication and in what
detail it is necessary publish, how to present it, and the method of production.
See Barker 1982 (Section 6.1 above), Chapter 13, for a good start.
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ALCOCK, L 1978 ‘Excavation and publication: some comments’, Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109(1977 78), 1 6.
BARRETT, J C et al 1983 ‘South Lodge after Pitt Rivers’, Antiquity 57(1983), 193 204.
BISHOP, S 1976 ‘The methodology of post excavation work’, Science & Archaeology
18(1976), 15 19.
CBA 1979 Signposts for archaeological publication: A guide to good practice in the
presentation and printing of archaeological periodicals and monographs. 2nd ed.
London: Council for British Archaeol.
COLES, J M 1980 ‘Presidential address: the donkey and the tail’, Proceedings of the
Prehistoric Society 46(1980), 1 8.
CUNLIFFE, B W (chair) 1983 The publication of archaeological excavations: The report
of a joint working party of the Council for British Archaeology and the Department
of the Environment. London: DoE.
CUNLIFFE, B W 1990 ‘Publishing in the city’, Antiquity 64(1990), 667 671. [Review of
publications of excavations in London: has some useful points.]
**
DERRICOURT, R 1984 ‘Field-work publication and the CBA/DoE report’, Antiquity
58(1984), 54 56.
FRERE, S S (chair) 1975 Principles of publication in rescue archaeology: Report of a
working party of the Committee for Rescue Archaeology, Ancient Monuments
Board for England. London: DoE.
GRINSELL, L V, P A RAHTZ & D PRICE WILLIAMS 1974 The preparation of
archaeological reports. Revised ed. London. **
MILLETT, M 1989 ‘Styles and principles in archaeological publication: Chester
reviewed’, Antiquity 63(1989), 536 539.
SCHOFIELD, J 1988 ‘Archaeology in the City of London: archive and publication’,
Archaeological Journal 144(1988), 424 433.
YOUNG, C J 1980 Guidelines for the processing and publication of Roman pottery from
excavations. ( = Dir Anc Mons Hist Buildings, Occasional Paper, 4.) London: DoE.
(Class Lib, Box 1A)
6.6. Wetland sites
Wetland sites are important, as they preserve all the perishable items, of wood, leather,
cloth, and often structures of timber, which are not found on ‘normal' sites. This
evidence is usually linked to good environmental evidence, so that the quality of
the picture of the past we get from them is unsurpassed.
BROTHWELL, D R 1987 The bog man and the archaeology of people. London: Brit Mus
Publications. *
COLES, B J (ed) 1992 The wetland revolution in prehistory. ( = WARP, Occas Paper, 6.)
Exeter: WARP / Prehistoric Society.
COLES, J M & B J 1986. The Sweet Track at Glastonbury: the Somerset Levels in
Prehistory. London: Thames & Hudson.
COLES, J M & B J 1989 People of the wetlands. London: Thames & Hudson. [A
fascinating book, well worth looking at.] ***
COLES, J M 1984 The archaeology of wetlands. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ Press.
COLES, J M & A J LAWSON (eds) 1987 European wetlands in prehistory. Oxford:
Clarendon Press. **
GLOB, P V 1969 The bog people. London: Faber & Faber. (CC196.D4.G5)
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Archaeology V61100
PRYOR, F M M (ed) 1992 ‘Special section: Current research at Flag Fen, Peterborough’,
Antiquity 66(1992), 439-531.
RIPPON, S 1996 The Gwent Levels York: CBA
STEAD, I M et al 1986 Lindow Man: The body in the bog. London: Brit Mus
Publications. *
7. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPOLOGY; STRATIGRAPHY AND DATING. MAKING
ARCHAEOLOGICAL CULTURES AND CHRONOLOGIES
(See section 9 for ‘Scientific' dating methods. All basic texts give useful considerations of
these topics.)
