1
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.14.1
Describe the scientific theory of cells (cell theory) and relate the history of its discovery to
the process of science.
 Items may assess how contributions of scientists such as
Van Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, Schwann, Schleiden, and/or Virchow
aided in the development of the cell theory but will not assess what
each scientist contributed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Van Leeuwenhoek- observed tiny living organisms in a drops of pond water through a simple microscope.
Hooke-coined the word cell by looking at a section of cork
Schwann- concludes all animals are made of cells
Schleiden- all plants are made of cells
Virchow- propose all cells come from existing cells
Redi and Pasteur proved spontaneous generation to be wrong
spontaneous generation(abiogeneous)- life from non living things
 Items assessing a scientific claim, the development of a theory, or the
differences between theories and laws are limited to the cell theory.
Cell Theory
1.
2.
3.
All living thing are made of cells
Cell are the basic unit of structure and function
New cells are produced from existing cells
The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He examined (under a coarse, compound microscope) very thin slices of cork
and saw a multitude of tiny pores that he remarked looked like the walled compartments a monk would live in. Because of this
association, Hooke called them cells, the name they still bear. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. [1]
Hooke's description of these cells (which were actually non-living cell walls) was published in Micrographia.[2] His cell
observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells.
The first person to make a compound microscope was Zacharias Jansen, while the first to witness a live cell under a microscope
was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra and named the moving organisms animalcules,
meaning "little animals".[3] Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.[4] Cell theory was in contrast to the vitalism theories
proposed before the discovery of cells.
The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the development of the cell theory.
The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things. The cell theory states:



All living things or organisms are made of cells and their products.
New cells are created by old cells dividing into two.
Cells are the basic building units of life.
The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how big or small, or how simple or complex. Since according to
research, cells are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life. And because all cells come from other
cells, scientists can study cells to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions that living things perform. By learning
about cells and how they function, you can learn about all types of living things.
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to three scientists: Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf
Virchow. In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden suggested that cells were the basic unit of life. Their theory accepted the first two
tenets of modern cell theory (see next section, below). However, the cell theory of Schleiden differed from modern cell theory in
that it proposed a method of spontaneous crystallization that he called "free cell formation". [8] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow
concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, thus completing the classical cell theory.
2
The cell theory was first proposed in 1838. Evidence obtained through additional scientific
investigations resulted in the current cell theory. Which statement describes a component of the
original cell theory that was removed because of the new scientific knowledge?
A. All living things are made of cells.
B. All cells come from other preexisting cells.
C. Cells form through spontaneous generation.
D. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.14.3
Prokaryotic Cell- no nucleus (example Bacteria)

Items referring to prokaryotic structures are limited to the cell wall,
cell membrane (plasma membrane), cytoplasm, plasmid, ribosome, and flagella.
Flagellum- tail for movement
How are Prokaryotic(no nucleus) And Eukaryotic (has nucleus) Cell alike.
1. Ribosome
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell membrane
4. DNA & RNA
Rat Can Carry Diseases
Eukaryotic Cell- has nucleus

Items referring to eukaryotic structures are limited to the cell wall,
cell membrane (plasma membrane), cytoplasm, nucleus, nuclear
envelope, nucleolus, chromatin, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
microtubules, microfilaments, vacuoles, mitochondria, Golgi
3
apparatus, chloroplasts, lysosomes, cilia, and flagella.
Lysosome-digestion (garbage Disposal)
Rough & Smooth EPR- expressway (rough EDP
has ribosomes)
Mitochondria- Powerhouse
Golgi Apparatus- repackages or recycle proteins
Ribosomes- protein factory
Vacoule – store food and water (fridge)
Centriole- reproduction (separates chromosomes
during cell division)
Nuclear membrane- Wall and keeps DNA inside
Nuclear Pore-door for RNA
Nucleolus- makes ribosomes
Cytoplasm-living fluid
Cell membrane- door
Microfilament -makes the cilia(small hair like tail) and flagellum(tail) and is used for
movement
Compare and contrast the general structures of plant and animal cells. Compare and
contrast the general structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Main differences between plant and animal cells
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chloroplast
Cell Wall
Centrioles
Vacuoles
Vet Can Cure Cats
 Items referring to the role of the cell membrane may address
hypotonic, hypertonic, and/or isotonic solutions; however, the
assessment should be on processes and not terminology.
4
**Water always moves to higher solute concentration**
Hypertonic-higher concentration
Hypotonic-low concentration
Isotonic- equal concentration
******** Water
always moves to
higher
Concentration!!!!*****
5
There are some similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Which of the following
structures is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
A. lysosome
B. mitochondrion
C. nucleus
D. ribosome
6
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.14.7
Relate the structure of each of the major plant
organs and tissues to physiological processes.
Students will explain how the structures of plant tissues and organs
are directly related to their roles in physiological processes.
 Items assessing plant organs are limited to roots, stems, leaves,
flowers, fruits, and cones.
 Items referring to physiological processes are limited to
photosynthesis, cellular respiration, transpiration, and reproduction.
Leaf
 Items referring to plant structures are limited to cambium, guard
cells, phloem, seed, stomata, and xylem.
H2O and Oxygen are released through the stoma and CO2 is absorbed through the stoma
H2O and Oxygen come from the palisades mesophyll where the chloroplast is abundant
Transpiration- water leaves through the stoma
CO2 + H2O+Energy(Sun)  C6H12O6 + O2 + Energy (ATP)
7
Root
Apical Meristem – cell division (mitosis) just like the buds of a plant
Epidermis
Root Hairs- increase surface area
Absorb water + minerals
Root Cap- Penetrates earth
Xylem and Phloem
Flower- all the flower parts
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Seed
Need to know
1.
Radicle- embryonic
roots
2.
Epicotyl- embryonic
leaves
3.
Hypocotylsembryonic stem
4.
Cotyledon-food sac
of mostly proteins and
carbohydrates
Items assessing plant tissues are limited to meristematic, ground,
dermal, and vascular tissues.
Stem
9



