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T h e C a m b r i d g e C o m pa n i o n to t h e
A rt h u r i a n L e g e n d
For more than a thousand years, the adventures of King Arthur and his knights of
the Round Table have been retold across Europe. They have inspired some of the
most important works of European literature, particularly in the medieval period:
the romances of Chrétien de Troyes, Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival, Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight and Malory’s Morte Darthur. In the nineteenth century, interest
in the Arthurian legend revived with Tennyson, Wagner and Twain. The Cambridge
Companion to the Arthurian Legend outlines the evolution of the legend from the
earliest documentary sources to the musical Spamalot, and analyses how some of
the major motifs of the legend have been passed down in both medieval and modern
texts. With a map of Arthur’s Britain, a chronology of key texts and a guide to
further reading, this volume will contribute to the continuing fascination with King
Arthur and his many legends.
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Frontispiece The Sleep of King Arthur in Avalon by Edward Burne-Jones. By permission of the Museo De Arte De Ponce, Puerto Rico.
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THE CAMBRIDGE
C O M PA N I O N TO T H E
ARTHURIAN LEGEND
EDITED BY
E L I Z A B E T H A RC H I B A L D A N D A D P U T T E R
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c a m b r i d g e u n i v e rs i t y p r e s s
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge c b 2 8 ru, u k
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521677882
© Cambridge University Press 2009
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2009
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
The Cambridge companion to the Arthurian legend / [edited by]
Elizabeth Archibald and Ad Putter.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-521-86059-8
1. Arthurian romances – History and criticism. 2. English literature – Middle English,
1100–1500 – History and criticism. 3. Romances, English – History and criticism.
I. Archibald, Elizabeth, 1951– II. Putter, Ad. III. Title.
pr328.c36 2009
820.9Ł351–dc22
2009020686
i s b n 978-0-521-86059-8 hardback
i s b n 978-0-521-67788-2 paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of u r l s for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Notes on Contributors
Frequently Cited Sources and Abbreviations
A Selective Chronology
Map of Arthurian Britain
Introduction
A d P u t t e r a n d E l i z a b e t h A rc h i ba l d
PART I
Evolution
page vii
ix
xii
xv
xix
1
19
1 The early Arthur: history and myth
R o n a l d H u t to n
21
2 The twelfth-century Arthur
Ad Putter
36
3 The thirteenth-century Arthur
J a n e H . M . T ay l o r
53
4 The fourteenth-century Arthur
J . A . B u r row
69
5 The fifteenth-century Arthur
B a r ry W i n d e at t
84
6 The Arthur of the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries
Rob Gossedge and Stephen Knight
103
v
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contents
7 The Arthur of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries
N o r r i s J . L acy
PART II
Themes
120
137
8 Questioning Arthurian ideals
E l i z a b e t h A rc h i ba l d
139
9 Arthurian ethics
J a n e G i l b e rt
154
10 Imperial Arthur: home and away
Andrew Lynch
171
11 Love and adultery: Arthur’s affairs
P e g g y M c C r ac k e n
188
12 Religion and magic
C o r i n n e S au n d e rs
201
13 Arthurian geography
R o b e rt A l l e n R o u s e a n d C o ry J a m e s R u s h to n
218
Further Reading
Index
235
253
vi
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AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S
Our greatest debt is to our contributors, who responded admirably to
our request to describe such rich material so succinctly. Norris Lacy also
gave us useful editorial advice. We are grateful to Amanda Hopkins for
copy-editing an advanced draft of this book, to Cory Rushton for help in
compiling the further reading section, to Gareth Griffth for producing the
index, and to the University of Bristol for supporting their work through
awards from the Arts Faculty Research Fund and the Tucker-Cruse Fund.
We thank Linda Bree for commissioning this volume; she and Maartje
Scheltens supplied much valuable advice and support, and Tom O’Reilly
oversaw the production most efficiently. We are grateful to David Cox for
producing the map of Arthurian Britain. Geraldine Stoneham was the ideal
copy-editor, and saved us from many infelicities and inconsistencies.