This section is concerned with putting together what has been found, classifying it into
‘types' (groups of similar artefacts) and assemblages (consistently recurring
groups of types), and then seeing how these types and assemblages change
through time and space by examining stratigraphy (the relationships of the
contexts within which they are found) and cross association (the spatial
relationships of types and assemblages from site to site and area to area) and
finally by giving dates to the artefacts or their contexts using historical or scientific
methods. This is basic to any further interpretation in terms of ‘cultures'
(supposedly groups of people) and their chronology (temporal relationships and
sequences of change through time), and raises many difficult problems.
7.1. General
ADAMS, W Y 1988 ‘Archaeological classification: theory versus practice’, Antiquity
62(1988), 40 56.
ADAMS, W Y & E W 1991 Archaeological typology and practical reality. Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ Press. (CC72.7.A3)
BARBER, JOHN (ed) 1993 Interpreting stratigraphy. Edinburgh: AOC.
CARVER, M O H 1979 ‘Notes on some general principles for the analysis of excavated
data'. Science & Archaeology 21(1979), 3 14. [Centred round stratigraphy].
CARVER, M O H 1985 ‘Theory and practice in urban pottery seriation’, Journal of
Archaeological Science 12(1985), 353 366.
CLARKE, D L 1968 Analytical archaeology. London: Methuen. [Work from index!]
EDIS, J, D MACLEOD & R H BEWLEY 1989 ‘An archaeologists' guide to classification of
cropmarks and soilmarks’, Antiquity 63 (1989), 112 126.
FAGAN, B M 1970 Introductory readings in archaeology. Boston: Little, Brown. [Chap
3, ‘Time in Archaeology' first 3 readings only and Chap 6 are very useful.]
(CC75 F2)
FLEMING, S 1977 Dating in archaeology: A guide to scientific techniques. London:
Dent. [Chapter 1 is ‘non scientific' useful.] **
FOWLER, P J 1977 Approaches to archaeology, 106 113. London: Batsford. [Concise
introduction.] (CC75 F6) ***
GRASLUND, B 1987 The birth of prehistoric chronology: Dating methods and dating
systems in nineteenth century Scandinavian archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ Press. [Examines the historic fundamentals.] (CC78 G7)
*
HARRIS, E C 1975 ‘The stratigraphic sequence: a question of time’, World Archaeology
7(1975), 109 121. [See Andrew Poulter.]
**
HARRIS, E C 1979 The principles of archaeological stratigraphy. New York: Academic
Press. (CC77.5 H2) *
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Archaeology V61100
HODSON, F R 1980 ‘Cultures as types? Some elements of classification theory’, Bulletin
of the Institute of Archaeology, University of London 17(1980), 1 10.
HODSON, F R, P H A SNEATH & J E DORAN 1966 ‘Some experiments in the numerical
analysis of archaeological data’, Biometrika 53(1966), 311 324. [Useful for its
experimental comparison of traditional typologies of the same group of artefacts
points up a problem.]
*
KLEJN, L S 1982 Archaeological typology. ( = British Archaeological Reports,
International Series, S153.) Oxford: BAR.
KRISTIANSEN, K 1985 ‘The place of chronological studies in archaeology. A view from
the Old World’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 4(1985), 251 266.
ORME, B J (ed) 1982 Problems and case studies in archaeological dating. Exeter: Univ
Exeter.
SEITZER, D J 1978 ‘Problems and principles of classification in archaeology’, Helinium
18(1978), 3 34.
THOMPSON, M W 1977 General Pitt Rivers: Evolution and archaeology in the 19th
century. Bradford on Avon: Moonraker Press. (CC115 P48)
7.2. Some case studies
BRINDLEY, A L 1986 ‘The typochronology of TRB West Group pottery’, Palaeohistoria
28(1986), 93 132.
CLARKE, D L 1966 ‘A tentative reclassification of British Beaker pottery in the light of
recent research’, Palaeohistoria 12(1966)[1967], 179 197.
EHRICH, R W (ed) 1965 Chronologies in Old World archaeology. Chicago: Univ Chicago
Press.
FANNING, T 1983 ‘Some aspects of the bronze ringed pin in Scotland’, in O'CONNOR, A
& D V CLARKE (eds) From the Stone Age to the 'Forty Five, 324 342. Edinburgh:
John Donald.