Vascular tissue (vein) Xylem and phloem
Xylem- carries water and minerals (dead tissue)
Phloem- Carries Food (Living tissue)
The types of ground tissue found in plants develop from ground tissue meristem and consists
of three simple tissues:



Parenchyma – storage and photosynthesis
Collenchyma - flexible strong support
Sclerenchyma - rigid strong support
Vascular Cambium- living cells (it is Green and is where the phloem is made.)
10
11
Pine cone and leaf parts. (A) Inner view of ovulate scale with seed. (B) Outer view of ovulate
scale. (C) Winged seed. (D) Fascicle. (E) Shoot. (F) Mature seed cone
Pines have acicular-shaped leaves, commonly called needles. Needles mostly occur in fascicles
of 2 to 8, except Pinus monophylla, in which they usually occur singly. The fascicle sheath is
comprised of bud scales which can be either deciduous or persistent.
The seed cone usually matures in 2 (rarely 3) years. It is comprised of woody cone scales with
subtending bracts spirally arranged around a central axis. The exposed part of a closed cone is
called the apophysis. The umbo is the protuberance on the apophysis. On some pines, the
12
apophysis will be armed with a prickle. Seeds usually occur in pairs of 2 at the base of the cone
scale and can be winged or wingless
CONE Website
Terminal bud, lateral bud, root tip - is where mitosis occurs (apical
What happens if terminal buds are cut?
What happens if lateral buds are cut?
meristem tissue)
Terrestrial plants have stomata on the surface of their leaves. A single stoma is surrounded by
two guard cells that change shape in response to environmental factors and open or close the
stoma. Which of the following best explains how the structure of the leaf is used in processes
that occur in the plant?
A. Water enters the plant through the surface of the leaf for transpiration.
B. Gases for photosynthesis are exchanged through the surface of the leaf.
C. Energy for cellular reproduction is absorbed through the surface of the leaf.
D. Carbon dioxide enters the plant through the surface of the leaf for cellular respiration.
13
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.14.26
Identify the major parts of the brain on diagrams or models.
Fat Turkey Pig Obesity
14
Surreal Brawn
Sorry Bell Lamb
15
16
My Pretty Mother Smiles
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
Spinal Cord
17
What lobe is designated by label 2?
A. temporal
B. parietal
C. occipital
D. frontal
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.14.36
Describe the factors affecting blood flow through the cardiovascular system.
Students will identify factors that affect blood flow and/or describe
how these factors affect blood flow through the cardiovascular
system.
1. Items may address factors such as blood pressure, blood volume,
resistance, disease, and exercise.
18
Disease
A healthy cardiovascular system is very important to maintain good health. Failing to maintain good
cardiovascular health can result in heart disease or atherosclerosis0. In atherosclerosis, cholesterol,
fatty substances, calcium, and other substances start to build up in the inner lining of an artery. This
buildup, called plaque, leads to a narrowing (smaller diameter) of the artery. If a plaque breaks, it can
cause a blood clot to start. A blood clot can block blood flow or can travel to a different part of the
body. Depending on where the clot occurs, it can cause a heart attack or a stroke. A heart attack or
stroke is a very dangerous health problem, but even plaque that stays put can cause issues by
contributing to poor blood flow. Poor blood flow can cause chest pains, high blood pressure, shortness
of breath during light exercise, leg pain, and loss of oxygen to the brain.
Blood Pressure
The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping action of the heart.[2] Differences
in mean blood pressure are responsible for blood flow from one location to another in the circulation.
Arteries become less flexible.
Resistance
A high viscosity of blood causes an increased resistance in the blood vessels and leads to
slow blood flow.
The rate of mean blood flow depends on the resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels. Mean
blood pressure decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the heart through arteries,
capillaries and veins due to viscous losses of energy. Mean blood pressure drops over the whole
circulation, although most of the fall occurs along the small arteries and arterioles.[3]
Gravity
Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (e.g. during standing) and valves in veins, breathing,
and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence blood pressure in veins
Exercise
We breath in more oxygen and we have to respire quickly. Our heart has to pump the
oxygenated blood around our body faster and take the deoxygenated blood to the lungs to get
the carbon dioxide out. 180/90 blood pressure while doing exercise
Blood Volume
Blood volume is the volume of blood (both red blood cells and plasma) in the circulatory system of any
individual. Determines the viscosity of the blood.
Things to Ponder
Increase pressure does not increase blood flow
Increase blood volume does not increase blood flow
Increase resistance does not increase blood flow
Exercise increases resistance, pressure, and blood volume
High Viscosity increases resistance
19
The rate at which blood flows through the human body changes in response to many factors.
Which statement describes one of these factors and its effect on blood flow?
A. A high viscosity of blood causes an increased resistance in the blood vessels and leads
to slow blood flow.
B. A low blood pH decreases the rate of diffusion through the blood vessels and leads to
slow blood flow.
C. The changing of the shape of red blood cells to a crescent shape decreases resistance
and leads to a faster blood flow.
D. The narrowing of blood vessels increases pressure and leads to a faster blood flow.
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.15.6
 Items referring to distinguishing characteristics of living organisms
are limited to the domains of Archea, Bacteria, and Eukarya and the
kingdoms of Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
 Items will not require specific knowledge of organisms classified in
any domain or kingdom; items should describe the characteristics of