We dedicate this volume to the memory of Derek and Elisabeth Brewer,
both distinguished Arthurians.
e l i z a b e t h a rc h i ba l d
ad putter
vii
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N OT E S O N C O N T R I B U TO RS
e l i z a b e t h a rc h i ba l d is Professor of Medieval Literature in the
English Department at the University of Bristol. Her publications include
Apollonius of Tyre (1991), Incest and the Medieval Imagination (2001),
and A Companion to Malory, co-edited with A. S. G. Edwards (1996). She
is currently working on macaronic literature and on bathing in the Middle
Ages.
jo h n b u r row is Fellow of the British Academy and Emeritus Professor
at the University of Bristol. He is the author of many studies of medieval
English literature, including A Reading of ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’
(1965), Medieval Writers and Their Work (1982) and most recently The
Poetry of Praise (2008).
ja n e g i l b e rt is Senior Lecturer in French at University College London,
and a comparatist working in English, French, and modern theory. She is
currently completing a monograph on the interface between life and death
in medieval French and English literature.
ro b g o s s e d g e is a Lecturer in English Literature at Cardiff University.
He has recently published articles on Welsh modernism and the reception
of Arthurian literature in the post-medieval period. He is currently finishing
a book on British rewritings of the Matter of Britain in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
ro n a l d h u t to n is Professor of History at the University of Bristol, and
author of twelve books, including Witches, Druids and King Arthur: Studies
in Paganism, Myth and Magic (2003).
s t e p h e n k n i g h t is Distinguished Research Professor in English
Literature at Cardiff University. He has written widely on medieval and
ix
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n o t e s o n c o n t r i b u to rs
modern themes, including King Arthur and Robin Hood; his latest book,
Merlin: Knowledge and Power, will be published in 2009.
n o r r i s j. l acy is the Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of French and Medieval
Studies at Pennsylvania State University. He is an Honorary President of the
International Arthurian Society and has been knighted by the French government. His many Arthurian publications include The Craft of Chrétien
de Troyes (1980), The New Arthurian Encyclopedia (3rd edn, 1996), The
Arthurian Handbook (2nd edn, 1997), and A Companion to Chrétien de
Troyes (2005, co-edited with Joan Tasker Grimbert).
andrew lynch is Professor of English and Cultural Studies, and Director
of the Centre for Medieval and Early Modern Studies, at the University of
Western Australia. His publications include Malory’s Book of Arms (1997)
and numerous articles and book chapters on medieval Arthurian literature
and its modern afterlives.
p e g g y m c c r ac k e n is Professor of French and Women’s Studies at the
University of Michigan. She is the author of The Romance of Adultery:
Queenship and Sexual Transgression in Old French Literature (1998) and
The Curse of Eve, the Wound of the Hero: Blood, Gender, and Medieval
Literature (2003).
a d p u t t e r is Professor of Medieval English Literature at the University
of Bristol. He is the General Editor of the series Arthurian Literature in the
Middle Ages, and has published widely in the area of medieval literature.
His books include Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and French Arthurian
Romance (1995), An Introduction to the Gawain Poet (1996), and (with
Judith Jefferson and Myra Stokes) Studies in the Metre of Alliterative Verse
(2007).
ro b e rt a l l e n ro u s e teaches medieval literature and culture at the
University of British Columbia. He is the author of The Idea of AngloSaxon England in Middle English Romance (2005), and co-author with
Cory Rushton of The Medieval Quest for Arthur (2005). He is currently
working on a study of the role of geography in the romance narratives of
medieval England.
is Assistant Professor of English at St Francis Xavier
University, Canada. He co-authored The Medieval Quest for Arthur with
Robert Rouse (2005), and has published numerous articles on the Arthurian
CORY JAMES RUSHTON
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n o t e s o n c o n t r i b u to rs
legend and romance. He co-edited (with Amanda Hopkins) The Erotic in the
Literature of Medieval Britain (2007). Forthcoming publications include A
Companion to Middle English Romance (co-edited with Raluca Radulescu),
and Disability and Medieval Law: History, Literature, Society.