FOWLER, E 1960 ‘The origins and development of the penannular brooch in Europe’,
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 26(1960), 149 177.
FURMANEK, V 1980 ‘Periodization in the Central European Bronze Age’, Bulletin of the
Institute of Archaeology, University of London 17(1980), 117 128.
GIDDINGS, J L 1966 ‘Cross dating the archaeology of Northwestern Alaska’, Science
153(1966), 127 135.
LANTING, J N, W G MOOK & J D VAN DER WAALS 1973 ‘C14 chronology and the Beaker
problem’, Helinium 13(1973), 38 58.
LANTING, J N & J D VAN DER WAALS 1972 ‘British Beakers as seen from the Continent’,
Helinium 12(1972), 20 46.
SAVILLE, A 1981 ‘Mesolithic industries in Central England: an exploratory investigation
using microlith typology’, Archaeological Journal 138 (1981), 49 71.
SMITH, C A 1974 ‘A morphological analysis of late prehistoric and Romano British
settlements in north west Wales’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 40(1974),
157 169.
TAYLOR, J J 1980 Bronze Age goldwork of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge
Univ Press. [pp 25 41 on lunulae.]
8. THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS TO ARCHAEOLOGY
While we hope that you will develop some understanding of the methods involved, and
more particularly of their archaeological uses (and limitations), we must stress
that we DO NOT EXPECT you to be or become highly competent in the arcana of
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Archaeology V61100
archaeological science. You will understand more or less as your past training and
present interest dictates. Since so much archaeological interpretation at the site
and artefact level now depends on the intelligent use of such methods (for we
must make use of all possible sources of information in investigating the past) you
need to have some idea of what such approaches can and cannot do. Above all,
DON'T PANIC!
General works:
AITKEN, M J 1974 Physics and archaeology. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press.
(CC75.P5) [Fairly technical.]
AITKEN, M J 1978 ‘Archaeological involvement of physics’, Physics Reports 40C(1978),
277 351.
BECK, C W 1985 ‘Trouble in the hedgerows’, Journal of Archaeological Science
12(1985), 405 409. [Poor interdisciplinary work criticised esp. in archaeological
chemistry.]
BERGER, R (ed) 1970 Scientific methods in medieval archaeology. Los Angeles: UCLA.
(CC79 S3)
BIEK, L 1963 Archaeology and the microscope. London: Lutterworth. [Old, but useful]
(CC79 S3)
BOWMAN, S. (ed) 1991 Science and the Past. (CC79.S3) [an excellent overview –
recommended]
BROTHWELL, D & E S HIGGS (eds) 1969 Science and archaeology. London: Thames &
Hudson. (CC79 S3) [Old, but useful.] **
GOODYEAR, F H 1971 Archaeological site science. London: Heinemann Educational.
(CC79 S3)
PARKES, P A 1986 Current scientific techniques in archaeology. [A good, recent simple
text.] (CC75 P2) **
PHILLIPS, A P (ed) 1985 Archaeology and the laboratory. ( = Council for British
Archaeology, Research Report, 58.) London: CBA. [Petrology, neutron activation
analysis, dendrochronology, technology, metallurgy, analytical techniques. Useful
- browse.] *
POLLARD, A. M. AND HERON, C. 1996 Archaeological Chemistry Royal Society of
Chemistry. (CC79.C5) [nothing on dating, but up to date and includes chapters
on application of organic chemistry]
SLATER, E A & J O TATE (eds) 1988 Science and archaeology, Glasgow 1987:
Proceedings of a conference on the application of scientific techniques to
archaeology, Glasgow, September 1987.
( = British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 196. [Up to date reports over a wide
range - browse.] **
TITE, M S 1972 Methods of physical examination in archaeology. London: Seminar
Press. (CC79 S3) [Valuable, especially for the case-studies.]