an organism and assess its classification.
 Items may refer to prokaryotic, eukaryotic, unicellular and/or
multicellular organisms, autotrophs, and/or heterotrophs, but they
will not assess the definition of those terms.
 Items referring to changes in classification systems should be
conceptual and will not require specific knowledge of those changes.
 Items may address evolutionary classification, phylogeny, and the use
of cladograms, but they may not assess the definition of those terms.
 Items assessing a scientific claim are limited to the classification of
organisms.
Classification
Binomial Nomenclature – is a two part naming system compose of Genus and species
(example-Homo sapien Genus is always capitalized and species is in lower case letters)
Why Classify? To organize and categorize ( to discriminate)
20
Taxonomy- the discipline
PAPA BF======= kingdoms
Plant, Animal, Protist, Archea, Bacteria, Fungi
King Phillip Came over for good Shoes
21
You have to know the DOMAINS
22
How to make a cladogram
http://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf
23
Monera
(bacteria)
Protist
Plants
Fungi
Animals
Nucleus
x
x
x
x
Organelles or
x
x
x
x
(X)
A
H
H
x
x (Chitin)
x
x
internal membranes
Mode of nutrition
autotrophvs
heterotroph
(X)=both
Cell Wall
x
Cell membrane
x
x
x
Photosynthesis
(X)
(X)
x
Chloroplast
(X)
(X)
x
Cell respiration
(X)?
x
x
x
x
Aerobic or
Anaerobic
both
Aerobic
Aerobic
Aerobic
Aerobic
Mobilty
(X)?
(X)
x
x
x
Multicellular
(x)
Unicellular
x
x
Domain
bacteria
Eukarya
Eukarya
Eukarya
Eukarya
Cell Type
p
e
e
e
e
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
Organisms classified as fungi have unique characteristics. Which of the following
characteristics is found only in organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi?
A. single cells without a nucleus
B. multicellular with chloroplasts
C. multicellular filaments that absorb nutrients
D. colonies of single, photosynthetic cells that reproduce asexually
24
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.15.1
Reporting Category Classification, Heredity, and Evolution
Diversity and Evolution of Living Organisms
Explain how the scientific theory of evolution is supported by the fossil record, comparative
anatomy,comparative embryology, biogeography, molecular biology, and
observed evolutionary change.
Also Assesses SC.912.L.15.10 Identify basic trends in hominid evolution from
early ancestors six million years ago to modern humans, including
brain size, jaw size, language, and manufacture of tools. (GIZMO: HUMAN EVOLUTION)
Benchmark
Items Assessing
 Items assessing evolution will focus on a conceptual understanding
of the supporting scientific evidence.
 Items will not require memorization of the names of specific human
fossils or the names of the different hominid species.
 Items assessing the fossil record must focus on the fossil rather than
geologic formations in isolation.
 Items assessing the fossil record will not require understanding of the
specific mechanisms used for relative dating and radioactive dating.
 Items will not require the memorization of the geologic time scale,
including era, period, and/or epoch.
 Items will not assess the origin of Earth.
 Items will not assess specific knowledge of the formation of
microspheres or the evolution of RNA and DNA.
 Items will not address or assess the endosymbiotic theory.
 Items referring to adaptive radiation, convergent evolution,
coevolution, or punctuated equilibrium should focus on the concepts
rather than on the definition of the terms.
 Items referring to the development of language or the manufacturing
of tools will relate this development to changes in the skull or brain
size. Gizmo
 Items will not assess types of genetic mutation or how these
mutations occur.
 Items referring to comparative anatomy and comparative embryology
will assess anatomical similarities such as homologous structures and
vestigial organs but will not require specific knowledge of
embryologic stages or structures.
25
Fossil Record
Paleontologist- studies fossils
Fossil record provides:
1. Change over time (before and after)
2. History of life on Earth
3. Evidence of different groups of organisms
Interpreting Fossil Evidence-dating (two types of dating systems)
1. Relative dating- dating of fossil with other layers of
earth by comparing the placement with other fossils.
2. Radioactive Dating-determines the amount of radioactive isotope
in the content of the fossil. Isotopes decay (fade out).
Example: C-14 or carbon 14 has a half-life of 5730 years.
Half-life the amount of time needed to decay half of the isotope mass.
C-14
1000 gram
0 years
500
5730 yr
250
5730 yr
125
5730 yr
Geological time Scale- represents evolutionary time such as Eras, Periods,
and time.
26
Vestigial Organs-the remains of pre-existing organs which no longer function in the organism
No one knows the actual original function of the appendix, but Charles Darwin proposed
it was once used by primates to digest leaves. Now, the appendix in humans seems to be
a depository of sorts for bacteria that is used in the colon to aid in digestion and
absorption. These bacteria, along with others, may cause appendicitis and, if left
untreated, can be fatal if the appendix ruptures and the infections spreads
Attached to the bottom of the sacrum is the coccyx, or tail bone. This small, bony
projection seems to be a leftover structure of primate evolution.
Have you ever noticed that little flap of skin that covers the outside corner of your
eyeball? That's called the plica luminaris, and it is a vestigial structure. It doesn't
really have a purpose, but it is still there from our ancestors. It is believed to have
once been part of a nictitating membrane.
Patterns of Evolution: is a common ancestor
1. Extinction
2. Adaptive radiation
3. Convergent Evolution
4. Co-evolution
5. Punctuated Evolution
1.
Extinction – 5 mass extinction on earth only 1% survived
2. Adaptive radiation- a single species evolves through natural selection and mutation
Evolves into many diverse forms of life in different ways.
27
3. Convergent Evolution –A kind of evolution wherein organisms evolve structures that have
similar (analogous) structures or functions in spite of their evolutionary ancestors being very
dissimilar or unrelated; the process by which two unrelated organisms
come to resemble one another.