c o r i n n e sau n d e rs is Professor in the Department of English Studies in
the University of Durham and is the English editor of the journal Medium
Ævum. She is the author of The Forest of Medieval Romance (1993), Rape
and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England (2001), and Magic
and the Supernatural in Medieval English Romance: Ideas and Imaginings
(forthcoming 2009). She has edited and co-edited numerous volumes,
including A Companion to Romance (2004), Cultural Encounters in the
Romance of Medieval England (2005), and A Concise Companion to
Chaucer (2006).
ja n e tay l o r is Emeritus Professor of French at Durham University. An
Honorary President of the International Arthurian Society, she has worked
extensively on medieval French literature, especially on Arthurian romance
and lyric poetry, as well as on translation. Her latest book, The Making of
Poetry: Late Medieval Poetic Anthologies, was published in 2007.
ba r ry w i n d e at t is Professor of English in the University of Cambridge,
and Fellow and Keeper of Rare Books at Emmanuel College. His research
focuses on the imaginative literature, visual culture and contemplative
traditions of medieval England in a European context. As Director of the
Cambridge ‘Medieval Imaginations’ Project he has created a website for
research and teaching on text and image in later medieval England (www.
english.cam.ac.uk/medieval/).
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F R E QU E N T LY C I T E D S O U RC E S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
Frequently Cited Sources
The primary texts and critical studies listed below are mentioned so
frequently by our contributors that they are cited in both text and footnotes
only by author and/or short title, and by page/chapter/line number, as
appropriate. When a contributor refers to a different edition of one of these
primary texts, full details are given in a footnote. In the case of Malory,
where numerous different editions are widely used by scholars and students,
Caxton’s book and chapter divisions are included after the page numbers in
square brackets.
Primary Texts and Translations
Chaucer
Kibler
Lacy
Lancelot
Geoffrey Chaucer, The Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987; Oxford University Press,
1988)
Chrétien de Troyes, Arthurian Romances, trans. William
W. Kibler (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991); this translation
is cited by page number. The textual history of Chrétien’s
romances is complex; for ease of reference, line numbers are
taken from the editions of Chrétien’s romances in the series
Classiques français du moyen âge: Erec et Enide, ed. Mario
Roques (1981); Le Chevalier au lion (Yvain), ed. Mario
Roques (1978); Le Chevalier de la charrete (Lancelot), ed.
Mario Roques (1978); Cligés, ed. Alexandre Micha (1978);
Le Conte du Graal (Perceval), ed. F. Lecoy, 2 vols. (1984)
Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and
Post-Vulgate in Translation, gen. ed. Norris J. Lacy, 5 vols.
(New York and London: Garland, 1993–6)
Lancelot: roman en prose du XIIIe siècle, ed. Alexandre
Micha, TLF, 9 vols. (Geneva: Droz, 1978–83)
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f r e q u e n t ly c i t e d s o u rc e s a n d a b b r e v i at i o n s
Malory
Mort Artu
Sir Gawain
Tennyson
Thorpe
Twain
Malory, Sir Thomas, The Works of Sir Thomas Malory [Morte
Darthur], ed. Eugène Vinaver, 3rd edn rev. P. J. C. Field, 3 vols.
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990)
La Mort le roi Artu, ed. Jean Frappier, TLF, 3rd edn (Geneva:
Droz, 1964)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ed. J. R. R. Tolkien and
E. V. Gordon, 2nd edn rev. Norman Davis (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1967)
Alfred Lord Tennyson, Idylls of the King, ed. J. M. Gray
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983; repr. 1996)
Geoffrey of Monmouth, History of the Kings of Britain, trans.
Lewis Thorpe (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966)
Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur’s Court,
ed. Justin Kaplan (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971; repr.
1986)
Secondary Sources
The ongoing series Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, series editors
†W. R. J. Barron and Ad Putter, is indispensable for the study of the
Arthurian legend; it updates and expands Loomis’s 1957 volume of the
same title (ALMA – see below). Some if not all of the volumes listed below
are relevant to every chapter in this book, and should be consulted for
information about editions of primary sources and critical studies of specific texts and topics.