***
9. SCIENTIFIC DATING METHODS
It has only been with the development of scientific dating methods, based on natural and
atomic ‘clocks’, that the archaeologist has been able to gain a reasonable idea of
the dates (‘absolute chronology') of the 99.9% of human tool making existence
before the advent of history, and indeed in most of the world, for a long period
after the first appearance of historical records. These techniques are also of use in
historical periods, since we cannot guarantee that all our sites and finds are linked
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Archaeology V61100
to historical data. Like all scientific analysis, these methods have limits of
accuracy and precision to a varying degree, have different advantages and
disadvantages, and limits to their application. Do they make traditional relative
chronologies obsolete? The recommended and UP TO DATE text is:
AITKEN, M. 1990. Science based dating in archaeology. London: Longman. CC78.A4 ***
9.1. General
AITKEN, M J 1974 Physics and archaeology. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP. (CC79 P5)
BROTHWELL, D & E S HIGGS (eds) 1969 Science and archaeology. London: Thames &
Hudson. [Section I to be used with CARE.] *
CLARK, A J 1987 Scientific dating techniques. ( = Institute of Field Archaeol-ogists,
Technical Paper, 5.) Birmingham: Inst Field Archaeol. (Class Library, Box 1A.)
**
FLEMING, S 1977 Dating in archaeology: A guide to scientific techniques. London:
Dent. (CC78.F5) **
HEDGES, R E M 1979 ‘Radioisotope clocks in archaeology’, Nature 281(1979), 19 24.
[Useful introduction: short survey.] ***
MICHELS, J W 1973 Dating methods in archaeology. London: Seminar Press. [Dated
but generally useful.] (CC78.M4)
PARKES, P A 1986 Current scientific techniques in archaeology. London: Croom Helm.
[Fairly up to date: Chapters 2 5.] (CC75.P2)
***
SLATER, E A & J O TATE (eds) 1988 Science and archaeology, Glasgow 1987:
Proceedings of a conference on the application of scientific techniques to
archaeology, Glasgow, September 1987. ( = British Archaeological Reports,
British Series, 196.) [Pages 543 667.] *
TITE, M S 1972 Methods of physical examination in archaeology. [Chapters 3 6. NOT
up to date, but valuable.] **
9.2. Tree ring dating (Dendrochronology)
General:
BAILLIE, M G L 1982 Tree-ring dating and archaeology. London: Croom Helm. (Sci
Lib: QK477.A6 BAI)
*
BAILLIE, M G L 1995 A Slice Through Time: dendrochronology and precision dating
London: Batsford.
BANNISTER, B & W J ROBINSON 1975 ‘Tree ring dating in archaeology’, World
Archaeology 7(1975), 210 225. *
ECKSTEIN, D et al 1984 Dendrochronological dating. Strasbourg: European Science
Foundation. [Class library.]
*
FRITTS, H C 1976 Tree rings and climate. New York & London: Academic Press. (Sci
Lib: QK477.A6 FRI)
TRENARD, Y 1982 ‘Making wood speak: an introduction to dendrochronology’, Forestry
Products Abstracts 5(12) (1982), 267 297. [Class Library.]
Useful sources and case studies:
ECKSTEIN, D et al 1986 ‘New evidence for the dendrochronological dating of
Netherlandish paintings’, Nature 320(1986), 465 466.
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Archaeology V61100
FLETCHER, J M (ed) 1978 Dendrochronology in Europe: Principles, interpretations and
applications to archaeology and history. ( = British Archaeological Reports,
International Series, 51.) Oxford: BAR.
HUGHES, M K et al 1981 ‘Sapwood estimates in the interpretation of tree ring dates’,
Journal of Archaeological Science 8(1981), 381 390.
LAXTON, R R & C D LITTON 1984 ‘Information theory and dendrochronology: the effect
of pre whitening’, in Haigh, J (ed) Computer applications in archaeology, 137 149.
Bradford: Univ Bradford.
LAXTON, R R & C D LITTON 1988 An East Midlands master tree-ring chronology and its
use for dating vernacular buildings. Nottingham: Univ Nottingham Dept Archaeol.