the wings of bats, birds, and insects evolved independently from each other but all are used
to perform the function of flying
the complex eyes of vertebrates, cephalopods (squid and octopus), cubozoan jellyfish, and
arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans) evolved separately, but all perform the function of
vision
the smelling organs of the terrestrial coconut crab are similar to those of insects
the very similar shells of brachiopods and bivalve molluscs
prickles, thorns and spines have evolved independently to prevent or limit herbivory
plant hormones such as gibberellin and abscisic acid of plants and fungi
28
4. Co-evolution- the process by which species evolve in response to
changes in each other
Coevolution is the evolution of two or more groups of organisms together,
each in response to the other. In a co evolutionary relationship, changes
experienced by each individual group of organisms is in some manner shaped by or
influenced by the other groups of organisms in that relationship. The relationship
between flowering plants and their pollinators can offer a classic examples of co
evolutionary relationships. Flowering plants rely on pollinators to transport pollen
among individual plants and thus enable cross-pollination.
5. Punctuated Evolution- patterns of long stable periods interrupted by brief
periods of rapid change Looks like a stair case.
Punctuated evolution that is characterized by long
periods of stability in the characteristics of an
organism and short periods of rapid change during
which new forms appear especially from small
subpopulations of the ancestral form in restricted
parts of its geographic range
29
Techniques for determining common ancestry
1. Comparative Anatomy

Common Ancestor
Vestigial-an organ or structure which no longer functions (appendix)
2. Comparative Embryology
3. Biochemistry Comparison
30
4. DNA- Most accurate results
How does comparing the skeletons of these animals provide support for the scientific theory
of evolution?
A. It provides information about the organisms’ habitats.
B. It shows possible common ancestry between organisms.
C. It provides information to determine the organisms’ ages.
D. It shows possible chromosomal similarities between organisms.
31
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.15.8
Describe the scientific explanations of the origin of life on Earth.