AoE
The Arthur of the English: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval
English Life and Literature, ed. W. R. J. Barron, Arthurian Literature
in the Middle Ages 2 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1999)
AoF The Arthur of the French: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval
French and Occitan Literature, ed. Glyn S. Burgess and Karen Pratt,
Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages 4 (Cardiff: University of
Wales Press, 2006)
AoG The Arthur of the Germans: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval
German and Dutch Literature, ed. W. H. Jackson and S. A. Ranawake,
Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages 3 (Cardiff: University of
Wales Press, 2000)
AoW The Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh
Literature, ed. Rachel Bromwich, A. O. H. Jarman and Brynley
Roberts, Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages 1 (Cardiff:
University of Wales Press, 1991)
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f r e q u e n t ly c i t e d s o u rc e s a n d a b b r e v i at i o n s
Other Abbreviations
ALMA
BBIAS
CFMA
EETS
PMLA
SATF
STS
TLF
Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, ed. R. S. Loomis (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1957)
Bibliographical Bulletin of the International Arthurian Society
Classiques français du moyen âge
Early English Text Society
o.s. Original Series
e.s. Extra Series
Publications of the Modern Language Association of America
Société des anciens textes français
Scottish Text Society
Textes littéraires français
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A S E L E C T I V E C H RO N O L O G Y
This chronology of the most important landmarks in the history of Arthurian
legend and literature is very selective, especially in relation to post-medieval
material (art, music and drama as well as literature), where we have focused
on the English tradition. Many dates, particularly in earlier periods, are
approximate, and there is great uncertainty about the dating of Welsh
Arthurian texts, some of which are believed to have had a long oral tradition before being committed to writing. Fuller overviews and further details
about individual entries can be found in the chronological survey chapters
of this Companion. Readers may also wish to consult reference works such
as The New Arthurian Encyclopaedia, ed. Lacy, and The Arthurian Annals,
ed. Nastali and Boardman (see Further Reading).
455–75
516(?518)
537(?539)
c. 548
7th century?
830
c. 950
11th century
c. 1105
c. 1135
Arthur’s reign, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth
Date of battle of Mount Badon in Annales Cambriae
Date of Arthur’s last battle in Annales Cambriae
Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae: mentions battle of
Mount Badon
Gododdin: mentions Arthur
Nennius, Historia Brittonum: records battles of
Arthur
Annales Cambriae: mentions battle of Camlann where
Arthur and Mordred fell
Probable time of composition of the earliest Arthurian
tales from The Mabinogion (Peredur, Culhwch and
Olwen) and Latin saints’ lives from Wales
Modena Cathedral archivolt depicting Arthurian
scenes
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae
(History of the Kings of Britain): includes account of
Arthur’s life
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a s e l e c t i v e c h ro n o l o g y
c. 1150
1155
c. 1169–81
c. 1180–1205
c. 1185
c. 1190
1191
?later 12th century
later 12th century
c. 1210
c. 1215–30
c. 1235–40
c. 1250
c. 1260
1290
early 14th century
c. 1340
c. 1380
Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vita Merlini (Life of Merlin)
Wace, Roman de Brut: translates Geoffrey’s Historia;
first mention of Round Table
Chrétien de Troyes, Arthurian romances: first mention
of Camelot, Grail, and Lancelot’s love for Guinevere
Hartmann von Aue translates Chrétien’s romances
into German
Andreas Capellanus, De Amore: treatise on courtly
love with Arthurian episode
Renaut de Beaujeu, Le Bel Inconnu: Fair Unknown
romance about Gawain’s son
Exhumation of Arthur and Guinevere’s tomb at
Glastonbury Abbey
De Ortu Waluuanii: Latin Gawain romance
Béroul, Tristan: Arthur present at trial vindicating
Iseut
Laʒamon, Brut: first English version of Arthurian history (based on Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace)