LAXTON, R R, C D LITTON & W G SIMPSON 1983 ‘Tree ring dates of some East Midland
buildings: 2’, Transactions of the Thoroton Society of Nottinghamshire 87(1983),
40 45.
MORGAN, R A 1988 Tree ring studies of wood used in Neolithic and Bronze Age
trackways from the Somerset Levels. ( = British Archaeological Reports, British
Series, 184.) Oxford: BAR.
OTTAWAY, B S (ed) 1983 Archaeology, dendrochronology and the radiocarbon
calibration curve. ( = Univ Edinburgh Dept Archaeol, Occasional Paper, 9.)
PILCHER, J R, M G L BAILLIE, B SCHMIDT & B BECKER 1984 ‘A 7,272 year tree ring
chronology for western Europe’, Nature 312(1984), 150 152.
9.3. Radiocarbon dating
It is essential that everyone understands what 14C dating is about, and what the "dates"
tell us. Further guidance, and a hand out, will be given. A concise, accurate and
not too technical introduction is:
BOWMAN, S 1990 Radiocarbon dating (Interpreting the past). London: British Museum
Publications. ***
General:
BOWMAN, S & N BALAAM 1990 ‘Using radiocarbon’, Antiquity 64(1990), 315 318. **
BURLEIGH, R 1974 ‘Radiocarbon dating: some practical considerations for
archaeologists’, Journal of Archaeological Science 1(1974), 69 87.
*
GILLESPIE, R 1986 Radiocarbon user's handbook. 3rd, corrected, reprint. ( = Oxford
Univ Committee on Archaeol, Monograph, 3.) Oxford: OUCA. [very useful; Class
library]
*
MOOK, W G & H T WATERBOLK 1985 Radiocarbon dating. ( = Handbooks for
archaeologists, 3.) Strasbourg: Eur Sci Foundation. (Class library)
*
OTTAWAY, B S 1987 ‘Radiocarbon: where we are and where we need to be’, Antiquity
61, 135 136. [Valuable] *
OTTAWAY, B S (ed) 1983 Archaeology, dendrochronology and the radiocarbon
calibration curve. ( = Univ Edinburgh Dept Archaeol, Occasional Paper, 9.)
RENFREW, A C 1973 Before civilisation. [esp. chapters 2 4 for an archaeological
context; the Appendix (pp 255 268) gives the general principles involved in
radiocarbon dating, and should be read by all]
***
TAYLOR, R E, A LONG & R S KRA (eds) 1992 Radiocarbon after four decades: An
interdisciplinary perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag. *
Sampling, quality control and methodological problems:
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Archaeology V61100
BROWMAN, D L 1981 ‘Isotopic discrimination and correction factors in radiocarbon
dating’, Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 4(1981), 241 294.
COLES, J M 1975 ‘Timber and radiocarbon dates’, Antiquity 49(1975), 123 125.
GILLESPIE, R & J A J GOWLETT 1983 ‘Archaeological sampling for the new generation of
radiocarbon techniques’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 2(1983), 379 382.
SCHIFFER, M B 1986 ‘Radiocarbon dating and the "Old Wood" problem: the case in the
Hohokam chronology’, Journal of Archaeological Science 13(1986), 13 30.
SCOTT, E M et al 1988 ‘The comparability of results across a sub section of radiocarbon
laboratories’, in Slater, E A & J O Tate 1988 Science and archaeology, Glasgow
1987: Proceedings of a conference on the application of scientific techniques to
archaeology, Glasgow, September 1987, i, 581 589. ( = British Archaeological
Reports, British Series, 196. [Think of the implications!] **
SCOTT, E M, A LONG & R KRA (eds) 1990 Proceedings of the International workshop on
intercomparison of radiocarbon laboratories. ( = Radiocarbon 32.2-3(1990), 253397.)
WARD, G K & S R WILSON 1978 ‘Procedures for comparing and combining radiocarbon
age determinations: a critique’, Archaeometry 20, 19 31.
WILSON, S R & G K WARD 1981 ‘Evaluation and clustering of radiocarbon age
paradigms’, Archaeometry 23(1981), 19 40.