Items may address the conditions required for the origin of life on
Earth but may not require specific knowledge of the age of Earth or
its eras, periods, or epochs.
 Items may assess how contributions of scientists such as Pasteur,
Oparin, Miller and Urey, Margulies, or Fox aided in the development
of the scientific explanation of the origin of life but will not assess
what each scientist contributed.
 Items assessing the origin of organic molecules, chemical evolution,
and/or eukaryotic cells should be conceptual.
 Items may refer to the endosymbiotic theory but may not assess the
term in isolation.
 Items assessing a scientific claim are limited to the scientific
explanations of the origins of life on Earth.
Oparin
Metabolism evolved before life and is a precursor for life.(metabolism occurred first) energy is essential
Pasteur
Creationists often claim that Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation and hence any naturalistic
origin of life. This article shows what Pasteur really demonstrated and gives a history of the subject from
early ideas of spontaneous generation to modern ideas about the origin of life. Disprove spontaneous
generation.
Margulis
In addition to her primary explanation on the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, Dr. Margulis also
proposed that eukaryotic flagella and cilia derived from endosymbiotic spirochetes.( cells unite with
other cells to make a mutualistic relation) film on endosymbiosis
Fox
Sidney Walter Fox (24 March 1912 - 10 August 1998) was a Los Angeles-born biochemist responsible for
discoveries on the origins of life. Fox explored the synthesis of amino acids from inorganic molecules,
the synthesis of proteinous amino acids and amino acid polymers called "proteinoids" from inorganic
molecules and thermal energy, and created what he thought was the world's first "protocells" out of
proteinoids and water. He called these protocells "microspheres" and they have now been named
"protobionts." Fox believed in spontaneous generation of life and suggested that his experiments
possessed conditions that were similar to those of primordial Earth. In his experiments, he
demonstrated that it is possible to create protein-like structures from inorganic molecules and thermal
energy (abiogenesis)
32
Formation of the Earth
The Earth primitive atmosphere (gases) composed of:
1.
2.
3.
CO2 Carbon Dioxide =====
CO Carbon Monoxide
N
Nitrogen
4.
HCN
5.
6.
7.
8.
H20 Water
NH4 ammonia
H2 hydrogen
CH4 Methane
=====
=====
Cyanide
===
No Oxygen( anaerobic)
===
=====
=====
=====
Miller-Urey Experiment
The recycled water has organic amino acids.
 Amino acids are the tools for life (first organic molecules)
 Amino acids are the “Beginning of life”
 Modern experiments similar to Miller and Urey’s demonstrate that simulating conditions thought
to exist on early Earth can produce bases needed for RNA
One of the accepted scientific theories describing the origin of life on Earth is known as
chemical evolution. According to this theory, which of the following events would need to
occur first for life to evolve?
A. onset of photosynthesis
B. origin of genetic material
C. synthesis of organic molecules
D. formation of the plasma membrane
33
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.15.13
Describe the conditions required for natural selection, including: overproduction of
offspring, inherited variation, and the struggle to survive, which result in differential
reproductive success.
Items will not address descent with modification or common descent.




Items addressing mutation and genetic recombination in relation to
increasing genetic variation must be assessed in the context of
evolution.
Items will not assess the Hardy-Weinberg principle or genetic
equilibrium.
Items may address how meiosis contributes to genetic variation but
may not assess the steps or stages of meiosis.
Items will not address descent with modification or common descent.
Gene and Variation (difference)


all organism have genes that are invisible
Invisibles genes are the heterozygous form e.g. ( Hh) H is dominate and h is recessive. “h” is
invisible
Variation the Gene Pool


Gene pool consists of all the genes
Relative frequency is the number of time an allele (phenotype) is seen in the gene pool
(quantity)
Source of Genetic Variation
1. Mutation- a change in the DNA base sequence
2. Gene Shuffling-(Meiosis contribution)
a. Shuffling of gametes (like a deck of cards)
b. Crossing over during prophase chromosomes exchange genetic material
c. Sexual reproduction(random mating)
Single gene and Polygenetic traits
Single gene is one trait like widow’s peak
Polygenetic traits- two or more genes (alleles) control a trait (phenotype) e.g. is skin color, hair, iris
Natural selection on Single traits
- single gene population can lead to changes when the genes are not fit for adaptation which causes the
allele frequency to change.
34
Natural selection on Polygenetic traits are:
a. Directional Selection
b. Stabilizing Selection
c. Disruptive Selection
Directional Selection- the environment favors the extreme
Disruptive Selection- the environment favors both extremes
35
Stabilizing Selection- the environment favors the average not the extreme
Genetic Drift (Small Population)
A. Founder effect – small population of two or more species are responsible for the creation of a
new subgroup
B. Bottle neck- small population can no longer be fit for adaptation
A change in allele frequency in a small population .
The Process of speciation – how species are made
1. Behavioral Isolation- different courtship or mating ritual
2. Geographic Isolation-different habitats such rivers, mountains, deserts, jungle ,plains etc
3. Temporal Isolation- different climates
4. Reproduction Isolation- two populations can no longer produce fertile offspring’s and can no
longer mate or interbreed
a. Not same location
b. Different habitats
c. Different ova reproductive cycles
d. Wrong sexual organs
Darwin’s Process 0f Speciation
a. Founders arrive
b. Geographically Isolated
c. No .Changes in the gene pool
d. Reproductive Isolation
e. Ecological Competition
f. Continual Evolution- good mutations
36
Over time, the climate of an island became drier, which resulted in changes to the populations
of various island finch species. Finch populations with a certain beak shape thrived, while
those not having that beak shape decreased. Which of the following describes a necessary
condition for these changes in the finch populations to occur?
A. fewer mutations
B. limited food resources
C. limited beak variations
D. overproduction of offspring
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.16.1
Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment to analyze patterns of
inheritance.




Items referring to general dominant and recessive traits may address
but will not assess the P and F1 generations.
Items addressing dihybrid crosses or patterns that include
codominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, sex-linkage,
or polygenic inheritance may assess the P and F1 generations.
Inheritance outcomes may be expressed in percent, ratios, or
fractions.
Scenarios may refer to codominance or incomplete dominance but
not both codominance and incomplete dominance.
Punnett squares may be used to predict outcomes of a cross.
Hemophilia is a sex-linked, recessive trait. Which of the following describes the probability of
hemophilia in the offspring of a man who does not have hemophilia and a woman whose father
is a hemophiliac?
A. Each of their sons will have hemophilia.
B. None of their daughters will have hemophilia.
C. Their sons have a 25% chance of having hemophilia.
D. There is a 50% chance that their daughters will have hemophilia.