Guillaume le Clerc, Fergus: romance parodying
Chrétien, set in Scotland
Robert de Boron: first cycle of Grail romances
Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival: German Grail
romance
Vulgate Cycle (Lancelot-Grail Cycle): vast French
Arthurian prose romance-history including Lancelot,
Queste del Saint Graal and Mort Artu, later supplemented by Estoire del Saint Graal and Merlin
Post-Vulgate Cycle (Roman du Graal): French prose
reworking of Vulgate Cycle
Prose Tristan: French fusion of Tristan legend with
Arthurian stories
Penninc and Pieter Vostaert, Roman van Walewein:
Dutch Gawain romance
Edward I hosts Round Table tournament at Winchester
and commissions Round Table
Dutch Lancelot-compilation: part of Vulgate Cycle
plus interpolated Dutch romances
Perceforest: vast French prose romance merging legends of Alexander and Arthur
Tavola Ritonda: Italian Arthurian compilation
Alliterative Morte Arthure (Middle English)
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a s e l e c t i v e c h ro n o l o g y
c. 1390
1430s
c. 1450
c. 1457–64
1469–70
c. 1481–92
1485
1486
1534
1587
1590–6
1613
1691
1695
1730–1
1765
1813
1816
1829
1832
1836–46
1848
1858
1859–85
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales: allusions to
Arthurian characters
John Lydgate, Fall of Princes (based on Boccaccio
and Laurent de Premierfait): includes rise and fall of
Arthur
Burgundian prose adaptations of Chrétien’s Erec
and Cligés
John Hardyng’s Chronicle (2 versions): includes Grail
quest
Sir Thomas Malory completes Le Morte Darthur
Ulrich Fuetrer, Buch der Abenteuer: German Arthurian
compilation
First printed edition of Malory by William Caxton
Henry VII names eldest son Arthur
First printed edition of Polydore Vergil’s Anglica
Historia: questions historicity of Arthurian legend
Thomas Hughes, The Misfortunes of Arthur: Senecan
tragedy
Publication of Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene:
includes Prince Arthur
Michael Drayton, Poly-Olbion: includes Arthurian
‘history’
Henry Purcell and John Dryden, King Arthur: The
British Worthy (opera)
Richard Blackmore, Prince Arthur: verse epic
Henry Fielding, Tom Thumb: satire set at Arthurian
court
Percy’s Reliques: includes Arthurian tales and ballads
Sir Walter Scott, The Bridal of Triermain: Arthurian
episode
First reprinting of Malory since 1634
Thomas Love Peacock, The Misfortunes of Elphin:
satire set in sixth-century Wales
Alfred Lord Tennyson, The Lady of Shalott: Tennyson’s
first Arthurian poem
Lady Charlotte Guest translates The Mabinogion
Foundation of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
William Morris, The Defence of Guenevere
Tennyson, Idylls of the King
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a s e l e c t i v e c h ro n o l o g y
1865
1881–98
1882
1889
1903
1920
1922
1923
1927
1938
1949
1958–9
1960
1967
1970–9
1965–77
1974
1975
1978
1981
1982
1982–5
1984
1995
2004
2005
Richard Wagner, Tristan und Isolde
Edward Burne-Jones, The Sleep of Arthur in Avalon
(cover illustration and frontispiece)
Wagner, Parsifal
Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in the Court of
King Arthur
Edwin Porter, Parsifal: first Arthurian film
Jessie Weston, From Ritual to Romance: anthropological study of romance motifs
T. S. Eliot, The Waste Land
Thomas Hardy, The Famous Tragedy of the Queen of
Cornwall
Rodgers and Hart, A Connecticut Yankee (musical)
T. H. White, The Sword in the Stone; reprinted 1958
as the first part of The Once and Future King
International Arthurian Society founded
John Steinbeck, The Acts of King Arthur (published
1976): retelling of Malory
Lerner and Loewe, Camelot (musical)
Joshua Logan, Camelot (film)
Mary Stewart, The Merlin Trilogy
Susan Cooper, The Dark is Rising series
Robert Bresson, Lancelot du Lac (film)
Terry Gilliam and Terry Jones, Monty Python and the
Holy Grail (film)
Thomas Berger, Arthur Rex
Eric Rohmer, Perceval le Gallois (film)
John Boorman, Excalibur (film)
Marion Zimmer Bradley, The Mists of Avalon
Camelot 3000: sci-fi Arthurian comic strip
Mary Stewart, The Wicked Day
David Lodge, Small World
Jerry Zucker, First Knight (film)
Antoine Fuqua, King Arthur (film)
Eric Idle and John Du Prez, Spamalot (musical)
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