Calibration (find out what this is! Also see general section):
The most up-to-date calibration data are in Radiocarbon volume 35, part 1. The most
important papers, including revised and extended internationally-agreed curves,
are:
STUIVER, M & G W PEARSON 1993 ‘High-precision bidecadal calibration of the
radiocarbon time scale, AD 1950 500 BC and 2500 6000 BC’, Radiocarbon
35.1(1993), 1 23.
PEARSON, G W & M STUIVER 1993 ‘High precision bidecadal calibration of the
radiocarbon time scale, 500 2500 BC’, Radiocarbon 35.1(1993), 25 33.
PEARSON, G W, B BECKER & F QUA 1993 ‘High precision C14 measurement of German
and Irish oaks to show the natural C14 variations from 7890 to 5000 BC’,
Radiocarbon 35.1(1993), 93 104.
BECKER, B 1993 ‘An 11,000 year German oak and pine dendrochronology for
radiocarbon calibration’, Radiocarbon 35.1(1993), 201 213.
STUIVER, M & P J REIMER 1993 ‘Extended C14 data-base and revised CALIB 3.0 C14
age calibration program’, Radiocarbon 35.1(1993), 215 230. (The computer game)
See also
CLARK, R M 1975 ‘A calibration curve for radiocarbon dates’, Antiquity 49, 251 266.
[not now used as the standard for correction, but his general comments are
valuable.]
PEARSON, G W 1987 ‘How to cope with calibration’, Antiquity 61(1987), 98 103.
[ESSENTIAL reading for everyone.]
***
PEARSON, G W & M STUIVER 1986 ‘High precision calibration of the radiocarbon time
scale, 500 2500 BC’, Radiocarbon 28.2B(1986), 839 862. [The internationally
agreed calibration curve for this time period in Class Library.]
STUIVER, M & G W PEARSON 1986 ‘High precision calibration of the radiocarbon time
scale AD 1950 500 BC’, Radiocarbon 28.2B(1986), 805 838. [The internationally
agreed calibration curve for this time period in Class Library.]
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Archaeology V61100
TALMA, A S & J C VOGEL 1993 ‘A simplified approach to calibrating C14 dates’,
Radiocarbon 35.2(1993), 317 322.
WATKINS, T (ed) 1975 Radiocarbon: Calibration and prehistory. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
Univ Press.
BUCK, C E, W G CAVANAGH AND C D LITTON Bayesian Approach to Interpreting
Archaeological Data 203-252. Chcichester, Wiley.
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 14C dating:
GOWLETT, J A J 1987 ‘The archaeology of radiocarbon accelerator dating’, Journal of
World Prehistory 1(1987), 127 170.
GOWLETT, J A J & R E M HEDGES (eds) 1986 Archaeological results from accelerator
dating. Oxford: Oxford Univ Committee for Archaeology. (CC161 R4) [Best
introduction to the new method and its possibilities.]
**
HEDGES, R E M 1981 ‘Radiocarbon dating with an accelerator: review and preview’,
Archaeometry 23, 3 18.
Some archaeological problems (see also other sections!):
BAILLIE, M G L 1990 ‘Checking back on an assemblage of published radiocarbon dates’,
Radiocarbon 32.2-3(1990), 361-366.
KINNES, I A & I J THORPE 1986 ‘Radiocarbon dating: use and abuse’, Antiquity
60(1986), 221 224.
**
WATERBOLK, H T 1971 ‘Working with radiocarbon dates’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric
Society 37(2), 15 33. [Important. Should be read and digested by ALL]***
Case studies:
ALCOCK, L 1976 ‘A multi-disciplinary chronology for Alt Clut, Castle Rock, Dumbarton’,
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 107(1975 6), 103 112.
[Paradigm of interaction with history.]
HARRIS, D R 1987 ‘The impact on archaeology of radiocarbon dating by accelerator
mass spectrometry’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London,
Series A 323(1987), 23 43. [Science Library.]