H-is for normal(no hemoplia)
h- is for the disease
Male = XHY
Female = XHXh
37
XH
Xh
XH
XH XH
XH Xh
Y
XH Y
Xh Y
Genotype
XH Xh XH XH= ¼
Xh Y=1/4
XH Y= ¼




Phenotype
normal female= 2/4
Hemophilic male= 1/4
normal male= 1/4
Sex linked diseases
Hemophilia- no clotting
Color blindness- cannot see colors
Baldness
Duchenne muscular dystrophy- muscle loss
Incomplete Dominant- blend
Dihybrid Cross
AABb x Aabb
A= normal skin a= albino B=black hair b = blonde
In a diploid cell it has two pairs of homologous. Due to
independent assortment, the possible genetic make-up of gametes
produced by an organism
13, 14, 23, 24
AABb?
38
AABb=AB,Ab,AB,Ab
Aabb=Ab,Ab,ab,ab
Ab
Ab
ab
ab
AB
AABb
AABb
AaBb
AaBb
AB
AABb
AABb
AaBb
AaBb
Ab
AAbb
AAbb
Aabb
Aabb
Ab
AAbb
AAbb
Aabb
Aabb
Genotype
Aabb=4/16
AAbb=4/16
AABb=4/16
AaBb=4/16
Phenotype
Normal skin / blonde hair= 8/16
Normal skin / black hair= 8/16
39
What is the parental genotype for a child with
blood type “O”? Work the Punnet square backwards.
i i
i bb bi
i bi ii
40
41
42
What is the genotype of individual 13?
What type of genetic issue is involved?
Who was the Hooded Murdered ?
43
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.16.13
Describe the basic anatomy and physiology of the human reproductive system. Describe the process of human
development from fertilization to birth and major changes that occur in each trimester of pregnancy.

Students will describe the process of human development from the
zygotic stage to the end of the third trimester and birth.
From 0-90 days it is called an embryo
After 90 days it is called a fetus
Zygote –when the sperm penetrates the ova (fertilization)
 Students will identify and/or describe the basic anatomy and
physiology of the human reproductive system.
 Items referring to the male human reproductive system are limited to
the seminal vesicle, prostate gland, vas deferens, urethra, epididymis,
scrotum, penis, and testes.
44
Small Tommy eats very special prunes unlike Paul.
Scrotum testticle epididymis vas deferen Seminal Vesicle Prostate urethra penis

Items referring to the female human reproductive system are limited
to the ovaries, oviduct (fallopian tube), uterus, cervix, and vagina.
45

Vagina-birth canal
Uterus – for the zygote(fertilized egg) to implant(implantation)
Fallopian tube – where fertilization occurs
Ovary- produces an egg(ova)
Very crazy UFO.
Vagina Cervix uterus fallopian tube, ovary

1.
2.
3.
4.
Items assessing the function of the placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic
sac, and amniotic fluid are limited to how these structures relate to
the development of the fetus.
Umbilical Cord-tube for respiration, nourishment , and excretion between embryo and mother
Placenta- is the embryo’s organ for respiration, nourishment , and excretion
Amniotic sac- a fluids fluid filled sac(cushions and protects embryo)
Amniotic fluid- the fluid around the fetus is for protection and to maintain temperature.

Items assessing the production of hormones in the context of the
physiology of the human reproductive system are limited to a
conceptual understanding of the production of hormones.
1.
2.
Estrogen, progesterone (female) from ovary
Testosterone (male) from testicle

Items may refer to the early stages of development (implantation,
morula, blastocyst, gastrulation, neurulation) but will not assess the
definition of these terms.
46





Implantation -zygote becomes fused into the placenta
morula - A morula is an embryo at an early stage of embryonic development,
blastocyst-hallow ball of cells
gastrulation- morula pinches in creating the 3 germ layers. These three germ layers are known as the
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
neurulation- the formation of the nervous system
47
48
Items referring to changes in each trimester are limited to normal
human development.
The second and third trimesters are devoted to growth and maturation.
Fetal Development During The First Trimester
The most dramatic changes and development occur during the first trimester. During the first eight
weeks, a fetus is called an embryo. The embryo develops rapidly and by the end of the first trimester it
becomes a fetus that is fully formed, weighing approximately 1/2 to one ounce and measuring, on
average, three to four inches in length.
Just as each child grows and matures at different rates and at different times, so does that same child as
it begins its life in the womb. The chart provided below provides benchmarks for most normal
pregnancies. However, each fetus develops differently.
by the end of
4 weeks
by the end of
8 weeks

all major systems and organs begin to form

the neural tube (which becomes the brain and spinal cord),
the digestive system, and the heart and circulatory
system begin to form

the beginnings of the ex and ears are developing

tiny limb buds appear (which will develop into arms and legs)

the heart is beating

all major body systems continue to develop and function,
including the circulatory, nervous, digestive, and urinary
systems

the embryo is taking on a human shape, although the head
is larger in proportion to the rest of the body

the mouth is developing tooth buds (which will become baby
teeth)

the ex, nose, mouth, and ears are becoming more distinct
49
By the end of
the 8 week
By the end of
the 12 week

the arms and legs are clearly visible

the fingers and toes are still webbed but can be clearly
distinguished

the main organs continue to develop and you can hear the
baby's heartbeat using an instrument called a Doppler

the bones begin to develop and the nose and jaws are
rapidly developing

the embryo is in constant motion but cannot be felt by
the mother

The child is now a fetus
Development of a child
Fetus after 12 weeks and is no longer called an embryo
Fetal Development During The Second Trimester
Now that all the major organs and systems have formed in the fetus, the following six months will be
spent growing. The weight of the fetus will multiply more than seven times over the next few months, as
the fetus becomes a baby that can survive outside of the uterus.
By the end of the second trimester, the fetus will be about 13 to 16 inches long and weighs about 2 to 3
pounds. Fetal development during the second trimester includes the following:







The fetus kicks, moves, and can turn from side to side.
The ex have been gradually moving to the front of the face and the ears have moved from the
neck to the sides of the head. The fetus can hear the mother's voice.
A creamy white substance (called vernix caseosa, or simply vernix) begins to appear on the fetus
and helps to protect the thin fetal skin. Vernix is gradually absorbed by the skin, but some may
be seen on babies even after birth.
The fetus is developing reflexes such as swallowing and sucking.
The fetus can respond to certain stimuli.
The placenta is fully developed.
The brain will undergo its most important period of growth from the 5th month on.
50








Fingernails have grown on the tips of the fingers and toes, and the fingers and toes are fully
separated.
The fetus goes through cycles of sleep and wakefulness.
Skin is wrinkly and red, covered with soft, downy hair (called lanugo).
Hair is growing on the head of the fetus.
Fat begins to form on the fetus.
Eyelids are beginning to open and the eyebrows and eyelashes are visible.
Fingerprints and toeprints have formed.
Rapid growth is continuing in fetal size and weight.
third trimester
During the third trimester, the fetus continues to grow in size and weight. The lungs are still maturing
and the fetus begins to position itself head-down. By the end of the third trimester, the fetus is about 19
to 21 inches long and weighs, on average, six to nine pounds. Fetal development during the third
trimester includes:






The fetus can see and hear.
The brain continues to develop.
The bones of the skull remain soft to make it easier to pass through the birth canal.
For many babies, the irises of the ex are slate blue. The permanent eye color will not appear
until several days or weeks after birth.
The fetus can suck its thumb and has the ability to cry.
By 38 to 40 weeks, the lungs have matured completely.
A. ovary
B. uterus
C. vagina
D. amniotic sac
51
BENCHMARK SC.912.L.16.17
Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis and relate to the processes of sexual and asexual reproduction and
their consequences for genetic variation.
SC.912.L.16.17 Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis and
relate to the processes of sexual and asexual reproduction and
their consequences for genetic variation. (Also assesses
SC.912.L.16.8, SC.912.L.16.14, and SC.912.L.16.16.)
Also Assesses SC.912.L.16.8 Explain the relationship between mutation, cell
cycle, and uncontrolled cell growth potentially resulting in cancer.
SC.912.L.16.14 Describe the cell cycle, including the process of
mitosis. Explain the role of mitosis in the formation of new cells and
its importance in maintaining chromosome number during asexual
reproduction.
SC.912.L.16.16 Describe the process of meiosis, including
independent assortment and crossing over. Explain how reduction
division results in the formation of haploid gametes or spores.