HARRISON, R J 1988 ‘Bell Beakers in Spain and Portugal: working with radiocarbon
dates in the third millennium BC’, Antiquity 62(1988), 464 472.
LANTING, J N, W G MOOK & J D VAN DER WAALS 1973 ‘C14 chronology and the Beaker
problem’, Helinium 13(1973), 38 58.
9.4. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating
General:
AITKEN, M J 1977 ‘Thermoluminescence and the archaeologist’, Antiquity 51(1977), 11
19. [Recommended reading.] **
AITKEN, M J 1985 Thermoluminescence dating. London: Academic Press. (CC78.6 A7)
AITKEN, M J 1989 ‘Luminescence dating: a guide for non specialists’, Archaeometry
31(1989), 147 159.
***
FLEMING, S 1979 Thermoluminescence Techniques in Archaeology Oxford: OUP
WAGNER, G A et al 1983 Thermoluminescence dating. Strasbourg: European Science
Foundation. (Class library & CC78 W2.)
*
Applications:
HUXTABLE, J & R M JACOBI 1982 ‘Thermoluminescence dating of burnt flints from a
British Mesolithic site’, Archaeometry 24(1982), 164 169.
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Archaeology V61100
SEELEY, M A 1975 ‘Thermoluminescence dating and its application to archaeology: a
review’, Journal of Archaeological Science 2(1975), 17 43.
WINTLE, A G 1980 ‘Thermoluminescence dating: a review of recent applications to non
pottery materials’, Archaeometry 22(1980), 113 122.
9.5. Palaeomagnetic dating; deep sea cores
GREEN, H S 1981 ‘The first Welshman: excavations at Pontnewydd’, Antiquity
55(1981), 184 195.
SHACKLETON, N J & N D OPDYKE 1973 ‘Oxygen isoptope and palaeomagnetic
stratigraphy of equatorial Pacific core V28 238: oxygen isotope temperatures and
ice volume on a 105 and 106 scale’, Journal of Quaternary Research 3(1973), 39
55.
TARLING, D H 1975 ‘Archaeomagnetism: the dating of archaeological materials by their
magnetic properties’, World Archaeology 7(1975), 185 197.
TARLING, D H 1983 Palaeomagnetism: Principles and applications in geology,
geophysics and archaeology. London: Chapman and Hall. [Chapters 1, 5,
especially 7, and 8.]
*
9.6. Other dating methods
(See also general texts for these)
CURTIS, G H 1975 ‘Improvements in potassium-argon dating, 1962 1975’, World
Archaeology 7(1975), 198 209.
SCHWARCZ, H P et al 1979 ‘Uranium series dating of travertine from archaeological
sites, Nahal Zin, Israel’, Nature 277(1979), 558 560.
GARRISON, E G et al 1981 ‘ESR dating of ancient flints’, Nature 290(1981), 44 45.
IKEYA, M 1978 ‘Electron spin resonance as a method of dating’, Archaeometry
20(1978), 147 158.
IKEYA, M & T MIKI 1980 ‘Electron spin resonance dating of animal and human bones’,
Science 207(198), 977 979.
BADA, J L & P M HELFMAN 1975 ‘Amino acid racemization dating of fossil bones’, World
Archaeology 7(1975), 160 173.
MASTERS, P M 1982 ‘An amino acid racemization chronology for Tabun’, in Ronen, A
(ed) The transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the origin of modern
Man, 43 56. ( = British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 151.)
Oxford: BAR.
DORN, R I, M NOBBS & T A CAHILL 1988 ‘Cation ratio dating of rock engravings from
the Olary Province of arid South Australia’, Antiquity 62(1968), 681 689.
MICHELS, J W 1987 ‘Obsidian hydration dating and a proposed chronological scheme for
the Marghine region’, in Michels, J W & G S Webster (eds) Studies in Nuragic
archaeology: Village excavations at Nuraghe Urpes and Nuraghe Toscono in West
Central Sardinia, 119 126. ( = British Archaeological Reports, International Series,
S373.) Oxford: BAR.
32