Students will differentiate the processes of mitosis and meiosis.
Students will describe the role of mitosis in asexual reproduction,
and/or the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction, including how
these processes may contribute to or limit genetic variation.
Students will describe specific events occurring in each of the stages
of the cell cycle and/or phases of mitosis.
Students will explain how mitosis forms new cells and its role in
maintaining chromosome number during asexual reproduction.
Students will explain how cancer (uncontrolled cell growth) may
result from mutations that affect the proteins that regulate the cell
cycle.
Students will describe the process of meiosis, including independent
assortment and crossing over.
Students will explain how meiosis results in the formation of haploid
gametes or spores.
Items will focus on the relationship between mutations and
uncontrolled cell growth, rather than a specific mutation that may
result in uncontrolled cell growth.
Items may address the presence and location of centrioles but may
not require knowledge of the function of centrioles.
Items referring to mutation will focus on the general concepts of
uncontrolled cell growth and not require specific knowledge of
cancers or diseases resulting from that growth.
Items will not assess the specific proteins associated with regulating
the cell cycle.
Items addressing mitosis or meiosis are limited to identification of
phases, structures, and major events of each phase.
52
What is Mitosis?
Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. If the parent cell is
haploid (N), then the daughter cells will be haploid. If the parent cell is diploid, the daughter
cells will also be diploid.
NN
2N  2N
This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue.
Click here to go to the chapter on Mitosis.
Summary of the Phases of Mitosis
The drawings below show chromosome movement and alignment in a cell from a species of
animal that has a diploid number of 8. As you view the drawings, keep in mind that humans have
a diploid number of 46.
Interphase
Chromosomes are not visible because they are uncoiled
Prophase
The chromosomes coil (become visible).
The nuclear membrane and organelles disintegrates.
Spindle fibers (microtubules) form(Centrioles appear).
The drawing shows a cell with 8 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 2 chromatids for a total of 16 chromatids.
53
Metaphase
The chromosomes become aligned and Centrioles are at the
poles.
The drawing shows a cell with 8 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 2 chromatids for a total of 16 chromatids.
Anaphase
The chromatids separate; the number of chromosomes doubles.
The drawing shows a cell with 16 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 1 chromatid for a total of 16 chromatids.
Telophase
The cell divides into two.
The chromosomes uncoil.
The nucleus reforms.
The spindle apparatus disassembles.
The drawing shows a cell with 16 chromosomes. Each
chromosome has 1 chromatid for a total of 16 chromatids.
Types of Cell Division
Mitosis produces identical daughter cells. (Body Cells)
Meiosis produces cells with 1/2 the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. (Ovary or Testis)
Chromosome Doubling/DNA Replication
Chromosomes double when they split at the end of metaphase.
54
DNA replicates during the S period of interphase.
Summary of Mitosis
prophase - coil
metaphase - align
anaphase - separate
telophase - uncoil
Life Cycles
Meiosis functions to reduce the number of chromosomes to one half. Each daughter cell that is
produced will have one half as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
55
Meiosis is part of the sexual process because gametes (sperm, eggs) have one half the
chromosomes as diploid (2N) individuals.
In animals, meiosis occurs only when gametes (sperm, eggs) are formed.
In plants, gametes are not produced directly. Instead meiosis produces spores and then mitosis
produces gametes. Although plants have an additional step, meiosis eventually results in the
production of haploid gametes.
Phases of Meiosis
There are two divisions in meiosis; the first division is meiosis 1 and the second is meiosis 2.
The phases have the same names as those of mitosis. A number indicates the division number
(1st or 2nd):
meiosis 1: prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1
meiosis 2: prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, and telophase 2 (S-phase is Omitted)
In the first meiotic division, the number of cells is doubled but the number of chromosomes is
not. This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell.
The second meiotic division is like mitosis; the number of chromosomes does not get reduced.
56
The diagram below shows that the chromosome alignment pattern during metaphase of mitosis
results in the chromosomes splitting (doubling). Prophase, anaphase and telophase are not
shown.
Below: The alignment pattern during metaphase I of meiosis results in pairs separating; there is
no doubling.
57
Below: Metaphase 1 and metaphase 2 of meiosis
Phases of Meiosis
Prophase I
The events that occur during prophase of mitosis also occur during prophase I of meiosis. The
chromosomes coil up, the nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate, and the centrosomes begin
moving apart.
Synapsis (joining) of homologous chromosomes produces tetrads (also called bivalents).
The two chromosomes may exchange fragments by a process called crossing over.
When the chromosomes partially separate in late prophase, the areas where crossing over
occurred remain attached and are referred to as Chiasmata (sing. chiasma). They hold the
chromosomes together until they separate during anaphase.
Crossing over between homologous chromosomes is likely to occur at several different points,
resulting in chromosomes that are mixtures of the original two chromosomes.
One kinetochore forms on each chromosome instead of on each chromatid as in mitosis.
The spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes and begin to move them to the center of the cell as
they do in mitosis.
58
Metaphase I
Bivalents (tetrads) become aligned in the center of the cell and are attached to spindle fibers.
The chromosome alignment illustrated below is from a cell with a diploid chromosome number
of 8.
Independent assortment refers to the random arrangement of pairs of chromosomes. The
diagram below shows four possible arrangements of chromosomes during metaphase 1 from an
individual that has 6 total chromosomes. Suppose that the pink chromosomes are those that the
individual inherited from its mother and the blue colored ones were inherited from its father. For
each chromosome pair, the chromosome that is on the left (maternal or paternal) is determined
randomly. As can be seen, there are several alignment possibilities.
59
Anaphase I
Anaphase I begins when homologous chromosomes separate.
Telophase I
The nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reappear.
This stage is absent in some species.
Interkinesis
Interkinesis is similar to interphase except DNA synthesis does not occur.
The events that occur during meiosis II are similar to mitosis.
60
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Daughter Cells
61
State
Abbreviation
Descriptio
n
quiescent/
senescent
Gap 0
G0
A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has
stopped dividing.
Gap 1
G1
Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control
mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.
Synthesis
S
DNA replication occurs during this phase.
G2
During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will
continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism
ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase
and divide.
M
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on
the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the
middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell
is ready to complete cell division.
Interphase
Gap 2
Cell
division
Mitosis
62
DNA Vs. RNA
Mitosis and meiosis are processes involved in cellular reproduction. Which of the following
describes an event that results from mitosis but NOT meiosis?
A. two stages of cell division
B. replication of cellular genetic material
C. daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell
D. four daughter cells that are produced from each parent cell